Q1 - Service Delivery Creation and Validation of The Salesperson Competency Analysis A Competency Model For Entry Level Business To Business Salespeople in The Services Industry PDF

CREATION AND VALIDATION OF THE SALESPERSON COMPETENCY
ANALYSIS: A COMPETENCY MODEL FOR
ENTRY-LEVEL BUSINESS-TO-BUSINESS SALESPEOPLE
IN THE SERVICES INDUSTRY
by
Brian W. Lambert
PERRY HAAN, D.B.A., Faculty Mentor and Chair
RICHARD MURPHY, D.B.A., Committee Member
RICHARD E. PLANK, Ph.D., Committee Member
Barbara Butts Williams, Ph.D., Interim Dean, School of Business and Technology
A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
Capella University
March, 2009
UMI Number: 3349783
Copyright 2009 by
Lambert, Brian W.
All rights reserved
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© Brian W. Lambert, 2009
Abstract
More sales managers are recognizing the need for their sales people to shift from
a transaction selling approach to a more consulting-oriented approach (Pelham, 2006b).
However, most studies have not investigated the importance of consulting knowledge and
skill within this context. Rather, many researches identify knowledge and skill required
based upon frequency of accomplished tasks rather as opposed to the importance of each
task in individual’s selling environment (Cross, Hartley, Rudelius, & Vassey, 2001;
McMurry, 1961; Moncrief, 1986; Moncrief, Marshall, & Lassk, 2006; Newton, 1973;
Sumrall, 1992).
The goals of this research were to 1) analyze the importance of competencies for
entry level business-to-business services sales people for the purpose of developing a
competency model for learning and development purposes, 2) construct a valid and
reliable instrument for determining entry level sales person knowledge and skill within
the services industry and 3) ascertain what relationships exist (if any) between sales
managers, sales professors, sales trainers, and sales people in regard to knowledge and
skills which are believed to be important for success in entry level business-to-business
selling in the services industry.
The final SCA was administered to a population of sales professors (n=96), a
random sample of the 557 sales trainers from the American Society for Training and
Development who did not participate in the pilot study (n=447), and a random sample of
sales managers from 6,275 businesses identified as having more than 250 employees and
$10 million in total revenues (n=1,407). Additionally, the SCA was also administered to
a random sample of the individual members of the United Professional Sales Association
who did not participate in the pilot study (n=1,168).
As a result, the final SCA was administered to a total of 3,113 individuals. A total
of 931 (29.9%) questionnaires were returned. Of these, 449 (48.2%) were complete,
valid, and usable. The resultant Salesperson Competency Analysis (SCA) instrument was
found to be reliable. The rankings of competency knowledge and skills competencies as
well as the results of the exploratory factor analysis can help academics and practitioners
create learning and development plans for salespeople in the services industry.
Dedication
I would like to dedicate this dissertation to the following people who have helped me
understand the importance of life-long learning, the importance of continuous
achievement, and the pursuit of one’s higher purpose and calling in life. These people
also supported me during the entire process, giving me the encouragement, support, and
motivation to continue to make a difference:
• To my wife Donna, for faithfully and sacrificially supporting the pursuits of my
dream—thank you. I truly would not be the person I am today without you.
• To my mom, who taught me how to learn and gave me a foundation of curiosity
and problem solving enabling me to confidently tackle puzzles that nobody else
would even dare to try.
• To my dad who taught me how to sell, be proud of who you are, have fun, and to
always do what you love.
• To the Pastors and leadership team at ODBC who threw open the door and
allowed me to receive truth, sharing in the real meaning of life, receive
understanding of God’s grace, and learn what it takes to live in the center.
iii
Acknowledgments
Many individuals have dedicated time, support, and commitment to this
dissertation. Extreme gratitude is extended to Dr. Perry Haan, chairperson for this
dissertation committee, for his advice, guidance, and dedication throughout the
completion of this project at Capella University. Sincere gratitude is also extended
to Dr. Dick Plank for his ability to see the end goal, provide quantitative
expertise, and help keep the researcher grounded to theory and reality as the
visiting professor from the University of South Florida - Polytechnic.
Appreciation is expressed to Dr. Richard Murphy for sharing his thoughtful
advice and professional experiences.
The researcher would like to acknowledge the professional expertise and
support of Eric Kerkhoff and Tim Ohai who both understand what it takes to
make an impact in any profession, especially the sales profession, and who share
my commitment to helping the sales world work better.
The research would also like to acknowledge the sales managers, sales
people, sales trainers, and sales professors who work hard every day to focus on
the customer and help advance the profession of selling.
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Table of Contents
Abstract ................................................................................................................................ i
Dedication .......................................................................................................................... iii
Acknowledgments.............................................................................................................. iv
Table of Contents ................................................................................................................ v
List of Tables ................................................................................................................... viii
List of Figures ................................................................................................................... xii
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 1
Statement of the Problem ........................................................................................ 3
Hypotheses .............................................................................................................. 5
Theoretical Perspective ........................................................................................... 6
Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................. 11
Delimitations of the Study .................................................................................... 11
Limitations of the Study........................................................................................ 13
Basic Assumptions of the Study ........................................................................... 14
Definition of Terms............................................................................................... 15
Need for the Study ................................................................................................ 19
Summary ............................................................................................................... 24
CHAPTER 2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ................................................. 25
The Definition of Competency ............................................................................. 26
Competency Models: Foundation for this Study .................................................. 31
Business-to-Business Sales Taxonomies .............................................................. 38
v
Business-to-Business Salesperson Roles .............................................................. 51
Business-to-Business Sales Person Competencies ............................................... 57
Other Key Considerations ..................................................................................... 63
Summary ............................................................................................................... 69
CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY .................................................................................... 71
Hypotheses ............................................................................................................ 73
Determination of the Sample ................................................................................ 75
Preliminary Competency Groupings..................................................................... 80
Selection of the Expert Jury .................................................................................. 84
Selection of the Sample ........................................................................................ 86
Determination of the Instrument ........................................................................... 89
Development of the Research Instrument ............................................................. 90
Expert Jury ............................................................................................................ 98
Ethical Considerations ........................................................................................ 102
Pilot Test of the Instrument................................................................................. 104
Administration of the Research Instrument ........................................................ 109
Variables for the Study ....................................................................................... 112
Analysis of the Data ............................................................................................ 114
CHAPTER 4. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS ..................................................................... 121
Ranking of Knowledge Competencies................................................................ 123
Ranking of Skill Competencies .......................................................................... 125
Demographic Characteristics .............................................................................. 131
vi
Reliability of the Scales ...................................................................................... 139
Analysis of the Research Questions.................................................................... 141
Summary of Data Analysis ................................................................................. 229
CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION .......................................................................................... 234
Summary of the Study ........................................................................................ 235
Summary of the Findings .................................................................................... 236
Interpretation of Results ...................................................................................... 241
Conclusions and Implications ............................................................................. 248
Recommendations for Future Research .............................................................. 254
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................... 256
APPENDIX A: EXPERT JURY MEMBERS ................................................................ 269
APPENDIX B: CONTENT VALIDATION (DELPHI) CORRESPONDENCE........... 271
APPENDIX C: EXPERT JURY CORRESPONDENCE ............................................... 297
APPENDIX D: FINAL SALESPERSON COMPETENCY ANALYSIS (SCA) .......... 320
APPENDIX E. LISTING OF KNOWLEDGE AND SKILL COMPETENCIES .......... 331
vii
List of Tables
Table 1. The Roles of Sales People ................................................................................... 56

Table 2. Rankings of Knowledge Competencies by All Respondents ............................. 124

Table 3. Rankings of Skill Competencies by All Respondents ........................................ 126

Table 4. Personal Characteristics of Sales Managers.................................................... 132

Table 5. Personal Characteristics of Sales Professors................................................... 134

Table 6. Personal Characteristics of Sales Trainers ...................................................... 136

Table 7. Personal Characteristics of Sales People......................................................... 138

Table 8. Multi-item Scale Reliability Coefficients for Sales Manager Sample.............. 139

Table 9. Multi-item Scale Reliability Coefficients for Sales Professor Sample ............. 140

Table 10. Multi-item Scale Reliability Coefficients for Sales Trainer Sample .............. 140

Table 11. Multi-item Scale Reliability Coefficients for Sales Person Sample ............... 141

Table 12. Kendall’s W Calculation for the 31 Knowledge Competencies across the
Sales Manager, Sales Professor, Sales Trainer,
And Sales Person Groups ............................................................................. 145

Table 13. Spearman’s Rank Order Correlation Coefficients for Relationships between
Paired Rankings of the Knowledge Competencies by Sales Managers,
Sales Professors, Sales Trainers and Sales People ...................................... 146

Table 14. Kendall’s W calculation for the 105 Skill Competencies Across the
Sales Manager, Sales Professor, Sales Trainer,
And Sales Person Groups ............................................................................. 148

Table 15. Spearman’s Rank Order Correlation Coefficients for Relationships
between Paired Rankings of the Skill Competencies by Sales Managers,
Sales Professors, Sales Trainers and Sales People ...................................... 149

Table 16. One-Way ANOVA Results: Knowledge Competencies by Agreement
According to Group ...................................................................................... 152

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Table 17. Tukey’s HSD Multiple Comparison Test Results: Knowledge
Competencies by Agreement According to Group ........................................ 153

Table 18. One-Way ANOVA Results: Skill Competencies by Agreement
According to Group ...................................................................................... 158

Table 19. Tukey’s HSD Multiple Comparison Test Results: Knowledge
Competencies by importance According to Groups ..................................... 160

Table 20. Statistically Significant Findings between Privately Held
Organizations and Publicly Traded Organizations Regarding Perceived
Importance of Knowledge and Skill Competencies. ..................................... 167

Table 21. Statistically Significant Findings Between Respondents With Less than or
Equal to Nine Years of Experience and Greater Than or Equal to Ten
Years of Experience Regarding Perceived Importance of Knowledge
and Skill Competencies ................................................................................. 173

Table 22. Factors Retained with Eigenvalues and Variance......................................... 176

Table 23. Factor Correlations for Oblimin 9-Factor Solution ...................................... 177

Table 24. Knowledge and Skill Competencies Loaded for Factor 1:
Customer. ...................................................................................................... 178

Table 25. Knowledge and Skill Competencies Loaded for the Factor 2:
Administrative ............................................................................................... 179

Sales Process. ............................................................................................... 180

Influence........................................................................................................ 181

Performance .................................................................................................. 182

Product and Industry .................................................................................... 183

Table 30. Knowledge and Skill Competencies Loaded Factor 7:
Technology .................................................................................................... 184

ix
Risk Management .......................................................................................... 185

Relationship .................................................................................................. 186

Table 33. Rankings of Knowledge Competencies by Sales Managers,
Sales Professors, Sales Trainers, and Sales People ....................................................... 190

Table 34. Rankings of Skill Competencies by Sales Managers, Sales Professors,
Sales Trainers, and Sales People .................................................................. 196

Table 35. Competencies with an overall importance rating over 4.00.......................... 203

Table 36. Primary Competencies: Tier I Competencies with a Mean of 4.0 or
Above and an Interquartile Range of 1.0 or Less Indicating a High Level
of Importance and High Level of Congruity Between Groups ..................... 205

Table 37. Secondary Competencies: Tier II Competencies Rated With Importance
Ratings Over 4.0 Showing High Importance, But an Interquartile Range
Of 2.0 or Higher, Indicating a Lack of Congruity in the Answers Across
All Respondent Groups ................................................................................. 207

Table 38. Ranking Of Curriculum Areas by All Respondents ....................................... 212

Table 39. Rankings of Curriculum Areas by Sales Managers, Sales Professors,
Sales Trainers, and Sales People .................................................................. 214

Table 40. Rankings of Curriculum Areas by Sales Professors, Sales Managers,
Sales Trainers, and Sales People with Groupings of Curriculum
Areas into Thirds........................................................................................... 217

Table 41. Rankings of Competencies within the Sales Process Curriculum Area......... 219

Table 42. Rankings of Competencies within the Relationship Curriculum Area ........... 220

Table 43. Rankings of Competencies within the Customer Curriculum Area ............... 221

Table 44. Rankings of Competencies within the Influencing Curriculum Area ............ 222

Table 45. Rankings of Competencies within the Learning Curriculum Area ................ 223

Table 46. Rankings of Competencies within the Performance Curriculum Area ........... 224

x
Table 47. Rankings of Competencies within the Product and Industry
Curriculum Area ........................................................................................... 225

Table 48. Rankings of Competencies within the Technology Curriculum Area ............ 226

Table 49. Rankings of Competencies within the Risk Curriculum Area ......................... 226

Table 50. Rankings of Competencies within the Administrative Curriculum Area ....... 227

Table 51. How Sales Managers, Sales Professors, Sales Trainers, and Sales People
Would Use a Document Containing Critical Knowledge and Skills for
Entry-level Sales People in the Services Industry......................................... 229

Table 52. A Competency Model for Entry-level Sales People in the
Services Industry ........................................................................................... 251
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List of Figures
Figure 1. Job Classification, Roles, Competencies, Outputs or Results........................... 31

Figure 2. Summary of McMurry’s (1961) Job Activity Classification
Taxonomy Based upon Creativity. ................................................................... 43

Figure 3. Comparison of Sales Activity Taxonomies ...................................................... 49

Figure 4. Example of the 7-Point Likert Scale Used with the Expert Jury. ..................... 85

Figure 5. Example 5-Point Likert Scale Used on Pilot Study and
SCA Instrument. ............................................................................................. 105

Figure 6. The Ordinal Scale Used to Rate Each Competency Statement. ...................... 116

Figure 7. The Scree Plot for the Maximum Likelihood
Exploratory Factor Analysis with Oblimin Rotation ..................................... 175
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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Pruden (1969a) stated that “the sales person, we must remember, is first a human
being, a person who undergoes a greater number and variety of stresses and carries a far
large number of burden than many of us, including the burden of numerous outworn
methods of sales force administration” (p. 65). This burden may be difficult to master
even in today’s business world. As a result, some researchers have argued that the sales
occupation has not coped well with the ever-evolving business-to-business environment
(Anderson & Rosenbloom, 1982; G. Bauer, 1998; Cron, Marshall, Singh, Spiro, & Sujan,
2005; Jones, Brown, Zoltners, & Weitz, 2005). In fact, some researchers have posited the
business-to-business selling occupation is not a full profession at all and will not achieve
that status until homogeneity is reached in the level of knowledge and community
orientation the occupants possesses (Hawes, Rich, & Widmier, 2004). One example of
such homogeneity would be a job classification schema for the sales profession that is
widely accepted, understood, and studied. Such a schema is seen as fundamental part of
theory creation in any profession because of the framework the schema provides in
organizing phenomena into classes that can be systematically investigated (Hunt, 1976).
The sales occupation may not have kept pace with other occupations’
advancement of human resource development philosophies. Within the context of human
resource development, as applied to business-to-business professional selling, there is no
commonly accepted and profession-wide approach to hiring, training, and developing
sales talent. While there have been dramatic advances in selling technologies, such as
Customer Relationship Management, as well as rapid advances in Internet technology,
1
the foundations of sales process have not changed much since the early days of the
industrial revolution in the United States (Friedman, 2005). Conversely, professions such
as Project Management have progressed from rudimentary ad-hoc knowledge, skills, and
abilities approach, to a more robust profession-wide definition of what it means to be a
competent professional.
Research has shown that a competency-based approach to assessing and
developing entry level employees for assimilation into a firm has been of key importance
to senior-level managers (Racz, 2000). In its 2007 Talent Shortage Survey of 37,000
employers across 27 countries, Manpower, Inc discovered that the sales profession was
not producing enough entry-level sales people. For the second year in a row, vacancies in
business-to-business sales positions were the hardest to fill in the United States and
several other countries ("Manpower Talent Shortage Survey", "Talent Survey Results,"
2007). Further evidence of the need for competent sales talent came from the annual 2007
Annual Sales Performance Optimization Survey of 1,300 selling organizations
conducting by the firm CSO Insights. “For the third year in a row, we continue to see that
most firms plan to add net-new sales representatives and we see nearly 15% of all firms
planning to increase the size of their sales teams by 21% or more (Dickie & Trailer, 2007,
p. 14). Therefore, at the time of this study, there is a worldwide shortage of competent
sales people.
The intent of this study was to identify the competencies of business-to-business
entry-level sales people within the service field as identified by practitioners and
educators. For the purposes of this study, practitioners and educators were defined as
2
sales managers, sales professors, sales trainers, and sales people. Further, this study
sought to compare and differentiate the competencies acquired in order to create a
comprehensive competency model for learning and development purposes.
Statement of the Problem
The problem was to (a) analyze the importance of competencies for entry level
business-to-business services sales people for the purpose of developing a competency
model for learning and development purposes, (b) constructing a valid and reliable
instrument for determining entry level sales person knowledge and skill within the
services industry and (c) ascertain what relationships exist (if any) between sales
Entry level business-to-business services sales people were identified as
individuals possessing less than one year of professional selling experience within the
services industry. Answers were sought in this study as to the following questions
concerning the knowledge and skills of entry-level business-to-business services sales
people:
1. Was there a high level of agreement in the rankings of the knowledge
competency statements within each of the four groups of respondents (sales
managers, sales professor, sales trainer, and sales people)?
3
2. Was there a high level of agreement in the rankings of the skill competency
statements by the four groups of respondents (sales managers, sales professor,
sales trainer, and sales people)?
3. Was there a difference in perception among sales managers, sales professors,
sales trainers, and sales people on the level of agreement and level of
importance ratings of competencies for entry level business-to-business
selling in the services industry?
4. Was there a difference in perception between the four respondent groups and
their importance rating of 136 knowledge and skill competencies when the
respondents were divided into groups based on organizational setting?
respondents were divided into groups based on the number of years in the
profession?
6. Was a there an underlying structure to the data collected by the SCA as
identified by Exploratory Factor Analysis?
7. What were the knowledge and skill competencies most highly recommended
by sales managers, sales professors, sales trainers, and sales people for entry
level business-to-business selling in the services industry?
8. What levels of hierarchy were determined by sales managers, sales professors,
sales trainers, and sales people in the knowledge and skill competency
categories?
4
9. What level of importance do the four groups of respondents give to the ten
curriculum areas?
10. Was there a consensus among all respondents as to the application of a
competency model?
Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses were tested in order to answer the sub-problems:
Hypothesis 1: There is no agreement in the rankings of the knowledge
competency statements by the four groups of respondents (trainer, professor, manager,
and sales person) as measured by Kendall’s Coefficient of Concordance.
Hypothesis 2: There is no agreement in the rankings of the skill competency
statements by the four groups of respondents (trainer, professor, manager, and sales
person) as measured by Kendall’s Coefficient of Concordance.
Hypothesis 3: There are no differences among sales managers, sales professors,
sales trainers, and sales people on the level of agreement and level of importance ratings
of competencies for entry level business-to-business selling in the services industry as
measured by a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), and if a significant F ratio was
found, the results of Tukey’s HSD test.
Hypothesis 4: There is no difference in perception between the four respondent
groups and their importance rating of 136 knowledge and skill competencies when the
respondents were divided into groups based on organizational setting.
5
groups and their importance rating of 136 knowledge and skill competencies when the
respondents were divided into groups based on the number of years in the profession.
Hypothesis 6: There is no underlying structure to the data as determined by
Exploratory Factor Analysis.
Descriptive statistics were used to identify the most highly recommended
knowledge and skill competencies by sales managers, sales professors, sales trainers, and
sales people for entry level business-to-business selling in the services industry.
Descriptive statistics were also used to identify the levels of hierarchy as
determined by sales managers, sales professors, sales trainers, and sales people within the
knowledge and skill competency categories.
Likewise, descriptive statistics were used to determine the level of importance the
four groups of respondents give to the ten curriculum areas.
Descriptive statistics were also used to determine if consensus existed among all
respondents as to the application of a competency model.
Theoretical Perspective
In formulation of a theoretical perspective for studying the competencies of
business-to-business services sales people, organizational development theory provided a
useful starting point. This conception of the organization attempts to emphasize
integration and consensus among organizational members and while focusing attention
on the reasons for existence of conflict rather than on reasons for the absence of conflict
(Nord & Durand, 1978).

6
Organizational development theory has its roots in the social sciences with the
study of human interactions and relations in the workplace. One of the early pioneers of
the approach was Elton Mayo who is known for his book The Social Problems of an
Industrialized Civilization published in 1933 as well as for his work in publishing the
Hawthorne Studies. The Hawthorne Studies examined the effects of employee
satisfaction, motivation, and human relations upon a manufacturing plant’s productivity.
Mayo’s revolutionary approach was to view employees as human beings who were part
of an industrial organization, as opposed to parts or cogs in the production capability of
the plant (Cooper & Schindler, 2003).
Organizational development theory does not just deal with human relations, but
seeks to describe how groups of people can work together to achieve the effective
operation of an organization. Effectiveness is defined as the degree to which an
organization realizes its goals and survives the environmental conditions surrounding it
(Robbins, 2003). There are many criteria for organizational effectiveness, such as human
resources management, comprehensive workplace learning and development strategy,
and managerial skill. These criteria are optimized via different approaches (or
viewpoints) such as the systems approach, goal-attainment approach, strategic-
constituencies approach, or the competing-values approach.
As a likely subject for achieving higher effectiveness, organizational development
practitioners have come to understand that sales organizations can benefit from proactive
training (Attia, Honeycutt Jr., & Leach, 2005). Furthermore, the principles of
organizational development theory can be applied to relatively recent developments and
7
practices of facilitating organizational learning. Organizational development theory
encourages learning as a key consideration for change management interventions (Shaw,
1997).Because organizational development theory is ultimately concerned with
improving organizational effectiveness and performance; individuals are encouraged to
learn, participate in the overall system, and develop new skills and abilities.
In recent years, Human Resource and Marketing scholars have proposed that the
learning organization is a key factor in sustained competitive advantage and corporate
growth (Hooley & Beracs, 1997; Kofman, 1993). Rothwell et al. (1999) describes the
relationship between learning and performance in the manner “without learning,
performance would only happen by chance…learning transforms performance into a
continuous improvement process” (p. 5).
Another theoretical base for this research stemmed from educational psychology.
A shift in theory has occurred within this field, moving from theories of apprenticeship-
style, on-the-job training to more holistic, competency-based approaches to building
skills and knowledge. For example, educational psychology has influenced competency-
based education.
Competency-based education is attributed to Benjamin S. Bloom who led a series
of conferences with subject matter experts to build consensus on identifying, prioritizing,
and assessing educational outcomes in the classroom. A product of these conferences was
a theoretical framework for helping educators to communicate learning outcomes and
assessment goals with each other. The outcome of this collaboration was the Taxonomy of
Educational Outcomes in the Cognitive Domain (Bloom, 1956). The taxonomy was
8
specifically interested in the cognitive domain because it was believed a person’s ability
to remember, rationalize, and problem solve existed in this domain. Defining clear
educational outcomes helped provide a framework for theory and application of proactive
learning solutions. The taxonomy helped educators, specialists, teachers, trainers, and
researchers with curriculum design problems as well as evaluation problems (Calhoun,
Davidson, Sinioris, Vincent, & Griffith, 2002).
Educational psychology has therefore led to the development of a competency-
based approach to education in the United States. For example, in the 1980s (and again in
the early 2000s) state legislatures and the federal government mandated levels of
competency in school aged children. These regulations provided an impetus for
competency-based educational approaches in schools as well as federally regulated
and/or funded institutions (e.g., health care). The competency-based approach soon
became the foundation for workforce planning and competitive positioning strategies.
These educational psychology theories have direct application to business-to-
business sales person training and development. Artis and Harris (2007) analyzed current
sales training literature and identified three occupational groups that utilize training
content to pursue their own unique goals. These groups are Human Resource
Development personnel, senior executives and sales managers, and sales people. Artis
and Harris (2007) also noted that the goals of one group were inherently dependent upon
the support of the other two groups. More importantly, they found that the other two
groups must support the objectives of the other two groups in order to achieve effective
sales training outcomes. Organizational development practitioners will recognize this as a
9
solid example of a blend of organizational development theory and educational
psychology theory.
A more recent advancement in organizational development theory has been the
adoption of an evolved definition of the training and development occupation. This
occupation has made major advancements in the scope and impact of those who practice
in the field. Today, training and development has evolved into a profession known as
Workplace Learning and Performance (WLP). Workplace Learning and Performance
professionals are now expected to be capable of designing learning, delivering learning,
conducting coaching, improving individual performance, managing the learning function,
developing career progression and facilitating organizational change (Rothwell &
Wellins, 2004).
WLP is an organizational development approach defined by the American Society
for Training and Development as:
…the integrated use of learning and other interventions for the purpose of
improving human performance, and addressing individual and
organizational needs. WLP uses a systematic process of analyzing and
responding to individual, group, and organizational performance issues.
WLP creates positive, progressive change within organizations by
balancing human, ethical, technological, and operational considerations.
(Rothwell, Sanders, & Soper, 1999, p. xiii)
Leveraging Workplace Learning and Performance allows business-to-
business sales managers and human resource development professionals to more
10
effectively assess and develop sales competencies. This in turn allows more
individualized, jointly determined, voluntary, and tailored learning opportunities
to cope with today’s rapidly changing business environment (Cron et al., 2005).
The impact and evolution of this profession in the last 20 years is largely due to
the creation of a profession-wide competency model.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to (a) analyze the importance of competencies for
entry level business-to-business services sales people for the purpose of developing a
competency model for learning and development purposes, (2) constructing a valid and
reliable instrument for determining entry level sales person knowledge and skill within
the services industry and 3) ascertain what relationships exist (if any) between sales
For the purposes of this study, entry level business-to-business services sales
people were defined as having less than one year of experience within the United States.
Delimitations of the Study
The study was delimited to the following parameters:
1. Only full-time or contract professionals were considered in the
competency analysis.
2. None of the participants were remunerated.
11
3. Only professionals who work in organizations that sell to businesses were
considered in the competency analysis. These businesses are therefore not
engaged in business-to-consumer selling.
4. The study took place within a variety of organizational settings; therefore,
all respondents were susceptible to stimulus from their own unique
environments that could not be controlled.
5. The final product of this study is not intended to be a one-size-fits-all
approach to competency modeling for entry-level sales people in the
services industry, but it will provide a glimpse of what is required for
success. The results of this exploratory research should be used as a basis
for future research.
6. Only individuals who work for service organizations were considered in
the competency analysis. This was defined as organizations with a primary
standard industrial classification (SIC) code between 70-89, and not
including SIC code of 88 (home based business).
Sales Managers:
7. Only sales managers who work within companies of more than 250 people
and more than $10 Million Dollars (USD) in annual sales. These
companies are most likely to have managers of business-to-business sales
people represented.
12
8. Sales mangers located at business sites identified as single locations or
headquarters locations. These business sites do not include franchises,
support offices, or manufacturing units within an organization.
Sales Professors:
9. Only sales professors who are actively teaching stand-alone sales classes
at universities or colleges within the United States.
10. Only sales professors at schools represented by the University Sales
Center Alliance or who have participated in a National Conference on
Sales Management within last two years prior to this research study or
who were current board members of the American Marketing Association
Sales Special Interest Group at the time of this research study.
Sales Trainers:
11. Only sales trainers who are members of the American Society for Training
and Development.
Sales people:
12. Only sales people who are members of the United Professional Sales
Association.
Limitations of the Study
The study was limited by the following:
1. The cooperation of the respondents in completing the research instrument.
2. The ability of the researcher to validate the list of competencies
accurately.
13
3. The limitations of the modified Delphi approach as a precursor to the use
of a self-administered survey.
4. The limitations of the total design method for business related research as
identified in chapter three of this research.
5. The limitations of a purposive sampling design to reach sales professors
who are members of groups that are representative of the sample universe.
Basic Assumptions of the Study
The study was organized according to the following basic assumptions:
1. The sales competency analysis, once validated by a jury of subject-matter
experts who were representative of the services market being surveyed,
and representative of the sales professor, sales manager, sales trainer, and
sales person communities located inside the United States contained those
items essential to the professional development of business-to-business
services sales people.
2. Individuals responding to this survey could use personal perception to
delineate the competencies needed within the occupation.
3. The instrument developed was an appropriate evaluation tool for
determining competencies.
4. The competencies, once identified and rated, would be in suitable form for
use in developing a competency model for business-to-business services
sales person learning and development purposes.
14
Definition of Terms
Attributes: Hidden competencies defined as motives, traits, and a person’s self-
concept. Motives are the competencies that drive and direct a person to consistently think
about something or take action for a specific reason. Traits are physically displayed
characteristics and other consistent responses to situations or information. A person’s
self-concept is comprised of individual values, self-image, or attitudes. Attributes are
therefore not trainable (Spencer & Spencer, 1993). Attributes were not included in the
final SCA.
Business-to-Business: Industrial firms engaged in selling goods or services to
business end-users as opposed to consumer end-users (Futrell, 1993).
Business-to-Business Salesperson: An individual engaged in the process of
personally representing a selling organization while uncovering and satisfying the needs
of individuals within a buying organization to the mutual, long-term benefit of both firms
(UPSA, 2003).
Competency: An underlying characteristic of a person that results in effective
and/or superior performance in a job (Boyatzis, 1982).
Competency Identification: The process of identifying job competencies
(Rothwell & Lindholm, 1999).
Competency Model: A written description of the competencies required for fully
successful or exemplary performance in a job category, work team, department, division,
or organization (Dubois & Rothwell, 2004).
Delphic: Relating to Delphi.
15
Delphi: “a group process which utilizes written responses as opposed to bringing
people together” (Delbecq et al, 1975. p. 83).
Entry-level Salesperson: Someone with less than 1 year of professional selling
experience in any business-to-business setting.
Exemplary Performer: A person who is exceptionally talented and outstandingly
competent at their work (Dubois & Rothwell, 2004, p. 33).
Kendall’s Coefficient of Concordance (W): A measure of the degree of agreement
among m sets of n ranks. In this study, there are 136 statements ranked by each of four
judges. The computation of Kendall’s Coefficient of Concordance W provides insight
concerning the degree to which the m sets of ranks agree. The coefficient of concordance
can only be positive in sign and ranges in value from zero to one. A coefficient near
+1.00 reflects strong positive relationship and a coefficient near zero reflects little or no
relationship (Freedman, D., Pisani R., Purves, R. 2007). Kendall’s W was used in this
study to indicate the agreement among the four groups of respondents toward the
competencies required for success within the first year of business-to-business selling in
the services industry.
Knowledge: Information a person possesses in a specific content area (Spencer &
Spencer, 1993).
Level of Confidence: A range of values constructed from sample data so that a
parameter occurs within that range at a pre-selected probability. The pre-selected
probability is termed the “level of confidence” (Mason, Lind, & Marchal, 1994, p. 308).
Therefore, if the probability that a statistic of a given size will result from chance alone is
16
only five chances out of one hundred, the finding may be reported as significant at the .05
level.
Mann-Whitney U-Test: The Mann-Whitney U-test is an alternative to the
independent measures of the t-test. The test is designed to use data from two separate
samples to evaluate the differences between to populations. The calculations for the test
require that the individual scores in the two populations be rank-ordered and corrected for
tied ranks. The Mann-Whitney U-test does not require homogeneity of variance or
normal distribution (Gravetter & Wallnau, 2007). The Mann-Whitney U-test was used to
evaluate the differences in competency statement importance rankings by individuals
from privately held and publicly traded organizations as well as less than nine years or
more than ten years of professional experience.
One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA): The one-way analysis of variance
procedure is used to compare the means of two or more groups of independent variables
on one dependent variable to determine which group means are statistically significant
from each other (Urden, 2005). The one-way ANOVA was used because of the nominal
data collected and the existence of 4 different dependent variables (sales managers, sales
professors, sales trainers, and sales people).
Sales Manager: Individuals responsible for generating sales that meet corporate
objectives through the process of planning, staffing, training, directing, and controlling
the efforts of sales people (Futrell, 1988).
Sales Professor: A Sales professor is an individual who organizes and teaches the
topic of professional selling at an institution of higher education.
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Sales Trainer: A sales trainer is a person who specializes in developing the selling
skills, product knowledge, company-specific knowledge, or competitive knowledge of
individual sales team members in a variety of organizational settings. Additionally, a
sales trainer may be responsible for enabling sales performance through other specialized
skills such as consulting, change management, performance improvement, etc.
Services Market. For the purpose of this study, the services market is defined as
those organizations with a 2-Digit Standard Industrial Classification Code of 73-89, not
including individual household (SIC 88). The SIC Code of Services (SIC Codes 73-89)
includes “establishments primarily engaged in providing a wide variety of services for
individuals, business and government establishments, and other organizations. Hotels and
other lodging places; establishments providing personal, business, repair, and amusement
services; health, legal, engineering, and other professional services; educational
institutions; membership organizations, and other miscellaneous services” (Standard
Industrial Classification: Major Group 70-89: Services, 2001).
Skill. The ability to perform a certain physical or mental task (Spencer & Spencer,
1993). The ability to use one's knowledge effectively and readily in execution or
performance of actions (Merriam-Webster Dictionary, 2003).
Workplace Learning & Performance. The integrated use of learning and other
interventions for the purpose of improving human performance, and addressing
individual and organizational needs. WLP uses a systematic process of analyzing and
responding to individual, group, and organizational performance issues. WLP creates
18
positive, progressive change within organizations by balancing human, ethical,
technological, and operational considerations (Rothwell & Wellins, 2004).
Need for the Study
The sales force is the dominant information link between the customer and
product development teams (Pelham, 2006). As a result, the field of business-to-business
selling has been influenced by many dramatic changes in the highly competitive business
environment. The following difficulties highlight the need for a study of business-to-
business sales person competency: a) the increased expectations of buyers, b) challenges
in attaining sales quotas c) increased demands in business-to-business sales person
performance, d) variances in business-to-business sales person efficiency, e) challenges
in developing customer satisfaction, market competition.
One difficulty faced by business-to-business sales leaders is the rising
expectations of today’s buyer as highlighted in the World Class Sales Benchmark
Research conducted by The HR Chally Group and reviewed by the firm ES Research, Inc
(2007). This research positions the worldwide talent shortage within the context of an
ever-increasing requirement for new skills and new approaches to solving buyer
challenges. Citing the survey results, the ES Research study stated that today’s buyer
expects seven sales person behaviors not typically required in 1992. These behaviors are
summarized as:
1. Be personally accountable for the client’s desired results;
2. Understand the client’s business;
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3. Be on the client’s side (not an adversary, but rather client’s advocate within
the sales person’s company);
4. Design the right applications;
5. Be easily accessible;
6. Solve the client’s problems;
7. Be creative in responding to the client’s needs.
Not only are sales people asked to positively affect the buying organization; but
they are also asked to help buyers make the right choices for their organization. As a
result, buyers are “now demanding a higher level of understanding, better interpretation
of needs, and translation of ideas into implementation actions” ("What Makes an
Excellent Sales Force," 2007, p. 2). This new challenge has created an evolution in sales
person activities, driving a need for new competencies (Cross et al., 2001). These new
competencies have created a different level of accountability for business-to-business
sales people. In short, clients are demanding more highly competent sales people.
A second difficulty lies in a company’s ability to correlate a salesperson’s
performance to quota attainment. According to CSO Insights, for the four-year period of
2003-2007, average quota attainment for survey respondents was below 60% (Dickie &
Trailer, 2007). Correspondingly, the perception by sales people seems to be that an
average performer attains no less than 100% of quota targets (Good & Schwepker Jr.,
2001). In today’s selling environment, an emerging focus of sales people has been on
finding new ways to add value to the customer at a more strategic level, forging longer
term relationships, understanding processes within the buying organization, working in
20
the manner the customer requires, and collaborating effectively as a team in order to
successfully attain quota (Blustain, 1992).
In a results-oriented environment where focus and adaptation to the customer is
considered crucial, sales quotas have been shown to focus business-to-business sales
people and their managers in a way that could be seen as inconsistent with these customer
oriented-selling practices (Schwepker Jr. & Good, 2004). Therefore, an understanding of
sales person competency is required to bring business-to-business sales person
knowledge, skills, and abilities into alignment with customer demands so quota can be
attained. An understanding of competency could help business-to-business sales people
meet or exceed the performance expectations of the buyer and therefore remain credible
to buyers (Sharma, 1990).
A third difficulty lies in the inability of many sales people to manage all the
necessary tasks to perform their job efficiently. McMurray (1961) posited that sales
people do not have all the same problems or needs as other workers. Therefore, the
performance of a sales person’s job may vary considerably depending on the primary
activities involved in completing tasks or responding to new management processes
implemented with the company. For example, the increasing sophistication of sales force
technology has required sales people to spend more time inputting, adding, updating, and
managing information to meet the requirements of internal administrative and
management demands. Because sales person time allocation is voluntary, sales people
will naturally allocate time to activities considered crucial in meeting sales goals or
21
quotas (Ahearne, Srinivasan, & Weinstein, 2004). Because of this, sales people may
consider administrative tasks non-crucial to their success.
For the four-year period from 2003-2007, only 50% of sales people forecasted
their closed deals correctly and less than a third of companies surveyed during that same
period experienced significant impact from their customer relationship management
implementations (Dickie & Trailer, 2007). These two management tools (quotas and use
of technology) are designed to bring more focus, clarity, and consistency to the sales
person’s day. However, many business-to-business sales people continue to focus on
activities that may not help them attain quota. More importantly, due to the rapid changes
in the business environment, business-to-business sales people may not possess a
misunderstanding of what activity level sales quotas are supposed to support (Good &
Schwepker Jr., 2001). These misperceptions point to a potential skill deficiency, a lack of
knowledge required to convert corporate objectives into action, or an inability to cope
with the changing environment. These are the challenges a competency-based approach
to human resource development seeks to overcome (Heffernan & Flood, 2000).
A fourth difficulty lies in the correlation between sales person effort and customer
satisfaction. More than 80 years ago, Strong (1925) emphasized that sales person selling
strategies should be directed towards attaining customer satisfaction in addition to
purchase orders. Today much effort is expended on determining the potential value a
selling organization can provide to their customers. To articulate this value, sales
organizations leverage sales training to help sales people identify customer wants and
needs more effectively while communicating the value of the solution. At the same time,
22
managers develop tactics to motivate, excite, and focus sales teams so they can maintain
maximum productivity. Strategies are also developed within a selling or marketing
context to determine the most appropriate allocation of resources in order to drive future
events. Within all these activities, research has shown that sales people are working
harder by working smarter and adapting their approach to that of the buyer (Sujan, 1986).
Originally, adaptive selling techniques were developed by sales people to increase
the chances of persuading buyers to understand the total value the selling organization
could provide in relation to wants or needs. These adaptive selling techniques varied from
participative to directive, open to closed, or rational or emotional (Weitz, 1981). In lieu of
the recent focus of a relationship oriented buyer-seller dyad, adaptive selling techniques
are now defined as the “complex processes that emphasize customized solutions to fit
each individual buyer” (Cannon & Perreault Jr., 1999, p. 859). Yet despite these changes
in market orientation of business-to-business sellers, many sales organizations are
struggling to achieve the diverse objectives and outcomes desired from each unique
relationship. The impact of sales person competency in regards to alignment with solving
these business problems needs to be further understood because competent sales people
have the skills required to effectively manage dynamic relationships (Wilson, 1995).
With the sales person more effectively spanning the boundary between buyer and seller,
both parties can manage uncertainty and dependence more effectively, while at the same
time increasing efficiency and lowering total costs. This in turn helps contribute to
enhanced product development and better market orientation due to better knowledge of
clients and their needs (Cannon & Perreault Jr., 1999).
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Summary
The study sought to strengthen the definition of entry-level business-to-business
services sales person competency. Very few studies have been previously conducted in
an attempt to create a competency model for sales team member learning and
development purposes. There had also been some difficulty in establishing a competency
model for learning and development purposes. Many sales related studies sought to
understand the frequency of tasks performed by sales people as opposed to the
importance of tasks in relation to sales person performance.
A mixed-method study was needed in order to discover the competencies required
of business-to-business sales people in services markets within the United States.
Understanding the differences in business-to-business services sales person competencies
can provide insight to senior level executives and managers on the best way to allocate
resources for sales training and learning.
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CHAPTER 2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
The business-to-business sales person of today must utilize an adaptive selling
model while leveraging information and knowledge in order to tailor unique solutions to
some of the toughest business problems (Weitz, Sujan, & Sujan, 1986). This adaptive
selling model has created an evolving disconnect between the selling process and sales
person competency (Pelham, 2006). Despite these shifts in adaptive selling and new hire
profiling, the sales process continues to serve as the backbone for organizing much of
today’s sales training, textbook content, and class materials (Moncrief & Marshall, 2005).
This may have contributed to a skills gap in much of today’s available workforce that is
not being met by sales training programs (Pelham, 2006).
To compensate for the selling skills gap, hiring managers have begun to recognize
a different set of competencies are required for successful business-to-business sales
people (Stevens & Kinni, 2006). To identify related research to the identification of
competencies and outputs of business-to-business sales people within two industrial
settings, the research was relevant literature was reviewed. The following themes
surfaced and each is discussed in the following sections:
1. The definition of competency
2. Competency models: foundation for this study
3. Business-to-Business activity taxonomies
4. Business-to-Business sales person roles
5. Business-to-Business sales person competencies
6. Other key considerations
25
The current literature review regarding sales person effectiveness and
organizational development suggests a lack of consensus regarding the meaning of sales
person competency as well as the knowledge and skills that comprise sales person
competency. This is supported by the sparse identification of business-to-business sales
person tasks and activities within the literature. There also appears to be no standard
classification of types of sales positions, the roles sales people are expected to perform
within these positions, nor the competencies required to accomplish the required outputs.
The Definition of Competency
In 1980, Patricia McLagan, one of the best known theorists in the workplace
learning profession, boldly predicted that the integration of individual competency
thinking would become a driver of organizational growth and success in an ever
increasingly tumultuous business environment. She argued the need to identify clear
competency criteria to help select, manage, train, and plan for the careers of individuals
engaged in accomplishing the outputs of the organization. Many occupations have risen
to the competency challenge set forth by McLagan nearly 30 years ago. By leveraging
competencies, fields such as Training and Development, Healthcare, Marketing,
Education, and Engineering, and Finance have been systematically improved in order to
keep pace with the rapid changes facing practitioners in today’s global economy (Burkey,
2002; Carson, McGowan, & Hill, 1996; D'Costa, 1993; Gilmore & Carson, 1996;
Kaslow, 2004; Love, 1986; McCauley, Lombardo, & Usher, 1989; McNeilis, 2002).
The idea of understanding competence was first framed in the early 1970’s by
David McClelland, a former Harvard psychologist conducting research with the U.S.
26
government in an attempt to find a more non-biased and objective measure of an
individual’s potential aptitude as well their potential to succeed within a given job.
According to Woodruffe (1993), a catalyst for the use of the word competency in the
management field was Richard Boyatzis' book The Competent Manager (1982). It is from
these early works that many of the attempts to operationalize the construct of competency
within dynamic organizations have emerged.
Because organizations compete at the business unit level, a corporate strategy
leveraging the collective competencies of individuals is extremely important. More
specifically, because the biggest factor to individual performance is competence
(Woodruffe, 1993), an individual’s strengths should be identified and developed in
support of performance in each specific job function (Heffernan & Flood, 2000).
This is especially true in the sales department, where the ability of business-to-
business sales people to increase revenues through new customer acquisition efforts or by
leveraging existing customer relationships can contribute to a firm’s competitive
advantage (Raymond & Tanner Jr., 1994). Anderson (1996) also states that “high
technology can never fully replace the sales person’s ability to establish trust with
customers, respond to subtle cues, anticipate customer needs, provide personalized
services, nurture ongoing relationships, and create new business strategies in partnerships
with customers” (p. 36). Because organizations have changed their business models to
rely more on matrix structures, flattened hierarchical organization, and more self-
managed teams, the need to understand individual competency has exploded
(Schippmann et al., 2000).
27
The increased emphasis on competencies has had an impact on Human Resource
strategy. In order to buffer the organization against turbulent environmental forces, new
strategies such as human capital forecasting and human capital planning help
practitioners dovetail corporate strategies with the right people possessing the right skills
while at the same time forecasting the appropriate number of people needed at a certain
place, at a certain time, with the right competencies to successfully implement future
corporate strategy (Davenport, 1999). To accomplish such sophisticated strategies, more
and more organizations are turning to competency modeling in an attempt to bring more
clarity and rigor while at the same time seeking to see into the future in order to grow
their company.
A competency is a cluster of related knowledge, attitudes, and skills that affect a
major part of one’s job. A competency must also correlate with performance on the job,
and it must have the ability to be measured against well-accepted standards. Five types of
competency characteristics identified by Spencer and Spencer (1993) include motives,
traits, self-concept, knowledge, and skill. These five types are broken further into hidden
attributes and visible attributes. Hidden attributes include motives, traits, and a person’s
self-concept. Motives are identified as underlying attributes that help drive and direct
behavior. Traits are identified physical characteristics and responses to situations or
information. Self-concept is identified as the underlying beliefs and attitudes that give the
person an identity of who they are. Knowledge and skill are defined as characteristics that
are more visible and can therefore be improved upon with training and development of
the individual (Parry, 1998).
28
The delineation between visible and hidden competencies poses a dilemma for
the sales professional. Especially when sales or sales-related professionals attempt to
define those competencies required for someone to excel at their chosen occupation.
Technically speaking, the sales profession is more understood at a profession-wide or
vocational level through the identification of vocational competencies. These vocational
competencies are understood as the technical competencies necessary to perform to the
standards required by an occupation as set forth by law, a trade association, or other
universally understood standard (e.g., buyer norms, public norms, etc). On the other
extreme, individual competencies are not necessarily specific to a particular job, but are
appropriate to a business setting as a whole. Salesperson competency therefore contains a
complex hierarchy of interrelated and interdependent factors and abilities that must be
understood in relation to the factors influencing the performance of an individual, within
their own unique job setting (Meyer & Semark, 1996).
Since competencies are derived by understanding the performance, knowledge,
and motivational underpinnings of a jobholder, competencies pave the way to
understanding the determinants of excellent results or outputs. A result is defined by
McLagan and Suhadolnik (1991) as a service that an employee renders to others while an
output is defined as a tangible product that an individual delivers to others, especially to
colleagues, customers, or clients. A more experienced business-to-business sales person
may produce outputs and results that are different from an entry-level business-to-
business sales person. These is because highly effective sales people develop their own
knowledge structures and utilize prescribed selling steps to a much lesser degree than do
29
less effective sales people. They are able to adapt better, think on their feet more quickly
and be creative (Leong, Busch, & John, 1989). Knowledge structures can become quite
elaborate in experienced sales people who have learned much, and increased their skills
over the course of their career. These knowledge structures have been shown to be a key
determinant of sales performance, especially as they relate to declarative and procedural
knowledge (Weitz et al., 1986). Accordingly, these knowledge structures are crucial to
the sales person’s decision-making ability and their ability to determine the priority,
sequence, and desired output or result setting their own unique goals and managing
themselves in their attainment of those goals (Locke & Latham, 1990).
Research within the adult education field has been accomplished looking at
multiple occupations. This research often focuses on the desire of professionals to acquire
new competencies as a requisite for attaining professional status (Daley, 1999).
Researchers have also found that many professions are upgrading their skills in order to
keep up with changing times. Competencies provide the “conceptual framework within
which the aims, and the subsequent design and delivery of courses, will be set” (Bines,
1992, p. 19). Within the adult education field, competency-based education and training
has become popular and emerged as an important development tool. Competency-based
education is considered by Dooley and her colleagues (2004) to be a “training program
that is individualized with a specific focus on the outcomes” (p. 316).
As defined by McLagan & Suhadolnik (1991), the classification of jobs is much
different than the delineation of roles as well as the definition of competencies required to
excel at those roles. Likewise, the process is different when defining the sales activities
30
necessary to accomplish key outputs or results. These relationships are depicted in figure
1 below.
Sales Outputs
Role Competencies or
Sales Results
Job
Sales Outputs
Role Competencies or
Results
Figure 1. Job Classification, Roles, Competencies, Outputs or Results.
Competency Models: Foundation for this Study
McLagan (1980) developed the concept of competency models and defined them
as “decision tools which described the key capabilities required to perform a job” (p. 23).
These tools were defined as a set of knowledge, skills, attitudes, or intellectual strategies.
She went on to say, “At their best, competency models can be more reliable than job
descriptions (which talk about job not skill and knowledge specifications), more succinct
and valid than detailed skill lists, and more consistently on target than gut feel” (p. 23).
A competency model is a statistically validated management decision tool,
correlated to a specific group of activities and outputs that describe important knowledge,
skills, and abilities for the individuals performing those activities (Mirabile, 1997). There
are many uses for a competency model by Organizational Development professionals.
Competency models may serve as recruitment and selection tools, assessment tools, or a
tool for developing curricula and other training material. Competency models may also
help with coaching effectiveness, counseling and mentoring, or behavioral benchmarking
31
tool (Dooley et al., 2004). Organizational development professionals use competency
models to “clarify organization-specific competencies to improve human performance
and unify the individual capabilities with organizational core competencies” (Rothwell &
Lindholm, 1999, p. 104)
Competencies differ in the extent to which they can be taught. Content knowledge
and behavioral skills are easiest to teach, and attitudes and values are harder (Spencer,
1997) Many would argue that motives and traits cannot be changed, but McClelland and
Winter (1971) state that changing motives and traits is possible; however, the process is
lengthy, difficult and expensive. From a cost effectiveness standpoint, companies have
mostly adopted a hire for motivation and traits and train to develop knowledge and skills
philosophy. It is more effective to hire people with the right motives and traits and train
them in knowledge and skills necessary to do specific jobs (Spencer, 1997). Perhaps this
is why a survey of 217 companies by the American Compensation Association, in
cooperation with Hay Group, Hewitt Associates LLC, Towers Perrin, and William M.
Mercer Inc. (Frazee, 1996) found that:
Of those companies using competencies for staffing, 88% use competency-based
interviews for hiring/selection decisions.
Of those companies using competencies for training and development, 62% have
developed or acquired training or learning programs specifically for competencies.
Of those companies using competencies for performance management, 90% use
competency-based performance appraisal data for employee development.
32
Of those companies using competencies for compensation, 64% reported that pay
increase decisions are affected most by change/ growth in competencies.
Rothwell and Lindholm (1999) and Rothwell and Kazanas (1998) classify
competency identification and modeling methods into three general categories: (a) the
borrowed approach, (b) the borrowed-and-tailored approach, (c) the tailored approach.
The borrowed approach requires access to an occupation-wide or published
competency model. With this approach, the organization chooses to leverage the model
someone else has written. This is the quickest and least expensive way to build a
competency model, but it may not have the relevance necessary to make lasting change.
The borrowed-and-tailored approach lets the organization leverage a borrowed model,
but tailors it to the specific culture, skills, and abilities necessary for each position, or the
most critical positions. Occupation specific competency models are good start for this
approach (Rothwell & Lindholm, 1999).
The tailored approach allows the company to create a custom competency model,
but they are very expensive. Each level within the organization must be assessed and
competencies must be created for each individual job classification. A tailored approach
competency model of just the upper-level management positions in a large US company
can cost anywhere between $1,000,000 and $3,000,000 (Rothwell & Lindholm, 1999)
and take anywhere from a few months to many years (McLagan, 1996).
According to Rothwell and Lindholm (1999), at least five tailored approaches are
being applied by organizations within the United States. These are (a) the process-driven
33
approach, (b) the invented approach, (c) the trends-driven approach, (d) the work
responsibilities-driven approach, and the (e) outputs-based approach.
The process-driven approach is the oldest tailored approach to conducting
competency modeling. With this approach, emphasis is placed upon researching and
validating the actual work process performed by exemplary jobholders. The invented
approach has the lowest validity of all borrowed approaches. It entails creating the
competency model by asking people what they think jobholders should know and do.
This is very subjective (Dubois & Rothwell, 2004).
The trends-driven approach focuses attention on future issues or trends affecting
the worker, work team, or organization. It focuses attention on what people must know in
the future to succeed. The work responsibilities-driven approach is focused on the
functions, responsibilities, and behaviors performed by exemplary performers.
Sometimes this process focuses on the critical incidents of the work performed and other
times if focuses on the situations found in the work (Preskill, 1996).
The outputs-driven approach focuses attention on the outputs or results of the
targeted professional. Outputs are what successful performers produce or provide as a
service to others. Since the sales occupation is very output and results focused (Cross et
al., 2001). This approach is a good option for organizations wishing to understand the
competencies of their sales people. According to Rothwell and Lindhom (1999, p. 115)
an output-driven approach would follow these eight steps:
Step 1: Compile all available information about the responsibilities, activities, and
roles of the sales people.
34
Step 2: Establish an expert panel that consists of individuals who supervise sales
people or who are exemplary performers.
Step 3: Define explicit assumptions about future changes likely to affect the job.
Step 4: Develop a list of work outputs and results
Step 5: Develop a menu of quality requirements associated with the outputs or
results
Step 6: Devise a list of competencies and behavioral anchors associated with each
competency
Step 7: List work roles developed through cluster analysis of the work outputs.
This makes role identification a derivative activity of work outputs.
Step 8: Develop a draft competency model for review.
Steps 1-6 can be accomplished by an expert panel, with step 7 being
accomplished by a survey to validate the results.
Occupation-based models have also been implemented by organizations. These
models have generated information that can be reported to governmental agencies such as
the U.S. Department of Labor. They can also be used to develop certification programs.
Data are usually collected from well-known field experts. Dubois and Rothwell (2000)
state that such models are generally of high quality; and go over the advantages and
disadvantages associated with these models. Main advantages of using an Occupation-
based model:
1. The competencies are defined in the occupation’s vernacular.
35
2. The competency model describes the entire occupation, not just a niche or
a specialty.
3. Various experts in the field have identified the competencies.
4. The results are easier to defend in court and are usually “recognized by
government persons at all levels of practice” (Rothwell & Dubois, 2000,
pp. 2-39).
5. They can be used as strong basis to develop a customized model.
Currently only one occupation-specific model is available for sales professionals.
Published by the United Professional Sales Association, the competency model has been
accessed by over 10,000 sales people around the globe and the organization continues to
update the model every few years (UPSA, 2003).
Many doctoral dissertations have been written on studies to identify competency
models for various occupations and data have been collected using various methods; the
most common are a) Q-Sort methods, b) Expert panels/focus groups via Delphi approach
and c) Survey methods.
An early doctoral dissertation by Palmore (1972) was based in part on a four-
volume report from the United States Department of Education called a Competency
Pattern Approach To Curriculum Construction In Distributive Teacher Education. In his
dissertation, the researcher identified that a discrepancy existed between the perceptions
of distributive education-teacher coordinators at the high school level and employers as to
the importance of competencies needed in professional selling. The researcher also used a
Q-sort methodology to classify competencies into curriculum areas of cash register use,
36
customer relations, salesmanship techniques, store management procedures, and
merchandise display fundamentals.
Keech (1998) looked at entry-level retail managers in a Delphi Study in her
doctoral dissertation. She sought to ascertain what 25 corporate recruiters were looking
for when they hired college graduates. She applied the knowledge gained into a
recommendation for a competency-based merchandising curriculum at the college level.
While not looking specifically at competency modeling, Hunter (1999) identified
relationship-forging tasks of sharing market expertise, proposing integrative solutions,
and coordinating activities are essential to effective relationship building. In this doctoral
dissertation, he looked at relationship effectiveness internally as well as externally as it
pertained to technology implementation.
Plouffe (2003) completed a mammoth doctoral dissertation on what he called
“sales person navigational competency” (p. 10). In his research he sought to determine
what internal communications, patterns, and challenges a sales person has. He posited
that while many organizations focus on helping the sales person succeed in an externally
facing manner, that many internal forces exist and must be understood for sales people to
succeed. He defined this as sales person navigational competency as; “a set of behavioral
capabilities the sales person may possess and apply so that key resources, processes, and
outcomes are either acquired or aligned with their outbound, externally-directed selling
efforts” (Plouffe, 2003, p. 12).
Another dissertation by Fan (2004) looked at the training needs of life insurance
sales people in Taiwan. This was a Delphi panel technique where subject matter experts
37
were interviewed to build consensus over a series of three iterations. The panelists came
to consensus about the training needs of insurance sales people as well as future trends.
Business-to-Business Sales Taxonomies
In order for a company to sustain its growth while coping with change, a company
must have a disciplined approach to defining and deploying its strategy. For example,
products and services must be tightly aligned with customer needs and an organization’s
core processes must be effective, efficient, and flexible (McLean & Haigh, 1954).
Because organizations are the principal mechanism by which, in a highly differentiated
society, it is possible to accomplish tasks and to achieve goals beyond the reach of any
one individual (Parsons, 1960). Performance of these tasks by business-to-business sales
people is related to the environment within which they operate (Weitz, 1978). This
environment is typically organized in a manner that isolates the selling function for the
marketing and customer service functions of the organization.
Organizations can be classified as a system in interaction with its environment. A
system is an organized unitary whole composed of two or more interdependent parts,
components, or subsystems and delineated by identifiable boundaries (Parsons, 1960).
There are several well-established conceptual frameworks available to help understand
systems. One of the most applicable models was developed by Lawrence and Lorsch
(1967). This model grew out of a study comparing organizations in different industries,
with different products, and operating in different environments. Organizations that have
stable, predictable environments are most efficient and productive when they used a
traditional hierarchical structure. However, those individuals exposed to rapidly changing

38
environments were more successful if they pursued more flexible structures (e.g.,
structures in which authority and control are decentralized).
“The industrial [business-to-business] sales job has been misrepresented,
misunderstood, and mislabeled. The concept of many is that a sales job is virtually the
same, regardless of industry or product…research results have been generalized to sales
people and ignore possible differentiation among types of sales people” (Moncrief, 1988,
p. 161). Business-to-business sales people are often incapable of classifying the types of
sales work they perform and appear to be unfamiliar with any profession-wide schema
for classification.
The genesis of today’s business-to-business activity classification taxonomies
began in the early 1960’s when a flood of new products and imports, an increasingly
saturated market, an increase in competition, and the spread of automation ushered in a
new focus on the professional sales person. In 1961, two pioneering Harvard Business
Review articles were published that attempted to identify the various way a company
would engage in professional selling activities.
The earliest attempt to classify sales person activities was accomplished by Kahn
and Shuchman (1961). The authors stated “personal [face-to-face] selling…continues to
be organized almost exactly as it was a generation ago in the days of the drummer.
Territories, products, and sometimes (but not often) customers are the main divisions in
current sales organizations--virtually no attempt has been made to organize personal
selling on the basis of the task to be performed” (p. 90, emphasis added). The authors
went on to chastise corporate management for “not perceiving that salesmen are called on
39
to do not one but two very different jobs. The performance of each of these jobs involves
different problems and techniques. The personnel requirements for satisfactory
performance of each of these jobs are very different. And the difficulties of reorganizing
for specialization of the two jobs may…compensate for improved sales performance” (p.
91). The authors break these two aforementioned job classifications into sales
development and sales maintenance activities.
In this activity classification taxonomy, sales development is concerned with the
creation of revenue from new people and new customers. Within the sales development
schema, the sales person is engaged in converting people who are unaware of his or her
company or resistant to change. Therefore, the focus of this classification was to create
revenue. The author’s state the final goal of sales development is to “stabilize the change
he [or she] has created” (Kahn & Shuchman, 1961, p. 92). It is also explicitly stated that
sales development personnel would secure additional orders as necessary and create
repeated change as necessary by creating new sales from people who are already
customers.
Correspondingly, sales maintenance is therefore concerned with the creation (and
protection) of revenue from existing customers. Within the sales maintenance activity
classification taxonomy, the sales person must preserve revenue by “building on the
favorable attitudes which already exist” (Kahn & Shuchman, 1961, p. 91). Therefore the
focus of this classification was to create customers. The final goal of sales maintenance is
to “keep his [or her] customers content with and happy in the relationship with his [or
her] firm” (Kahn & Shuchman, 1961, p. 92)
40
“Since these two jobs put such different requirements on him, charging a field
salesman with both creating sales and creating customers can only result in his
undertaking the tasks he prefers to the detriment of the task he or she dislikes. The usual
result is that among field salesmen, sales maintenance activity drives out sales
development activity” (Kahn & Shuchman, 1961, p. 91).
Therefore, the separation between sales development and sales maintenance was
not the transaction. The authors clearly state that the separation between sales
development and sales maintenance comes down to what many would consider today to
be organizational differences. The organizational differences highlighted in Kahn and
Shuchman (1961) would actually be between the selling organization and the customer
service organization if it were written today. These two organizational functions (selling
and customer service) are related but separate professions requiring completely different
skills, talents, and personality traits. This analysis of separation is supported by McMurry
(1961), who chose to isolate and identify one dimension (sales development) in his
article. It is also interesting to note that the authors are attributed the genesis of the
question many people ask regarding whether sales people are born or made. It is clear
with this analysis that the authors were probably correct in deducing completely different
skills sets and personality traits between what many would identify as professional selling
or customer service today. However, the debate continues to this day especially in
practitioner articles.
The work of the earlier authors provided the foundation of another activity
classification taxonomy found in the second Harvard Business Review article by
41
McMurry (1961) titled The Mystique of Super-Salesmanship. In this article, McMurry
(1961) (sometimes misspelled as McMurray by 20th century researchers) stated
categorically “that if American sales efficiency is to be maximized and the appalling
waste of money and manpower which exists today is to be minimized, a constructive
analysis must be made of what selling really is and how its effectiveness can be
enhanced” (p. 113).
In this pioneering work, McMurry (1961) (citing literature of his day) somehow
derived the conclusion that the earlier work by Kahn and Shuchman (1961) created a
distinction between creative selling and maintenance selling. One can infer that McMurry
believed that a requisite aspect of sales development was creativity. In thus doing,
McMurry (1961) isolated the creative selling aspect from the sales development posited
by Kahn and Shuchman (1961). By doing so, he then identified sales positions as
“requiring increasing amounts of that ingredient [creativity], from the very simple to the
highly complex” (p. 114).
It is interesting to note that this work provides much of foundation for job
classifications to this day, even though McMurry used his judgment to craft the schema.
Further analysis of the particular positions outlined by McMurry, within the context of
the 1960’s environment, provides startling insight into the functions and expectations of
sales person activity. The positions were hardly mundane and resembled anecdotal
expectations comprising observable behavior, competencies, and outputs. The
descriptions of these positions are very much different than what job titles look like today
42
in business-to-business selling. These expectations, as depicted in figure 2 below, are
summarized on a sliding scale of complexity of their job function.
Less -- Positions where the salesman’s job is predominately to deliver the product.
Creative
-- Positions where the salesman is predominately an inside order-taker.
-- Positions where the salesman is also predominately an order-taker but works in

the field, as the packinghouse, soap or spice salesman does.
-- Positions where the salesman is not expected or permitted to take an order but is
called on only to build good will or to educate the actual or potential user.
-- Positions where the major emphasis is placed on technical knowledge, e.g., the
engineering sales person who is primarily a consultant to the “client” companies.
-- Positions which demand the creative sale of tangible products like vacuum
cleaners, refrigerators, siding, and encyclopedias.
More -- Positions requiring the creative sale of intangibles, such as insurance, advertising
Creative services, or education.
Figure 2. Summary of McMurry’s (1961) Job Activity Classification Taxonomy Based
upon Creativity.
Ten years later, Newton (1973) built upon the work of McMurry by narrowing the
activity classification taxonomy to a group of four. In this classification taxonomy,
Newton used personal judgment and a review of the literature to create the positions of
Trade Sellers, Missionary Sellers, New Business Sellers, and Technical Sellers. Trade
Sellers provided promotional assistance to existing customers so they could develop more
business. Missionary Sellers were expected to generate incremental revenue from the
existing client base. New Business Sellers were expected to generate new revenue from
new clients. Technical Sellers provided technical assistance to buyers while at the same
time attempting to sell more.
43
In the first empirically derived work, Moncrief (1986) developed a
comprehensive inventory of selling activities, identified the basic factors that supported
those activities, and developed an empirical taxonomy of selling activities based upon
those aspects. In his research design, Moncrief (1986) specifically only used industrial
(business-to-business) sales people who sold a tangible product. Therefore, the retail and
services industries were excluded. Citing a comprehensive literature review, personal
interviews, and focus groups from various industries, a list of 121 activities were created.
Based on those activities, surveys were sent to the sample population and the results were
factor analyzed. Per the results of the factor analysis, 10 activity groups, or dimensions,
were identified as the following: selling function, working with orders, servicing the
product, managing information, servicing the account, conferences/meetings,
training/recruiting, entertaining, out of town travel, and managing distributors. Those 10
domains were then cluster analyzed by frequency (as opposed to importance) of tasks
within each of the activity domains identified. With these ten dimensions analyzed, the
researchers performed a cluster analysis to identify six clusters. These were then named
Missionary Seller, Trade Servicer, Trade Seller, Order Taker, Institutional Seller, and
Residual.
The Missionary Seller activity cluster primarily contained marketing activities
and activities that facilitated the servicing of existing accounts. The Trade Servicer
activity cluster also grouped creative/adaptive selling activities that facilitated the training
of customers and maintenance of the technical aspects of the solution. The Trade Seller
activity cluster primarily contained activities with distributors, less service activities, and
44
more activities associated with establishing an initial sale. The Order Taker activity
cluster contained activities primarily related to taking orders and not many activities
corresponding to adaptive selling. The Institutional Seller activity cluster contained
creative/adaptive selling activities focused upon end users and not to distributors. The
Residual cluster comprised 16% of the total activity rankings and was very hard for the
Moncrief to interpret (Moncrief, 1986). Moncrief clearly created this cluster as a
placeholder or container for the other remaining activities that did not fit into another
cluster. “The low means could be an indicator of a cluster not accurately captured, a
group that does not put the energy into selling that other groups do, or possibly a
combination of the two” (Moncrief, 1986, p. 268). Later research places this residual
category within the realm of sales support activities as a possibility of explaining the
anomaly (Moncrief et al., 2006).
Building on the work of Moncrief (1986), Sumrall (1992) looked at business-to-
business selling of health care services. This study was the only one outside of an
industrial setting that classified sales activities by grouping them. Her study was
concerned with identifying the sales activities of 272 sales people from 122 health care
services organization across the United States. The survey instrument was based on
Moncrief’s (1986) study, which was highly modified. The modifications were based on
the input of health care services sales executives and came in the form of dropping the
activities directly related only to industrial settings (e.g., “order accessories” and “handle
shipment problems”) as well as modifying existing activities to be more health care
oriented. Of note, the researcher solicited the feedback of sales executives regarding their
45
perceptions about the uniqueness of the services selling function and the industrial selling
function. All of the executives believed the job function and activities required to sell
effectively in those jobs were not unique within the context of industrial selling. They did
however believe that the allocation of time and effort was indeed unique. The result of
the subject matter expert input was an 84-activity item battery that was distributed as an
embedded instrument in a much longer self-administered questionnaire sent to the sales
people. Following the same quantitative approach as Moncrief (1986), Sumrall (1992)
first conducted a factor analysis and identified five dimensions of selling activity. These
five dimensions were activities related to: the selling function, travel or entertainment,
research, expertise building, and new product activities. All five of these factors were
again ranked by frequency (not importance) and used to produce a cluster analysis. The
resulting cluster analysis provided taxonomy of activities for health care services sales
person’s job classifications. These clusters were named: New Business Missionary Seller
cluster, Sales Assistant cluster, New Business Seller cluster, Sales Administration cluster,
and Maintenance Missionary cluster.
The New Business Missionary Seller cluster contains the activities necessary to
promote established products, or perhaps the organization itself, to prospective groups or
people. These activities were not necessarily related to actually closing deals but
appeared to be concerned with building goodwill and awareness for services. The Sales
Assistant cluster contained activities that were identified less than the rest of the cluster,
and might have been derived from a part time sales person that “sells part time” in
conjunction with another primary duty in the organization (p. 15). New Business Seller
46
activities appear to be a cluster of the most traditional sales person activity. These
activities are spread across all activity clusters. The activities identified were mostly
related to the introduction of new products and adaptive selling activities. The Sales
Administrator cluster contained activities more related to lower-level selling processes
and were activities related more to the organization. The cluster contained activities
related to conducting research, new product related activities, and recruiting activities.
The Maintenance Missionary Seller cluster contained activities that were related to
increasing business from present customers. The cluster contains activities related to
providing seminars and preparing presentations.
The most recent classification of selling activity was created by updating of
Moncrief’s 1986 study with improvements in methodology (e.g., factor score centroids
for the cluster analysis), sample population (more than one industry), and survey
instrument (7-point Likert Scale) (Moncrief et al., 2006). As in the 1986 study, only
manufacturing companies were contacted due to perception that retail and services sellers
are unique in their job classification. A systematic random sample of 1,500 firms was
initiated with over 1,000 responses received across 15 standard Industrial Code (SIC)
industries. Most of the respondents represented chemical, non-electrical machinery,
petroleum, and furniture industries. An updated list of 105 sales activities generated via
qualitative analysis was utilized as the survey instrument (Marshall, Moncrief, & Lassk,
1999). From the survey responses, 12 dimensions were identified utilizing factor analysis
with a promax rotation. A number of factors emerged that were not included in the
Moncrief (1986) study. Relationship selling, prospecting, computer, delivery, office, and
47
educational activities were dimensions that emerged separately. Those dimensions
remaining the same were: entertaining, travel, training/recruiting, product support, sales
service, and promotional activities. The 12 dimensions identified in the factor analysis
were relationship selling, promotional activities/sales service, entertaining, prospecting,
computer, travel, training/recruiting, deliver, product support, educational activities,
office, and channel support. With these 12 dimensions analyzed, the researchers
performed a cluster analysis to identify six activity clusters. These six activity clusters
were named the Consultative Seller cluster, New Business/Channel Seller cluster,
Missionary Seller cluster, Delivery Seller cluster, Sales Support cluster, and Key Account
Seller cluster.
The Consultative Seller cluster of activities existed across the entire sample
population. Consultative sellers cluster contained activities mostly related to relationship
selling as well as promotional activities and sales service. The New Business/Channel
Seller cluster also existed across the entire sample population. The New
Business/Channel Seller cluster contained activities dealing with computers,
entertainment, prospecting for new business and training. This cluster also contained
activities related to channel support. The Missionary Seller cluster contained activities
that had little to do with prospecting. The Missionary Seller cluster contains activities
derived from individuals such as pharmaceutical and medical devices sales people who
traditionally leave samples, build good will, and conduct promotional activities. The
Delivery Seller cluster contains activities mostly related to working with customers after
the sale on the delivery of the product while at the same time conducting prospecting.
48
The Sales Support cluster contains activities having to do very little actual selling but
included management and administrative tasks. The Key Account Seller cluster contains
activities related to the support of the product, traveling, office work, channel support,
computer work, and entertainment. Figure 3 below depicts these taxonomies in a
simplified form.
Kahn and McMurry Newton Moncrief Sumrall Moncrief

Shuchman (1961) (1973) (1986) (1992) (2006)
(1961)
Missionary Missionary Missionary Missionary Missionary
Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller
Key Account
Seller
Maintenance
Missionary
Delivery Seller Trade Trade Delivery
Sales Servicer Servicer Seller
Development Trade Seller
Inside Order
Taker Order Taker
Technical
Technical
Seller
New Institutional Consultative
Create Demand Business Seller Seller
(Tangible)
New New Business
Create Demand Business Seller
(Intangible) Seller
Part-Time
Seller
Sales Support
Residual Sales
Administrator
Sales
Maintenance
Figure 3. Comparison of Sales Activity Taxonomies
49
In summary, since 1961 six taxonomies of sales person activity have been created.
Most of these were done subjectively however a few were accomplished through
experiential processes to form clusters of activities. Further evaluation and synthesis of
this research creates a striking difference between the pre-1986 classifications and post-
1986 classifications. The works by the pre-1986 authors--Kahn and Shuchman (1961)
and McMurry (1961)--were different from their post-1986 counterpart. In the pre-1986
works, the classifications were not given monikers or titles associating them with what
are called sales position titles today. Rather, they were more concerned with capturing the
essence, expectations, or summary of activities of the sales person as they performed
their duties. Of important note, the pre-1986 authors were looking at the entire selling
profession not just one vertical market, while the post-1986 market has mostly worked in
industrial business-to-business sales occupations and some services settings.
All the work since 1986 uses the McMurry (1961) article as the foundation of
thought for creating the taxonomies. However, the macro focus of the McMurry
classification schema with a profession-wide focus appears to be overlooked by many of
the following works. Also, the research post-1986 attempts to group activities (on 10 or
12 dimensions) and cluster those dimensions according to their composite scores.
Moncrief (1986) provides much of the impetus for this approach. The goal of clustering
the dimensions was to group respondents into classes. The categories created by “are not
intended to be absolutes, such that every sales person must fit in one of them” (Moncrief
1986, p. 266). However, the research on that date and since that time has attempted to
accomplish just that very goal by naming a cluster of activities with titles more akin to
50
job titles. Since the clusters identified are clusters of activities, they may be more akin to
sales person roles or expectations of behavior.
Business-to-Business Salesperson Roles
In their meta-analysis of 116 studies, Walker Jr. et al. (1975) showed that the
number one determinant of sales person performance within the sales person populations
was role variability. For over 50 years, there has been a significant body of knowledge
established on role theory (especially role conflict and ambiguity) with the majority of
the research being derived from the scales developed by Rizzo et al. (1970). Over this
long period of time, the Rizzo et al. (1970) scales have withstood the scrutiny of
hundreds of follow up articles regarding the validity of measuring the psychometric
properties and organizational properties in order to determine the impact of role conflict
and ambiguity on performance individuals within roles. Clearly, the validity of the scales
in measuring the psychometric properties has been well proven; however, within
organizations the scales have not proven to be as definitive (Schuler, Aldag, & Brief,
1977). This is because “past research has produced unclear results with regards to the
nature and strength of the relationship between role conflict and ambiguity and the
hypothesized antecedents and consequences” (p. 126).
Role ambiguity and conflict have both been observed through qualitative and
quantitative studies to help shed light upon the effectiveness of sales people. Within this
context, role ambiguity is more frequently studied due to the attributable effects in
relation to path-goal theory of leadership (House, 1971). Jackson and Schuler (1985)
showed that task identity, age, and satisfaction with supervision and with the work itself
51
are strongly correlated with role ambiguity. Kahn and Wolf (1964) showed how role
ambiguity leads to job related tension, dissatisfaction, lower levels of trust, lower liking,
and lower respect for the sender. There is also a correlation between negative
psychological reactions or physical consequences such as an increased incidence of
coronary disease (Walker Jr., Churchill, & Ford, 1975). More specifically related to sales
person performance, research has shown that role ambiguity can negatively influence job
satisfaction and overall task performance (Behrman & Perreault Jr., 1984; Teas, 1983).
There is also a positive correlation between role ambiguity and the number of
organizational departments and the degree with which innovation is needed within the
selling job. On the other hand, research has shown that a negative correlation exists
between a sales person’s influence in determining performance evaluation standards,
their closeness of supervision, and the frequency of sales management communication
(Walker Jr. et al., 1975).
The research has also analyzed role conflict and its effect on performance. Task
identity, leader-initiating structure and consideration, organizational level, satisfaction
with supervision and the work itself, pay, coworkers’ involvement, and objective
performance are strongly correlated with role conflict (Jackson & Schuler, 1985). The
effects of role conflict include burnout or emotional exhaustion (Boles, Johnston, & Hair
Jr., 1997) and propensity to leave (Sager & Junsub, 1998). Pruden showed that inter-
organizational task coordination can decrease role conflict (1969a) as can power,
authority, and status (1969b). Information overload within complex roles has also been
linked to role conflict (Hunter, 2004). While more research is needed in the area of sales
52
person roles as well as the creation, moderation, or linking of roles to specific sales
person behavior, researchers should also seek to understand moderators of role
ambiguity. While research has shown the effects of personality, cultural differences,
gender differences, empowerment and autonomy, and social support (Bauer, 2003)
managers attempt to focus on the entire breadth of necessary activities to succeed in
today’s rapidly changing business environment.
Researchers have proposed a number of business-to-business sales person roles
for coping with the challenges facing the occupation. Approaches to the clustering of
activities and tasks have ranged from anecdotal to empirical. Many researchers have
applied the definition of roles to the delineation of job titles when the two should remain
inherently separated. The purpose of role definition is to clearly define one’s role
expectation and the most appropriate stakeholders who have influence. However, in
regards to many sales researchers “the primary objective of defining roles was to achieve
immediate product sales and ultimately to sustain these sales over the long-term”
(Ogbuehi & Sharma, 1999, p. 64). If role definition was formulized within the sales
profession this manner, the delineation of roles may become identified and explained in
the manner of a traditional job title as opposed to “the hat(s) a business-to-business sales
person wears” to accomplish the job. Such poorly defined roles are often cited as a source
of problems in a teaming environment such as selling (Varney, 1989). This challenge is
identified in the section on future research.
The earliest attempt to define roles of sales people was accomplished by Kahn
and Shuchman (1961). They defined critical roles in the sales occupation as analyst,
53
tactician, learner, communicator, strategist, developer, and maintainer. Early work by
Belasco (1966) created taxonomy of business-to-business sales person roles in form of
the persuader, serviceman, information-gatherer, problem-definer, customer advocate,
information-reporter, scheduler, display-arranger, and customer ego-builder.
Walker, Churchill, and Ford (1975) articulated the sales person’s role in terms of
the selling organization’s expectations. This included coordinating with other
departments, coordinating with internal employees, and satisfying a diverse range of
customers. Moncrief (1986) identified the key roles of prospector, seller, order handler,
service provider, information manager, meeting participant, new sales person manager,
buyer entertainer, and relationship establisher.
Coppet and Staples (1990) proposed very basic and important roles of counselor,
supplier, and team manager in regards to sales people facing multiple challenges and
multiple dynamics. Adapting the tasks from Anderson and Rosenbloom (1982), Wilson
(1993) identifies the important business-to-business sales person roles of the 1990’s as
customer partner, market analyst and planner, buyer seller team coordinator, customer
service provider, buyer behavior expert, information gatherer, sales forecaster, market
cost analyzer, and technologist. In analyzing team-selling environments, Deeter-Schmelz
and Ramsey (1995) identified teaming roles such as team leader, seller, internal
coordinator, and customer service representative.
Ingram (1996) proposes the roles of team player and asset manager. Obguehi and
Sharma (1999) proposed the roles of intelligence gatherer, new market opener, and
problem solver. And Weitz and Bradford (1999) proposed the role of provider, persuader,
54
problem solver, and value creator. In their book, Colletti and Fiss (1999) identify six
emerging specialists roles businesses are creating in order to keep up with the changing
business market. The authors state, “today it’s virtually impossible to visits a company,
regardless of industry, and not find new sales roles operating in the business” (p. 6). They
go on to identify emerging sales roles such as end-user sales specialists, retention
specialists, customer acquisition specialists, win-back specialists, service consultants, and
telephone account managers.
Sharma (2001) proposes and re-clarification of roles based upon the long-term
relationship approach as well as a division of individual and team responsibilities. He
identifies partner selector, relationship advocate, relationship expert, relationship
administrator, and relationship monitor.
Jones, Stevens, and Chonko (2005) propose the roles necessary to remain agile
and adaptable as leader, initiator, and partner. And, generally speaking, researchers have
categorized the role of sales person as boundary-spanner (Lysonski & Johnson, 1983;
Singh & Rhoads, 1991). However, recent researchers have called this paradigm less
relevant than in years past and the role of facilitator or resource gatherer a more
appropriate moniker (Moncrief et al., 2006).
Despite this research and relevant work on sales person activities, “synthesizing
activities into roles has been useful, but there is a dearth of theoretically sound and
managerially useful conceptualizations providing a comprehensive set of roles” (Sharma,
2001, p. 44).
Table 1 below depicts these roles in a simplified format.
55
Table 1.
The Roles of Sales People
Walker, Deeter- Weitz Jones,

Kahn & Churchill, Coppet & Schmelz & Obguehi & & Colletti & Stevens,
Shuchman Belasco Ford Moncrief Staples Wilson Ramsey Ingram Sharma Bradford Fiss Sharma & Chonko
(1961) (1966) (1975) (1986) (1990) (1993) (1995) (1996) (1999) (1999) (1999) (2001) (2005)
Analyst Persuader External Prospector Counselor Partner Team Leader Team Intelligence Provider End-user Partner Leader
Coordinator Player Gatherer specialists Selector
Tactician Serviceman Seller Supplier Analyst Seller Persuader Initiator
Learner Internal Asset New Market Retention Advocate
Info-Gatherer Coordinator Order Handler Team Planner Internal Manager Opener Problem specialists Partner
Communicator Manager Coordinator Solver Expert
Problem- Customer Service Coordinator Problem Customer
Strategist Definer Servicer Provider Customer Solver Value acquisition Administrator
Servicer Servicer Creator specialists
Developer Customer Info- Manager Monitor
Advocate Behavior Win-back
Maintainer Meeting Expert specialists
Info-Reporter Participant
Info-Gatherer Service
Scheduler New Rep consultants
Manager Sales
Display- Forecaster Telephone
Arranger Entertainer Specialists
Cost Analyzer
Customer Relationship
Ego-Builder Builder Technologist
56
Business-to-Business Sales Person Competencies
Marks (1997) asserted “probably nothing will change the…activities of the sales
person more in the twenty-first century than the concept of partnering and its mandate for
relationship selling” (p. 20). Understanding a business-to-business sales person’s activity
is therefore important for unlocking effectiveness and performance. A business-to-
business sales person’s activity is much more controllable than the actual results they
may achieve. Many managers would agree that business-to-business sales people should
focus their effort on tasks and processes they can control. However, if a business-to-
business sales person falls short on quota performance (a result), the problem may be the
sales person’s activity, the organizational structure and design, or the quota goal itself.
While the sales person cannot affect the organizational structure or the quota (in most
cases), he/she can definitely control the number of phone calls or face-to-face calls.
The identification of sales person activities has led to fruitful research in the areas
of sales person effectiveness because sales researchers must pay more attention to how
sales jobs differ from one another in order to explain variances in sales person
performance (Walker Jr., Churchill, & Ford, 1985). To develop a comprehensive list of
activities requires each identified task to be mutually exclusive as possible, yet specific
enough to be reasonable. The challenge has been to identify activities that are not too
general or too narrowly defined that they become irrelevant. Researchers have sought to
analyze sales person activities to identify the major tasks performed (Marshall et al.,
1999). Therefore, most of the analysis of sales person activity has been limited to
business-to-business selling positions that sell a tangible product thereby leaving services
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sales people out of the scope of activity identification. This is typically justified under the
presumption that “service and retail activates may not be comparable to industrial
[business-to-business] sales activities, and combining them with industrial sales jobs may
result in non-meaningful and/or un-interpretable results” (Moncrief, 1986, p. 262). This
seems to contradict the earlier literature suggesting that both product and services sellers
have a similar outlook on the techniques and steps to utilize in the sales process–it is the
importance of each step and technique differs (Dubinsky & Rudelius, 1980).
Accordingly, this is one of the research objectives of this study.
There has been much interest in activities of business-to-business sales people by
sales researchers. Much of the work on sales person activities has focused upon creating a
comprehensive set of tasks based upon the occurrence of each. Early work by Christian
(1960) developed an early statement of sales person activities that followed a basic sales
process. These included sizing up buyers, selling products, following up, and closing the
sale. This was followed by Churchill, Ford, and Walker (1978) who identified sales
activities, but concluded that they were too broadly defined to manage or evaluate while
calling for more research in this important area.
Of particular note is the work by Lamont and Lundstrum (1974) in regards to
identifying the importance of sales person activities rather than the frequency of those
activities. The researchers conducted personal interviews of sales people and sales
managers within an industrial firm in an attempt to delineate duties and responsibilities.
From those interviews, a 60-item scale was created whereas 156 respondents were asked
to rate the level of importance of each. The results of the empirically derived cluster
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analysis yielded eight factors. These eight factors were a) assisting and working with
district management, b) customer service, c) personal integrity and selling ethics, d)
direct selling, e) developing relationships with customers, f) keeping abreast of market
conditions, g) meeting sales objectives, and h) maintaining complete customer records.
However, these responses were limited to a single-firm and were therefore not
generalizable.
More recently, one of the most instrumental works in identifying sales person
activities was accomplished by Moncrief (1986). In this work, he used qualitative and
quantitative analysis of industrial sales teams to identify sales activities performed by
1,393 sales people within 51 industrial firms. This study became the seminal work for
much of the research related to salesperson job activities due to its rigorous approach to
sampling, surveying, and quantitative analysis. Moncrief’s (1986) study began with an
exhaustive list of sales activities identified by Walker, Churchill, and Ford (1979) and
Lamont and Lundstrum (1974) as well as an exhaustive literature review, 18 personal
interviews, and four focus groups (4-5 people each) with sales people representing food,
apparel, printing, computer, copier, measuring, instrument, communication, and a variety
of machinery-producing firms. From this approach, 121 activities were identified.
Buskirk and Buskirk (1992) covered a wide gamut of sales person activities such
as locating prospects, interviewing buyers, making sales presentations, working at trade
shows, obtaining orders, negotiating deals, providing technical assistance to customers,
educating customers, performing credit duties, delivering goods, managing a territory,
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doing repair work, marketing research, gathering information, fielding complaints, and
expediting orders.
Futrell (1993) begins to show the evolution of the sales profession by placing
more emphasis on customer service activities and delineating the need to provide
solutions to customer problems, while serving customers, helping customers use products
after the purchase, building goodwill with customers, and providing the selling
organization with market information. This focus became the impetus of many textbooks
on selling that followed Futrell—such as the work by Jones, Stevens et al. (2005).
Anderson (1992) reviewed the trends of the 1980s and 1990s and outlined many
forces that were beginning to change the way salesperson and sales managers understand,
prepare for, and accomplish their jobs. He identified several emergent activities required
by sales people to keep up with rising customer expectations, consumer avoidance of
negotiations, the expanding power of retailers, globalization of markets, and saturation of
domestic markets. These forces combined with technological forces (e.g., sales force
automation, virtualization of sales offices, e-commerce channels) and managerial forces
(e.g., direct-to-consumer marketing, sales outsourcing, and increased requirements for
sales person professionalism) to levy a new type of sales activity on business-to-business
sales people. These key activities were a direct reflection of the sales person needing
support a more diverse and demanding transaction experience with the buyer playing a
more important role. As a result, Anderson (1992) identified salesperson activities for the
new millennium as taking orders from customers, maintaining a list of prospects, making
customer calls, making prospect calls, analyzing market potential, demonstrating
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products, assisting in inventory taking, gather credit information, preparing sales
forecasts, collecting accounts receivable, maintaining prospect records, informing
customers of sales promotions, maintaining transaction records, taking customer
inventory, making minor repairs and adjustments to equipment, and making emergency
deliveries when necessary.
In analyzing team selling environments, Deeter-Schmelz and Ramsey (1995)
identified teaming activities such as coordinating team activities with the requirements of
functional departments within the organization, coordinating team activities with the
overall goals of the organization, maintaining current knowledge of customers, the
industry, and the environment, developing and maintaining a customer base and/or
customer relationships, and negotiating and selling products at a specified quality and
price level.
Anderson (1996) identified the need for sales people to attain success in the
changing sales environment by learning more about their customers, taking responsibility
for customer profitability, helping customers create long-run competitive advantages,
learning how to use their company resources to create added value, building good
relationships with their own headquarters support team, devoting more attention to
intelligence gathering, making the latest use of technology, increasing customer contact
and service while reducing costs, and developing longer-term profitable partnerships.
Anderson (1996) also identified the important tasks of managers as the need to develop
closer relationships with customers, treat sales people as their equals by partnering with
them, applying motivational skills, working with tele-marketers and other hybrid sales
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team members, keeping up-to-date on the latest technologies, learning marketing skills
and strategies, working closely with other internal departments focused on customer
satisfaction, seeking ways to exceed customer expectations and bring added value, create
a flexible, learning, and adaptable environment for all members of the sales team.
Whiting (1998) stated that business-to-business sales people are expected to
perform the activities of business communications, resolution of disputes, assessment of
customer needs, helping internal management understand customer needs, enforcing the
organization’s administrative processes, and selling new products or services to
customers. Festervand, Grove, & Reidenback (1988) identified a key activity of business-
to-business sales people as intelligence gathering, especially as it pertains to market and
competitive factors.
The latest attempt to delineate sales force activities was by Marshall et al. in
(1999). In this update of Moncrief’s (1986) study, the researchers used qualitative
analysis in the form of six focus groups of product as well as services sales teams across
multiple job classifications. The focus groups were held in different regions of the United
States and 40 companies were represented. The moderator of the focus groups utilized the
121 activities from the Moncrief (1986) study and soliciting feedback from the group
regarding the addition or deletion of activities relevant to the jobs they performed. Six of
the original 121 activities were not represented in this update. The six activities that did
not emerge during the course of this study were: test the product, supervise the
installation, order accessories, and look for new sales reps, train new sales people, and
travel with trainees. This was probably due to the homogenous makeup of the original
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1986 study where only manufacturing industrial sales people were surveyed. Forty-nine
new activities emerged that were not listed in the 1986 study. This represented a 40%
increase in sales person activity in the twenty years that spanned the two studies. These
49 new activities were grouped into five major categories using researcher judgment.
These five categories were: communication, sales, relationships, team-building/team
selling, and database management. This study yielded 164 activities performed by the
attendees of the focus group. While the original 121 activities were based on a mixed
method approach, this most recent study was qualitative.
Other Key Considerations
The sales person’s execution of his/her specialized function could exist within
many different organizations within one day, month, and year. In addition, all individuals
they work with will have varying demands and work in a wide array of organizational
cultures. This means that for many sales people, the confluence of organizations and
individuals exist within a constant state of tumultuous change. Maintaining effectiveness
within the range of human emotions, as well as the range of organizational change,
dynamics, and interactions is extremely difficult for sales people (Belasco, 1966). When
considering business-to-business sales person competency, two aspects require attention–
boundary spanning and sales person learning orientation.
Boundary-Spanning
A key consideration for sales person competency found in the literature is that of
boundary spanning. As defined by Mintzberg (1979), sales people and sales managers
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often occupy the space between two or more organizations. The very nature of corporate
growth requires a redefinition of the boundary of the organization. The challenge of
boundary spanning lies in the nature of communication (Russ, Galang, & Ferris, 1998).
Boundary communication typically exists between two open-systems and requires
an extended communication network (outside the buying and selling organizations) and
an internal communication network to effectively process information, make decisions,
and ultimately work together in a buyer-seller relationship. As a result, a boundary-
spanning individual is perceived as having more competence when they possess the
ability to process information from the surrounding environment within the boundary
between two organizations and apply the correct response to that information within the
context of a contingency approach (Weitz, 1981).
Therefore, effectively coping with induced stress is an essential element of
business-to-business sales person effectiveness. Effective coping of these stresses stems
from internal beliefs surrounding self-efficacy (Srivastava & Sager, 1999). Self-efficacy
refers to an individual’s belief in whether or not he or she is capable of performing a
specific behavior (Bandura, 1977). This is directly related to an individual’s perceived
mastery of a behavior. Over the course of a business-to-business sales person’s lifetime
or career, information and knowledge contribute to the sales person’s perception of self-
efficacy. This leads to the formulation of the sales person’s sense of competence
(Bandura, 1977). The execution of a business-to-business sales person’s job as a
boundary-spanner requires the person to manage key stakeholder relationships.
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Within these relationships, Harrison and St John (1996) distinguish between two
basic postures for managing stakeholders over the long term: buffering and bridging.
Buffering is a traditional management approach where the effect of the stakeholder group
must be contained or bounded by the actions of the firm. These management activities
include market research, public relations, and corporate branding. In contrast, bridging
involves the creation of a partnership or alliance designed to leverage the strength or
resources of the stakeholder group. This approach requires the recognition of common
goals and objectives, as well as the facilitation of trust and confidence so barriers can be
lowered. This partnering stance increases inter-dependence while acting in a manner to
support the common goals of all stakeholders involved. These two postures speak to the
very charge of business-to-business sales people in most organizations because sales
people must often consult with end users, negotiate with purchasing managers, make
executive recommendations, solicit feedback, offer information, and facilitate multiple
transactions. This is complex for the sales person because each organization in the buyer-
seller dyad has its own goals, objectives, and systems; therefore, each organization has its
own expectations, requirements, and processes. Boundary spanning roles require the
effective balance of the conflicting demands of their own organization, customer
organizations, the management team, and the buyer (Singh, 1998).
A well-implemented selling model will serve all of its stakeholders and balance
the ethical, moral, and economical aspects (Harrison & Freeman, 1999). Frooman (1999)
supports this tenet by stating, “stakeholder theory is about managing potential conflict
stemming from divergent interests” (p. 193). These divergent interests are found in the
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factors of the relationship between the stakeholders, especially between the stakeholders
of customer and seller. However, in light of recent advances in marketing theory coupled
with the increased sophistication of buyer demand, organizational lines are becoming
blurrier. Traditional stakeholder groups (e.g., customers and suppliers) are now being
included in product development planning, quality improvement initiatives, and other
once-confidential processes (Harrison & Freeman, 1999). With the traditional focus by
most companies upon internal administration and internal processes, a new paradigm has
created conflict and ambiguity for individuals at lower levels in the organization because
decision-making, empowerment, and self-directed teams are asked to accomplish more
decision-making tasks (Daft & Lewin, 1993).
In the case of the business-to-business sales person, every boundary within and
between business units serves to reduce the knowledge sent and received (Kahn et al.,
1964). The more isolated a unit is from the business-to-business sales person, the less
knowledge they will have regarding the situational and environmental aspects of selling.
This is an important consideration, since those sales teams that do a better job of
monitoring their environment to detect changes and then adapt to those inputs, will avoid
extinction and increase their potential to achieve market leadership.
Because of these organizational aspects, the type and extent of a business-to-
business sales person’s work vary widely across industries and among firms. For many
organizations, external forces (e.g., corporate growth, buyer demand, and competitive
pressures) are coupled with internal dynamics (e.g., change and need for learning) all lead
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to uncertainty and ambiguity for business-to-business sales team members (Anderson &
Oliver, 1987).
The implications of the formal corporate structure, while probably necessary to
maintain effectiveness, suggest that bonds between business-to-business sales people and
others may not be through formal structure alone. These bonds may be required in order
for the business-to-business sales person to effectively cope at the corporate boundary
and may take the form of network, social, or workflow bonds (Kahn et al., 1964).
Because of these bonds connecting business-to-business sales people to others, the
organization and creation of revenue generation activities becomes a complex network of
expectation and influence. Therefore, because sales people engage in boundary spanning
job functions, they are subject to multiple demands from multiple stakeholders (Pruden,
1969b). Understanding and predicting a business-to-business sales person’s behavior on
the job, mandates the complete understanding of that sales person’s job as well as whom
that sales person is connected to. Therefore, understanding the classification of jobs and
organizing these jobs in the most effective manner, has become an important
consideration for organizations attempting to keep up with the dramatic change in the
business landscape.
Learning Goal Orientation
Another key consideration for business-to-business sales person competence lies
in learning goal orientation. Anderson (1996) suggests that effective learning allows
boundary-spanners to adapt, survive, and succeed in these ambiguous situations. This is
corroborated by the conceptualization of adaptive selling behavior where an adaptive

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sales person may better manage ambiguity levels and exhibit a greater relationship
orientation--and therefore higher job satisfaction (Weitz, 1978). Additionally, business-
to-business sales people are often expected to learn how to solve problems with little
input from others and by working autonomously. Managers are therefore faced with the
need to improve the competencies of business-to-business sales people through the
creation of new knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) within a variety of learning
contexts (Artis & Harris, 2007). The acquisition of these KSAs help business-to-business
sales people pursue the goal of learning how to do their job better while demonstrating
their sales abilities to others at the same time.
Sales people are known as achievement oriented, goal oriented, and driven to
succeed (Barling, Kelloway, & Cheung, 1996; Hafer, 1983; Sujan, Weitz, & Kumar,
1994). There are primarily two types of goal orientation as it relates to an individual’s
competency–performance goals and learning goals. Individuals who endorse a learning
goal orientation strive to understand something new or increase their competence. They
are also driven in seeking to learn something new or gain mastery of a specific skill.
Individuals who possess a performance goal orientation strive to demonstrate their
competence via task performance or to avoid the negative consequences of their task
performance (Dweck, 1986). Adaptive motivational patterns are those that promote the
establishment, maintenance, and attainment of personally valued achievement goals.
Research has clearly linked adaptive behavior to resiliency and challenge seeking
(Dweck, 1986). Under this orientation, sales people would enjoy the process of learning
how to sell better. They would be attracted to challenging sales situations and not
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bothered by mistakes. They would value feeling like they are personally growing while
occupying their sales position (Sujan et al., 1994). Perhaps this is why recent studies by
VandeWalle and his colleagues suggest that learning orientation is more important in the
development of effective sales behavior than performance orientation (Brett &
VandeWalle, 1999; VandeWalle, Cron, & Slocum, 2001).
Summary
The literature review shows the research related to competency modeling and
understanding salesperson competency. While much research stream on competency have
been rigorous and applied to other professions such as learning and development,
research on the sales occupation has largely focused on understanding the frequency of
sales person tasks within an industrial setting. The literature review shows that a future-
oriented approach to forecasting competencies can help individuals create a holistic
model for learning and development as well as for understanding exemplary performers.
While this approach has been used within multiple industries (e.g., textiles,
manufacturing, and retail), most of the research has been on occupations outside of
professional selling (e.g., distance education, online learning, sports managers, and
educators). While many approaches exist for understanding individual competencies, the
pioneering work of McLagan (1980) serves as the foundation for many of the research
studies due to her initial focus on application and results. This approach to competency
modeling serves as the basis for industrial recruitment and selection, assessment,
individual professional development, curriculum design, competency-based pay,
coaching, mentoring, counseling, and succession planning. The literature review also
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shows that many experts predict that competency models will be used as a tool to help
organizations grow and overcome challenges of diversity, international cultures, and
talent management. While there are many approaches to defining competency models,
the American Society for Training and Development pioneered the approach (based on
McLagan’s work) of using a modified Delphi technique coupled with a quantitative
design with statistical validation methods. The next chapter presents a variation of this
approach to create an entry-level salesperson competency model for learning and
development purposes.
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CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY
The problem was to: (a) analyze the importance of competencies for entry level
business-to-business services sales people for the purpose of developing a competency
model for learning and development; (b) construct a valid and reliable instrument for
determining entry level sales person knowledge and skill within the services industry; and
(c) ascertain what relationships exist (if any) between sales managers, sales professors,
sales trainers, and sales people with regard to knowledge and skills, which are believed to
be important for success in entry-level business-to-business selling in the services
industry. For the purpose of this research, entry-level sales people were defined as having
less than one year of selling experience in the services industry.
The problem was divided into ten sub-problems:
1. Was there a high level of agreement in the rankings of the knowledge
competency statements within each of the four groups of respondents (sales
managers, sales professor, sales trainer, and sales people)?
2. Was there a high level of agreement in the rankings of the skill competency
statements by the four groups of respondents (sales managers, sales professor,
sales trainer, and sales people)?
3. Was there a difference in perception among sales managers, sales professors,
sales trainers, and sales people on the level of agreement and level of
importance ratings of competencies for entry level business-to-business
selling in the services industry?
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their importance rating of the 136 knowledge and skill competencies when the
respondents were divided into groups based on organizational setting?
respondents were divided into groups based on the number of years in the
profession?
6. Was a there an underlying structure to the data collected by the SCA as
identified by Exploratory Factor Analysis?
7. What were the knowledge and skill competencies most highly recommended
by sales managers, sales professors, sales trainers, and sales people for entry
level business-to-business selling in the services industry?
8. What levels of hierarchy were determined by sales managers, sales professors,
sales trainers, and sales people in the knowledge and skill competency
categories?
9. What level of importance do the four groups of respondents give to the ten
curriculum areas?
10. Was there a consensus among all respondents as to the application of a
competency model?
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Hypotheses
From these sub-problems, the following hypotheses are tested for significance:
Main Hypothesis: There is no significant difference in the competencies required
for entry level business-to-business sales people who sell services as perceived by sales
trainers, sales professors, sales managers, and sales people.
This main hypothesis was broken down into six sub-problem hypotheses, which
were specifically tested for statistical significance.
Agreement among Respondent Groups
Hypothesis 1: There is no agreement in the rankings of the knowledge
competency statements by the four groups of respondents (trainer, professor, manager,
and sales person) as measured by Kendall’s Coefficient of Concordance.
Hypothesis 2: There is no of agreement in the rankings of the skill competency
statements by the four groups of respondents (trainer, professor, manager, and sales
person) as measured by Kendall’s Coefficient of Concordance.
Hypothesis 3: There is no difference among sales managers, sales professors,
sales trainers, and sales people on the level of agreement and the level of importance
ratings of competencies for entry-level business-to-business selling in the services
industry as measured by a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), and if a significant F
ratio was found, the results of Tukey’s HSD post hoc test.
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Agreement by Organization and Experience
groups and their ratings of 136 knowledge and skill competencies when the respondents
were divided into groups based on organizational setting.
groups and their ratings of 136 knowledge and skill competencies when the respondents
were divided into groups based on the number of years in the profession.
Competency Model Creation
Hypothesis 6: There is no underlying structure to the SCA as determined by
Exploratory Factor Analysis.
Descriptive statistics were used to identify the most highly recommended
knowledge and skill competencies by sales managers, sales professors, sales trainers, and
sales people for entry level business-to-business selling in the services industry.
Descriptive statistics were also used to identify the levels of hierarchy as
determined by sales managers, sales professors, sales trainers, and sales people within the
knowledge and skill competency categories.
Descriptive statistics were also used to determine the level of importance the four
groups of respondents give to the ten curriculum areas.
Competency Model Application
Finally, descriptive statistics were also used to determine if consensus existed
among all respondents as to the application of a document containing the critical
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knowledge and skills of an entry level business-to-business sales person in the services
industry.
Determination of the Sample
The study used a national scale (United States) with a random sample drawn from
service organizations, a total population sample from academic institutions actively
teaching professional selling, a random sample from corporate sales trainers from the
American Society for Training and Development, and a random sample of members the
United Professional Sales Association.
Sales Managers
The universe for sales managers for this research included organizations within
the United States that were engaged in business-to-business selling of services. In order
to clearly define the universe, organizations identified as headquarters or single locations
with more than 250 people in them, corporate revenues above $10 million, and having a
primary Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) code between 70 and 89 will be used.
SIC Code 88 will be excluded from the sample because of the home-based business
classification. These SIC codes are 2-digit or 4-digit numerical codes assigned to
businesses by the U.S. Department of Labor to identify the primary or secondary
operation functions of the organization. To locate actual businesses that met these criteria
and provide frequency counts to the researcher, a business information company was
employed.
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The criteria used in the selection of this universe were justified because there was
evidence of a commitment to hire and organize sales people and there was evidence of a
substantial proactive revenue generation effort by the company. The universe therefore
contained organizations most likely to employ sales managers. Sales managers were
defined as individuals responsible for generating sales that meet corporate objectives
through the process of planning, staffing, training, directing, and controlling the efforts of
sales people (Futrell, 1988).
The SIC codes within the range of 70-89 were identified by the U.S. Department
of Labor as the best way to identify establishments primarily engaged in
…providing a wide variety of services for individuals, business and government
establishments, and other organizations. Hotels and other lodging places;
establishments providing personal, business, repair, and amusement services;
health, legal, engineering, and other professional services; educational
institutions; membership organizations, and other miscellaneous services.
("Standard Industrial Classification: Major Group 70-89: Services," 2001)
Home-based businesses (e.g., cottage industries) were identified as falling within
this range. The researcher decided that SIC Code 88 would be excluded because private
households were not likely to employ full-time sales professionals. After the SIC code
range was identified for the services universe, a count was run by the data information
company. This frequency count yielded a total universe of 6,275 companies from the
following SIC Codes:
SIC 70. Hotels, Rooming Houses, Camps, and Other Lodging Places
SIC 72. Personal Services
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SIC 73. Business Services
SIC 75. Automotive Repair, Services and Parking
SIC 76. Miscellaneous Repair Services
SIC 78. Motion Pictures
SIC 79. Amusement and Recreation Services
SIC 80. Health Services
SIC 81. Legal Services
SIC 82. Educational Services
SIC 83. Social Services
SIC 84. Museums, Art Galleries and Botanical and Zoological Gardens
SIC 86. Membership Organizations
SIC 87. Engineering, Accounting, Research, Management & Related Services
SIC 89. Services, Not Elsewhere Classified
For the purposes of this survey, 1,407 companies were selected for the sales
manager sample. It was determined that 398 sales manager surveys were required to
ensure a generalizable sample. Once the total universe was identified and the sample was
selected (per the sampling methodology), the service market data was purchased in the
form of a mailing list and labels from Dun & Bradstreet (D&B), a business information
company. D&B is a 165-year-old company with a business database of more than 14
million companies within the United States. This company was selected for its ability to
provide counts of confirmed business existence as well as valid mailing addresses.
Additionally, the database content is researched, verified, and updated on a monthly
basis. The D&B database includes information on locations, industries and demographics
for both publicly and privately held companies. To avoid duplicates in the database, D&B
utilizes a DUNS number as a unique identifier. Before list purchase, the entire data was
cleaned of duplicate business sites utilizing this unique identifier.
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Sales Professors
The importance of sales training and education is increasing at many major
universities and many universities are creating sales centers, sales degrees, and sales
certificate programs for their undergraduate students (Anderson, 1996). To determine the
universe of sales professors, a list of the schools providing sales education at the college
or university level was acquired.
To accomplish this, the University Sales Center Alliance (USCA) was identified
as a viable and appropriate sampling frame. The USCA is a consortium of sales centers
located at major universities throughout the United States. To gain membership to the
USCA, the college or universities must recognize the teaching of sales education as a
distinct entity. The program must also have an outside board of directors who advise on
content and strategy. In conjunction with these requirements, the school's sales program
must pass strict criteria for sales program certification by a non-profit association. There
are eleven schools meeting these criteria at the time of this research. From the Sales
Center Alliance Schools, 54 professors were identified.
Sales professors were also identified through organizations that cater to the
unique needs of sales professors. The National Conference and Sales Management
(NCSM) and the Selling and Sales Management American Marketing Association
Special Interest Group (AMA SIG) were identified as important to the sales professor
community (Hawes et al., 2004). These organizations encourage sales professors to
attend conferences and annual symposiums and present their published articles from
academic and practitioner journals as well as share best practices. Therefore, for the
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purposes of this study, attendees at the NCSM who presented their scholarly work in the
field of professional selling at one of the conferences within the last two years were
considered part of the sample frame. This yielded 27 professors who are not part of the
University Sales Center Alliance. Additionally, those professors with active membership
in the Selling and Sales Management AMA SIG were considered part of the sample
frame. However, since the active members of this group could not be acquired, the board
of directors of this organization was asked to participate. It was determined that this was
acceptable due to the high amount of overlap between NCSM attendees and AMA SIG
board members. The AMA SIG board of directors yielded a population of 15 sales
professors. Therefore, between the University Sales Center Alliance, AMA SIG, and
presenters at the NCSM, a total population of 96 sales professors was attained. Due to the
small population size, it was determined that the entire population was to be sampled.
Sales Trainers
Professional membership within a trade association or society has long been
considered a benchmark of professionalism (Carr-Saunders & Wilson, 1933; Donham,
1962). Within the sales profession, there are over 15 million sales people in the United
States (Gschwandtner, 2006). Because sales trainers are individuals involved in the
proactive development of salesperson skill in a corporate setting, the sample of sales
trainers was determined through the active membership of the American Society for
Training and Development. The American Society for Training and Development is the
world’s largest association dedicated to the workplace learning and performance
profession (ASTD Website, 2007). Sales Training practitioners are supported by ASTD
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because the organization provides resources and tools for sales coaches, sales consultants,
and sales trainers in the areas of sales talent management, sales leadership development,
designing sales training, delivering sales training, managing sales person knowledge, and
improving sales person performance.
The ASTD sales training list contained 557 sales trainers. For the purposes of this
research, it was determined that 180 responses were needed for the survey to be
generalizable to this population.
Sales People
Due to the large universe of sales people within the United States, a random
sampling technique of the entire universe was not feasible. However, several professional
associations represented the universe of sales people within the United States. Of the
associations contacted for support in this study, only the United Professional Sales
Association (UPSA) responded favorably. As a result, an active membership list of 2,456
was acquired at the time of the research. Since the lists of members from the association
did not contain the industry served, it was decided to solicit input from a random sample
and include a screening question on the questionnaire to ensure they were within the
services industry. For the purposes of this research, it was determined that 374 responses
were needed to be generalizable to this population.
Preliminary Competency Groupings
Through the review of the literature it was determined that existing taxonomies of
selling positions consisted of logical groupings of activities and these activities were
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ranked by order of their frequency and not their importance. Because a comprehensive
competency model was a desired output of this research, the relative importance of each
task was more appropriate for consideration by the respondents (as opposed to frequency
of tasks performed). Further, an analysis of the existing activity taxonomies also revealed
an overlap of activity requirements. For example, activities found in the Missionary
Seller activity cluster (Moncrief, 2006) were not exclusive to individuals only within that
cluster. By using frequency as the measure, all activities across all previously identified
taxonomies may actually be needed at some point during the sales process. Therefore
these empirically developed activity taxonomies served as a starting point for developing
the competency groupings used in this study because of the rigorous approaches utilized
in the identification process (Moncrief, 1986; Moncrief et al., 2006; Sumrall, 1992). Prior
empirically derived taxonomies did not fit the competency modeling development criteria
currently applied in the Human Resource Development literature (Rothwell & Lindholm,
1999).
Additionally, the goal was to identify competency groupings that were mutually
exclusive and all-encompassing so they could be used as curriculum areas for learning
and development purposes. The environmental scan provided additional insight into
emerging trends in sales person knowledge and skills that influenced the naming of the
competency groupings and eventually led to the naming of the curriculum areas for
consideration by the respondents.
During the literature review, it was determined that the competency groupings
identified by the United Professional Sales Association as Selling Ability Areas could
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also be incorporated due to the qualitative nature of their modeling approach whereas
input was received from thousands of sales people world-wide. These selling ability areas
“provided an explanation and insight into the everyday activities of creating
customer satisfaction and loyalty… and these abilities and the underpinning
knowledge therein are necessary to generate revenue” (UPSA, 2003, p. 93). The
researcher also conducted a one-day workshop with the standards committee of the
United Professional Sales Association (n=12) to establish consensus on the competency
groupings gleaned from the literature review as well as to determine if any competencies
might be missing. Competency groupings were considered useful for organizing the
competency statements because they are relevant to business-to-business services sales
people. The following nine competency groupings were identified by the meeting
attendees through a brainstorming and mind-mapping session using the currently existing
UPSA selling ability areas as a starting point. All meeting attendees agreed that the nine
competency groupings identified below were relevant to business-to-business services
sales people and they would adequately group the competency statements:
Opportunity Management Competencies: Competencies required for the
exemplary entry level business-to-business services sales person to identify, engage,
move, close, and protect sales opportunities.
Performance Management Competencies: Competencies required for the
exemplary entry level business-to-business services sales person to manage individual
outputs and results and proactively and continuously improve the sales process, document
progress against established goals, or calculate key metrics
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Technology Management Competencies: Competencies required for the
exemplary entry level business-to-business services sales person to effectively choose,
implement, and manage information technology and other technology related to the sales
process.
Learning Management Competencies: Competencies required for the exemplary
entry level business-to-business services sales person to learn about industry, product,
and selling skill while keeping abreast of changes in the market, the product or service, or
individual circumstances.
Relationship Management Competencies: Competencies required for the
exemplary entry level business-to-business services sales person to identify, build, and
sustain key business relationships.
Customer Management Competencies: Competencies required for the exemplary
entry level business-to-business services sales person to effectively span the gap between
the selling organization and buying organization(s) while developing mutually beneficial
selling and buying situations for both entities and managing the systems and processes
between the organizations as necessary.
Communication Management Competencies: Competencies required for the
exemplary entry level business-to-business services sales person to effectively listen,
speak, persuade, question, and write within appropriate business norms while
representing the interest of the selling company and exploring the wants and needs of the
buying company
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Personal Management Competencies: Competencies required for the exemplary
entry level business-to-business services sales person to set goals, implement plans, and
achieve aspirations while managing one’s self.
Character Traits: Traits required for the exemplary entry level business-to-
business services sales person to excel, such as personal motives, personality traits,
emotional intelligence, and beliefs that an exemplary entry level business-to-business
sales person should possess in order to attain exceptional performance. These traits are
considered personal attributes and therefore are not trainable (Spencer and Spencer,
1993).
Selection of the Expert Jury
Forty jury members, representative of the four subpopulations were selected to
review the competency checklist. A list of this jury can be found in Appendix A. Thirty-
four jury members were sales managers, sales people, and sales professors with expertise
in the business-to-business selling occupation within services (three sales professors,
seven trainers, 12 sales managers, and 13 sales people). Six additional subject matter
experts were also identified, including the Standards Chairman of the United Professional
Sales Association, the Director for Competency Modeling at the American Society for
Training and Development, the Publisher of Selling Power Magazine, a best-selling sales
book author, and a sales training specialist in the business of training business-to-
business sales people. This brought the total expert jury size to 40 individuals.
Each of the 40 individuals identified to serve on the expert jury was considered an
exemplary performer or a nationally prominent individual in competency modeling or

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business-to-business selling occupation. Each of these individuals also had at least ten
years of professional selling experience or ten years of competency modeling experience.
The inclusion of the Certification Institute Director at the American Society for Training
and Development provided important insight into the wording of the competency
statements.
Contact with the jurors was accomplished via telephone calls and email in order
to solicit participation. The significance of their participation, time requirement, and
feedback mechanism (online survey instrument with spaces for their comments) were
explained to them. The jury was then sent a checklist of competency statements
developed through research. The jury was instructed to rate the each competency
statement for an exemplary entry-level sales person with less than 1 year of selling
experience.
Ratings for the expert jury were collected on a 7-point Likert scale shown in
figure 4 below.
________________________________________________________________________
Knowledge of applicable state, local, and national laws.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Not Absolutely Extremely Somewhat Average Somewhat Extremely Absolutely

Applicable Unimportant Unimportant Unimportant Importance Important Important Critical
________________________________________________________________________
Figure 4. Example of the 7-Point Likert Scale Used with the Expert Jury.
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The expert jury was also asked to evaluate, make additions, group, delete or make
changes in wording that they deemed appropriate. It was also highly recommended that
all jury members scan the entire survey or curriculum area before beginning, so they
would have a better understanding of the entire breadth and depth of inquiry.
A criterion score of 5.0 was necessary for the competency to be included in the
pilot-test-survey questionnaire. The jurors were also asked to place themselves into the
future in order to focus them on a future-oriented approach to defining the importance of
business-to-business sales person competencies. Placing the jurors five years into the
future in the development of competencies has been shown to facilitate alignment of
personal and organizational goals (Dubois & Rothwell, 2000). In conjunction with the
future oriented frame, the jurors were also asked to envision an exemplary performer
while viewing and rating the competencies. An exemplar was defined as “someone who
is exceptionally talented and outstandingly competent” (Dubois & Rothwell, 2004, p. 33).
Additionally, the jurors were asked to base their ratings (and comments) on trends they
had identified personally, as well as by drawing from their vast professional experience.
The jurors were provided with the speculative model and a basic and preliminary set of
competencies that was generated from the environmental scanning process through
correspondence with the researcher. The panelists were made aware that the speculative
model was deliberately not comprehensive and their help and expertise were needed.
Selection of the Sample
A systematic and proportionate random sampling procedure as well as a
purposive sampling procedure was used to ensure the results were representative of the
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populations being tested. For the sales management population, the criteria for the
selection included SIC Code range 70-80, not including individual households (SIC
Code: 88), headquarters or single locations (no franchises), with 250 or more people total
in the company, and more than $10 million in annual revenues. Firms identified as
headquarters locations were defined as having distinct offices reporting to them while
firms identified as single locations did not. Therefore, both headquarters and single
location identifiers were used as part of the selection criteria. These criteria were selected
with input from consultants working for two independent mailing list providers. These
consultants helped the research to indentify the best way to capture the population of
services sales managers. Both consultants agreed that over 90% of the companies with
250 people or more and $10 million dollars in revenue would have a dedicated sales team
and have more than one professional level of sales person on staff full time within the
services market. Based on these selection criteria, counts were run within the D&B
database. A total of 6,275 unique locations fitting the sampling criteria were identified. It
was determined that based upon the size of this universe, 398 responses were needed to
ensure the results were generalizable to business service firms. These percentages were
supported by the tailored design method response rate averages for businesses where a
system of multiple contacts was leveraged (Dillman, 2007). To attain the desired
response rate for the sales manager stratum, and because the response rate of the pilot
study was 38%, 1,407 business sites were selected for mailing. This was attained by
picking every fourth record (after the participants in the pilot study were excluded).
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To select the sample of sales professors, the University Sales Center Alliance
(USCA) as well as attendance of the National Conference and Sales Management
(NCSM), or a leadership role in the Selling and Sales Management American Marketing
Association Special Interest Group (AMA SIG) was determined to be the entire
population of sales professors within the United States. It was therefore determined the
entire population of 96 professors should be included in the sample. It was further
determined that based upon the size of this universe, 25 responses are needed to ensure
the results were generalizable to sales professors. These percentages were supported by
the tailored design method response-rate averages where a system of multiple contacts
was leveraged (Dillman, 2007). To attain the desired response rate, and because the
response rate of the pilot study was 38%, the entire population of sale professors were
selected (however, participants in the pilot study were not included).
Next, the sample frame of sales trainers was identified. Individuals in this
occupation are involved in the proactive development of the selling skills of sales people
in a corporate setting (ASTD, 2001). The sample frame of sales trainers was determined
through membership in the American Society for Training and Development (ASTD).
This list contained 557 sales trainers. It was determined that based upon the size of this
universe, over 80 responses were needed to ensure the results are generalizable to sales
trainers. These percentages were supported by the tailored design method response rate
averages for businesses where a system of multiple contacts was leveraged (Dillman,
2007). To attain the desired response rate, and because the response rate of the pilot study
was 38%, 537 trainers (not including the 20 that participated in the pilot study) were
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selected for mailing. This was attained by selecting the remaining records from the list
and excluding participants in the pilot study.
The research design also called for a sample of sales people. Due to the large
universe of sales people, a random sampling technique of the entire universe was not
feasible. However, a purposive sampling technique with the several professional
associations that represent the universe of sales people within the United States was
feasible. Three associations were identified as supportive of professional sales people—
the National Association of Sales people (NASP), the United Professional Sales
Association (UPSA), and the Society of Sales and Marketing Executives International
(SMEI). Only the United Professional Sales Association responded favorably with a list
of 2,456 members. For the purposes of this research, it was determined that 470
responses were needed to ensure the sample was representative of this sample. In an
attempt to attain this many responses, the survey was mailed to 1,168 members.
Therefore, a total of 3,113 sales trainers, sales managers, sales people, and sales
professors were included in the final sample frame.
Determination of the Instrument
The self-administered survey method in the form of a multiple contact strategy
that utilized a mailed survey in conjunction with a website was selected for this study.
The self-administered survey was most appropriate due to the nationwide aspects of the
study and the similar approaches used in other competency analysis studies (Kirksey-
Augustin, 2001).
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There were many advantages of utilizing a self-administered survey approach,
especially in more geographically dispersed sample frames (Cooper & Schindler, 2003).
These advantages included a considerably less up-front cost to the researcher than
conducting personal interviews, an increased accessibility to key business contacts,
assurance of anonymity, and more standardized and quantifiable results. Disadvantages
of this type of research approach included the type and amount of information that could
be attained, ambiguities and misunderstandings of survey questions, the length of time to
complete the research, as well as the apathy toward completing the survey by respondents
(Robson, 2002). It was determined that the nature of competency research was more
suited to a mailed questionnaire survey than other forms of research design, especially
when the mailed questionnaire was accompanied with options to complete the survey
online or by fax. This was supported by the previous nation-wide competency modeling
efforts conducted by national associations specializing in such research via survey
methods with multiple collection strategies (Rothwell, Soper, & Sanders, 1999).
Development of the Research Instrument
Developing the questionnaire required a checklist of competencies that were
mutually exclusive and exhaustive, yet still manageable by respondents. An extensive
review of the literature conducted in conjunction with an environmental scan of trade
magazines and books, revealed a large number of competencies. These competency
statements were mentioned or identified as potentially relevant to entry-level business-to-
business sales people who sell services. The literature review included five text books in
professional selling and over 30 academic journal articles related to professional selling
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to identify taxonomies of sales person activity, role identification research, and existing
task identification research for inclusion into the preliminary model. Due to the nature of
the content gathered during the literature review, it was decided to include aspects of
personal marketing and advertising in order to determine what, if any, competencies
would remain within the final instrument. This decision was made because many
textbooks in professional selling included personal marketing activities (e.g., making a
brochure, creating a website). Additionally, many of the recent academic journals
included topics such as advertising and sales promotions. At the conclusion of the
literature review, there were 253 competency statements for consideration as being
relevant to entry-level business-to-business services sales people.
To help organize the large amount of competency statements, the nine
predetermined competency groupings were utilized. Content analysis of keywords during
the comprehensive literature review led to the placement of the 253 competency
statements within the appropriate competency grouping. The placement of the
competencies as well as the competency grouping names were further refined and
validated for content through a one-day United Professional Sales Association standards
committee workshop. The goal of this workshop was to gain further insight into the
nature and relevancy of the competency statements and the competency groupings before
presenting them to the content validation panel and expert jury during the instrument
creation phase of the research.
The United Professional Sales Association workshop attendees agreed that
organizing the competency statements for the content validation panel and expert jury
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would minimize respondent fatigue during the phases of instrument creation. During this
phase, many of the competency statements from the literature review were determined to
be marketing management competencies, line management competencies, or business-to-
consumer selling competencies. As a result, it was determined that these competencies
fell outside the selling occupation, or within purely managerial functions. Additionally
competencies applying exclusively to retail locations (e.g., ability to use a cash register)
or to industrial settings (e.g., effectively overseeing installation of equipment) were
removed from consideration. After the process was concluded, 67 competency statements
were dropped bringing the total to 186.
Once the list of 186 competency statements were refined and grouped, they were
analyzed for proper wording. The wording of the competency statements was a critical
step in the research because the statements were to be an observable behavior specifically
describing the main curriculum areas under consideration for hypothesis testing. The
researcher utilized works by Bloom and his colleagues (Bloom, 1956; Krathwohl, Bloom,
& Masia, 1973), and other sources to appropriately word the competency statements for
easy sorting into the final set of curriculum areas to be created at a later date.
Additionally, the Director of the American Society for Training and Development
Certification Institute was consulted for her expertise in wording competency statements.
The competency statements, organized into the nine logical groupings, were
forwarded to twelve content validation panelists (three from each population) for their
review and input. The list of competencies was accompanied by the list of dropped
competency statements in order to help validate the conclusions of the UPSA workshop.
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The 12 content validation experts who reviewed the list of dropped and retained
competency statements were not participants in the expert jury or the final survey. The
list of content validation experts can be found in Appendix A.
To facilitate data collection from the content validation panel a modified Delphi
technique (Linstone, 1975) was used. The modified Delphi technique was chosen for its
previous use in the collection of future-oriented data from expert panelists who are
geographically dispersed. This qualitative research methodology called for a multiple-
round process of open-ended input gathered from all 12 content validation panelists.
These interactions were accomplished through mailings, faxes, and an Internet website
located at www.b2bsalescompetency.info. All content panelists were instructed to use the
open-ended section of the data collection tool as a way to provide input, ask for
clarification, and make recommendations. All panelists were instructed to use their
position as thought leaders in their area of expertise to ensure that all competencies
required for the exemplary performance of an entry-level business-to-business services
sales person. As the modified Delphi technique dictates, the first round of questions
entailed plenty of room for open-ended comments, questions, and thoughts by the
panelists. The panelists were instructed that they could request adding, deleting,
rewording, reorganizing, or moving competencies. These open-ended comments, once
received, were compiled by the researcher and compiled in order to influence the second
Delphic round. During this process it was noted that seven of the 12 of the content
validation panelists believed the 186 competency statements dispersed across the nine
groupings was too long for most respondents. For example, during this round, several
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content validation panelists added comments that their ability to respond was hampered
as they experienced respondent fatigue. As a result, slight modifications to the instrument
were accomplished before the second round instrument was sent out.
During the second round, the panelists were again instructed that they could
request any changes they felt necessary. Several panelists commented that many of the
activities, when analyzed in regards to importance, appeared to focus on the same
construct. As a result of these inputs many of the competency statements were combined
from the second Delphic round. For example, three competency statements regarding the
use of portable communication devices were combined into one statement that covered
the importance of using cell phones, pagers, and voice recorders to increase selling
effectiveness. Additionally, many of the competency statements were dropped because
the panelists believed the statements were not indicative of sales person activity within
the services market (e.g., understands point of purchase activities, supervise installation,
check customer inventory, use a Dictaphone, recruit new reps, etc.).
In the demographic section of the survey, during both the first and second Delphic
rounds, the content validation panelists commented that the SIC code breakdown was too
broad and more delineation was necessary to ensure respondents properly categorized
themselves into the correct industry. It was therefore decided to break the services
industry into many categories of services (4-digit SIC), and leave the macro-level 2-digit
SIC code breakdown for other industries alone (e.g., manufacturing, mining, etc). This
created an additional 10 possible choices for selection into services industries.
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In the second Delphic round, some of the content validation panelists experienced
confusion regarding the future orientation of the model as well as the definition of entry-
level sales people. As a result, much clearer language was developed regarding the
intention of using a future-oriented model during the Delphi process (defined as
necessary to leverage their subject matter expertise regarding market trends and sales
profession trends) as well as the definition of entry-level (changed from less than five
years to less than one year in the profession).
Likewise, in both Delphic rounds, many panelists made recommendations to
modify the nine previously defined competency groupings. These modifications were
determined appropriate in order to reduce the total number of competencies in each
grouping (e.g., character and personal competency groupings were expanded upon and
then eliminated due to the inclusion of personality attributes). Additionally, two
groupings titles were created named risk management and administrative. The content
panel experts also agreed to take the word management out of many of the competency
grouping titles in order to alleviate some confusion due to the differences between sub-
populations and their knowledge of competency modeling terminology. Because
competency statements could be comprised of knowledge as well as skills, the word
management was seen as unnecessarily confusing by the content panel.
With the help of the content validation panel through the Delphi technique, 11
competency groupings were subsequently refined for use.
Sales Process Competencies: Competencies required in order for exemplary
entry-level sales people to identify, engage, move, close, and protect sales opportunities.
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Performance Competencies: Competencies required in order for exemplary
entry-level sales people to manage individual outputs and results to proactively and
continuously improve the sales processes.
Technology Competencies: Competencies required in order for exemplary entry-
level sales people to effectively choose, implement, and manage information technology
and other technology related to the sales process, product or industry.
Learning Competencies: Competencies required in order for exemplary entry-
level sales people learning about relevant industry knowledge, product knowledge, and
selling skills while keeping abreast of changes or trends in the market or the customer
relationship.
Relationship Competencies: Competencies required in order for exemplary entry-
level sales people to identify, build, and sustain key business relationships both internally
and externally.
Risk Management Competencies: Competencies required in order for exemplary
entry-level sales people to effectively manage the gap between the selling organization
and buying organization(s) while minimizing negative impacts for both entities
Influencing Competencies: Competencies required in order for exemplary entry-
level sales people to effectively listen, speak, persuade, question, and write within
appropriate business norms while representing the interest of the selling company and
exploring the wants and needs of the buying company.
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Leadership Competencies: Competencies required in order for exemplary entry-
level sales people to achieve aspirations, manage his or self, maintain an appropriate
attitude, maintain a positive attitude, and lead others.
Customer Competencies: Competencies required in order for exemplary entry-
level sales people to synchronize to customer buying processes, systems, and
requirements while helping the selling organization deliver on the promise of the business
relationship.
Product and Industry Competencies: Competencies required in order for
exemplary entry-level sales people to build credibility and trust within the buying/selling
relationship and leverage product knowledge and industry knowledge for the good of the
selling situation, decision, or task.
Administrative Competencies: Competencies required in order for exemplary
entry-level sales people to maintain corporate systems while adhering to corporate
policies and procedures reporting and tracking needs and conducting other non-selling
activities in support of sales goals.
These 11 groupings were given a new title of curriculum area by the content
validation panel. Therefore, the curriculum areas were identified as: Sales Process
Curriculum Area, Performance Curriculum Area, Technology Curriculum Area, Learning
Curriculum Area, Relationship Curriculum Area, Risk Management Curriculum Area,
Influencing Curriculum Area, Leadership Curriculum Area, Customer Curriculum Area,
Product and Industry Curriculum Area, and the Administrative Curriculum Area.
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Once the curriculum areas were defined, it was decided to send the definitions and
naming conventions back to the participants of the one-day United Professional Sales
Association Workshop in order to (a) update them on the progress of the project and (b)
ask for their input into the new naming conventions of the curriculum areas. All original
UPSA workshop attendees (n=12) unanimously agreed that the new curriculum area titles
were representative of business-to-business services sales people in the first year of the
services industry.
For the third and final Delphic round, very few comments were received. Since
most respondents agreed and very little comment was given received during the third
round, the goal of gaining consensus across the content validation panel was attained. As
a result, the Delphi method dictated that no more rounds were necessary. The output and
conclusion of the Delphi process was useful in aggregating the inputs from the content
validation panelists and yielding 11 curriculum areas and a final consolidated list of 176
competency statements (a reduction/consolidation of 10 competency statements). It was
also determined that the resulting set of statements were applicable to services sales
people with less than one year of professional selling experience. Additionally the
curriculum areas were determined to have content validity. The surveys used in the three
rounds of the Delphi technique can be found in Appendix B.
Expert Jury
The questionnaires with the incorporated changes and the list of 176 competency
statements were then sent to the expert jury (n=40) in a scrambled list by knowledge and
skill in order to discourage systematic rating. A list of expert jurors can be found in
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Appendix A. However, the statements were first coded with a unique identifier for
knowledge, skill, and curriculum area by the researcher in order to identify any
relationships in later data analyses.
The correspondence sent to the expert jury consisted of an email as well as a
personal letter mailed from the researcher. The correspondence asked the juror to fill out
the questionnaire response and send it back to the researcher through the method of his or
her choosing. The respondents were given a choice to mail or fax their responses back to
the researcher per the information provided in the survey directions. Additionally, the
respondents were given the opportunity to reply via an online survey tool designed to
adequately and securely collect expert jury inputs. This survey was also designed to limit
access to only to expert jury members via a special hyperlink and individualized
passwords. Each individualized password was given to jury members through the
personal letter and email requests soliciting their participation. Interestingly, all
respondents preferred to submit their responses via the custom-designed web survey.
The jury was asked to suggest changes in wording or curriculum area for
inclusion in the final survey instrument. They were also reminded that they should help
keep the model compact and relevant to entry-level business-to-business services sales
people with less than one year of selling experience in the services industry.
General guidance for feedback was also given to the jury. They were advised that
they could:
1. indicate improperly stated or inadequately grouped competencies,
2. indicate if certain competencies should be collapsed into one
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3. suggest any other skills or knowledge they felt should be included that were
missed,
4. indicate if any of the competencies should be eliminated (with a two sentence
explanation),
5. comment on the names of the curriculum areas,
6. and provide input into the results and outputs of an entry-level sales person
entering into their job in the year 2013.
Therefore, both the mailed questionnaire and the online survey provided adequate
space for jury input on a page-by-page basis. Additionally, a separate questionnaire
critique form was included in the mailing, and coded in the online survey for expert jury
members to provide general feedback on the wording of directions, flow of the survey,
and recommendations for increasing response rates.
After receiving the completed competency checklist from the jury via the online
survey tool, the checklist was analyzed and inputs were summarized. This included
revising the instructions, re-formatting the survey, proof-reading the final competency
statements, and revising the format on the Internet webpage. The expert jury identified 31
competency statements that could either be dropped or further combined. The primary
reasons the jury recommended statements be dropped were largely due to the inclusion of
attributes (e.g., personality traits and underlying motives) in the survey. While many jury
members believed attributes were crucial to a sales person’s success, many stated that
these underlying characteristics cannot be taught. Some panelists stated that personally
traits, though important for sales person success, may not be applicable to creation of a
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competency model. This is because (a) competency modeling specifically focuses on the
abilities sales people need to successfully perform assigned roles (Attia, Honeycutt Jr., &
Leach, 2005) and (b) the competency model under development was for learning and
development purposes. Based on this input, it was determined that dropping personal
attributes would allow respondents to focus on knowledge and skills that can be taught in
a learning environment. For the purposes of this study, attributes were therefore not
included due to the widely varying opinion of scholars regarding the ability to learn, and
therefore teach, attributes (Spencer & Spencer, 1993). Most of the competencies within
the leadership curriculum area were affected by dropping the use attributes in the final
survey. As a result, any remaining competencies were re-allocated to other curriculum
areas and the leadership curriculum area was removed. An added benefit of dropping the
attribute statements was the shortened length of the survey.
The primary reasons the expert jury recommended the combination of several
competency statements were twofold. First, the majority of the jury felt the statements
still included some marketing and advertising competencies that many sales people do
not accomplish (e.g., mailing letters, creating brochures, setting up an advertisements,
creating online web pages, etc). Secondly, the jury believed that many of the statements
were redundant and could be further collapsed. For example, the jury suggested that the
competency statements of “use cell phone”, “use video conference equipment”, “use a
fax”, and “use a telephone” all be combined under one communications competency
statement. Another example was the combination of “playing golf”, “throwing parties for
clients”, and “taking clients to dinner” be combined under a more generic competency
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such as “entertaining clients.” Therefore, after the expert jury responded to the instrument
and offered comments that included recommendations for consolidating statements and
clarifying instructions. The resulting list produced 145 competencies in 10 curriculum
areas.
Ethical Considerations
The researcher followed rigorous Institutional Review Board (IRB) protocols for
the ethical treatment and protection of human subjects used during the course of survey
research. The IRB process helped ensure that potential participants had received
information about the research study in a manner that they could understand while
allowing them to choose whether or not they wished to participate. The data collection
methods were designed to ensure that the researcher did not violate the participants'
privacy without their consent. The respondents were made aware of the research
methodology by reading documentation that explained the steps taken by the researcher
to protect the respondent’s right to privacy. Additionally, respondents were able to view
letters of permission received by their sponsoring organization if appropriate. These
letters of permission were received from the United Professional Sales Association
(UPSA) as well as the American Society for Training and Development (ASTD).
By following the Institutional Review Board process, the researcher obtained the
legally effective informed consent of each participant. The circumstances of the consent
process provided the prospective participant sufficient opportunity to consider whether to
participate or not. The circumstances of the consent process minimized the possibility of
coercion or undue influence by the researcher. The researcher communicated

102
information to the participants during the consent process by providing information in a
language understandable to the participant or the representative (English). The
information communicated to the participant during the consent process did not include
exculpatory language through which the participant was made to waive or appear to
waive any of the participant’s legal rights. No minor was allowed to take the survey and
all respondents agreed they were over 18 years of age. The researcher had no
relationships with the participants or others that may represent potential conflicts of
interest or might give the appearance of a conflict of interest.
Confidentiality
Confidentiality and privacy of the respondents were also protected with the use of
anonymous responses. Additionally, the email address voluntarily collected by the
researcher was protected by securing hard copies of the survey responses in a secure
location as well as deletion of files. There was no personal information or coding shared,
other than an email address. Email addresses were not used for any other purposes than
for selecting the winners of the incentive (Ipod™ Touch). Participation in the survey did
not require submitting an email address. The email addresses will never be sold or rented
to others. Additionally, the data submitted by individuals were not tied to their survey
responses. Expert jurors agreed to have their names published in the final manuscript as
part of the expert jury process.
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Secure Storage of Data
After the data was collected, the responses printed into hard copies, and the
incentive (IPOD™ touch) was given away, all email addresses and survey responses were
stored. Because the minimum standard for data retention was seven years from the time
of publication, the information was printed out and stored in a data safe of which only the
researcher had access. Additionally, immediately after publication, all electronic versions
of the data were deleted and the hard drives were formatted and defragmented. A disk
sanitizing software program was also used to ensure that sensitive data had been
completely removed from the researcher’s computer. Therefore, only printed hard copies
of the data will exist for the seven year period from the date of publication. After the
seven year period, all hard copies will be shredded with a cross-cut shredder.
Pilot Test of the Instrument
The next step involved the development of the instrument for the pilot test. The
title given to the questionnaire was the Salesperson Competency Analysis, hereafter
referred to as the SCA. To facilitate data collection, a comprehensive set of instructions
was inserted and the questionnaire was separated into two sections: Section I consists of
demographic and background data, and section II contained the competency analysis with
curriculum areas and competency statements. Section I of the questionnaire was designed
to establish a profile of the respondent and the setting in which they worked while
gathering their input as to the perceived use of any competency modeling tools, as well as
other descriptive questions. Section II was the complete listing of the 145 competency
statements randomly presented to discourage systematic rating.

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The competency statements were uniquely coded as knowledge or skill by the
researcher and then randomly presented to discourage systematic rating. The directions
included with the SCA instructed respondents to rate the competencies on a 5-point
Likert-type scale as follows:
1. Unnecessary
2. Slightly Important
3. Moderately Important
4. Very Important
5. Essential
An example of the structure of this section is indicated in figure 5 below to
demonstrate the format the format of the final pilot study scale sent to selected
participants. The same scale was then also used on the final SCA instrument which can
be found in Appendix D.
_______________________________________________________________________
Knowledge of applicable state, local, and national laws.
1 2 3 4 5
Unnecessary Slightly Moderately Very Essential

Important Important Important
_______________________________________________________________________
Figure 5. Example 5-Point Likert Scale Used on Pilot Study and SCA Instrument.
Assuming a response rate of 30 percent and assuming that 10 percent of those
responses would be invalid, a total of 920 subjects were required in order to obtain at
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least 265 valid and usable responses for the pilot test. To attain this number, the SCA was
pilot tested by a random sampling of 500 sales managers from services businesses, and a
random sample of ten sales professors and 110 sales trainers from the acquired lists.
Additionally, a random sample of 300 sales people was accomplished with the selection
of the United Professional Sales Association membership roster attained for the pilot test
by the researcher by selecting every 8th record. The UPSA membership list was also
selected by geography (United States) and title (not a sales manager). The pilot study
therefore contained 920 people randomly or purposively selected who were then removed
from the final mailing list.
The purpose of the pilot study was to test the adequacy of the instrument,
establish further content validity, and review the analysis of the questions. Pilot
respondents were contacted via the tailored design method (Dillman, 1994) utilizing a
pre-survey letter, followed by the instrument containing a small incentive, followed by a
post card reminder, and finally followed by a final letter thanking them for the time and
giving them a final cut-off date with which to reply. The entire survey with directions
was sent and respondents were given a choice of replying via mail, fax, or replying online
at the research website located at http://www.b2bsalescompetency.info. This online
survey is also controlled by password access of which the online respondents were
required to enter a special access code provided by the researcher in order to gain access
if this is their reply method of choice.
In addition to the standard mailing series and content, the pilot test recipients were
sent an additional questionnaire soliciting their feedback on the clarity of instruction,
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time of completion, readability, and other information. Likewise, the online survey
website provide adequate comment boxes as well as the same series of feedback oriented
questions marked as a required entry to ensure some sort of feedback is provided.
Of the total 920 questionnaires sent, 350 pilot study responses were obtained, with
321 of them acquired through the research website. This represented a response rate of 38
percent. The response rate from the pilot study was used to project the rate of response
for the final study. Of the 350 responses, it was discovered that 265 responses were valid
and usable. On the average, the questionnaire took about 35 minutes to complete and,
according to the respondents, most of the competency statements were clear. A total of 27
feedback forms were received. Each contained minor suggestions for change. It was
decided that the final instrument incorporate all relevant suggestions. These changes
included (a) rewording of a few competency statements, (b) increasing the readability of
the directions, and (c) clarifying the industries breakouts.
Each sub-population was separated and Cronbach’s Alpha reliability analysis was
used to determine the internal consistency of the instrument. No competency statements
were eliminated due to low item-total correlation coefficients (α < .70).
The pilot study also helped identify any competency statements determined as not
applicable for exemplary performance by two or more respondents. It was determined
that the pilot study respondents across all sub groups believed most of the competency
statements to be important. However, after analyzing the pilot survey responses, it was
noted that the scores of several competency statements were calculated to be below the
mean. Because a mean of 3.0 or higher was needed for the competency statement to
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remain within the final survey, a total of nine statements were dropped. The total number
of competencies identified as average or above average on the scale was 136.
The competencies dropped from the final survey instrument were:
1. Collects on past-due accounts
2. Conducts politicking activities inside the company
3. Practices and develops skills in a second language
4. Spends night on the road in order to visit new clients, prospects or
customers
5. Uses a fax machine when appropriate to send documentation
6. Identifies the most appropriate overnight delivery service
7. Organizes and operates seminar or exhibition booth
8. Relates to others during special events by sending greeting cards
After the eight statements were removed, the internal consistency reliability
coefficient of the instrument was calculated as 0.97 for sales trainers, 0.79 for sales
professors, 0.96 for sales managers, and 0.97 for sales people. Therefore, it was
determined that the 136 competency statements on the instrument were reliable. It was
concluded that the SCA pilot instrument was internally consistent and reliable.
It was also noted that the website also contained additional information on the
study with contact information of the researcher. This prompted several respondents to
call and verify the intent of the study as well as ensure they could receive a final copy of
any research once fully accomplished. Additionally, the inputs received regarding the
directions, competency wording, and re-wording of double-barreled questions aided the
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researcher in making final adjustments. The final SCA was ready for administration to
the entire sample frame. The final SCA contained competency statements uniquely coded
as knowledge or skill by the researcher and were randomly presented to discourage
systematic rating.
Administration of the Research Instrument
Due to the high frequency of the sub-populations, it was important to achieve as
high a response rate as possible in order to minimize costs. Following the advice of
Dillman (2007), two fundamental assumptions were made in regards to attaining high
response rates in a business setting: (a) responding to a self-administered questionnaire
involves cognition as well as motivation and (b) multiple attempts are essential to
achieving satisfactory response rates regardless if the survey is delivered by mail, e-mail,
or the Internet. Dillman originally developed a general method of survey process, known
as the Total Design, which is known to achieve high response rates within business
settings (Dillman, 1978). Since that time, Dillman has expanded this procedural
methodology for attaining high response rates and re-named it The Tailored Design. The
Tailored Design process creates respondent trust and builds a perception of increased
rewards and reduced costs for the participant. The process consists of five elements
including: a respondent-friendly questionnaire, up to five contacts with the questionnaire
recipient, inclusion of stamped return envelopes, personalized correspondence, and a
token incentive that is sent with the survey request. Each contact must be different than
the previous one in order to be effective; and timing is also an important aspect.
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In the Total Design Method, the first contact is a brief pre-notice letter that is sent
to respondents a few days prior to the questionnaire. This letter tells the recipient that a
questionnaire for an important survey will arrive in a few days and that the recipient’s
response would be greatly appreciated. The second contact is a questionnaire mailing that
includes a detailed cover letter explaining why the response is important as well as a
token incentive. The third contact is a thank you postcard that is sent a few days to a
week after the questionnaire. The fourth contact includes a replacement questionnaire and
is sent to non-respondents two to four weeks after the previous questionnaire mailing.
And the fifth and final contact is made a week or so after the fourth contact, and it may be
made by telephone (if phone numbers are available) or by priority U.S. mail or special
delivery. By following this robust approach, the Tailored Design process seeks to reduce
survey errors from coverage, sampling, measurement, and non-response. Average
response rates following this approach have been around 74% in a wide-array of settings
(Dillman, 2007).
For the sales person population, the Tailored Design method began with a total of
1,168 sales people selected from the population of 2,156 United Professional Sales
Association members. A postcard was mailed to 1,168 contacts drawn in the sample.
Three days later, a total number of 1,168 letters were mailed on American Society for
Training and Development letterhead stating that an important survey would arrive
within one week and explaining the nature and intent of the research.
For the sales trainer population, the Tailored Design method began with a total of
447 sales trainers selected from the population of 447 American Society for Training and
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Development members. A postcard was mailed to 447 contacts drawn in the sample.
Three days later, a total number of 1,168 letters were mailed on American Society for
Training and Development letterhead stating that an important survey would arrive
within one week and explaining the nature and intent of the research.
For the sales professor population, the Tailored Design method began with a total
of 91 sales trainers selected from the population of 91 professors identified. An email was
sent to the 91 contacts drawn in the sample. Three days later, a total number of 91 emails
were e-mailed on American Society for Training and Development letterhead stating that
an important survey would arrive within one week and explaining the nature and intent of
the research.
For the sales manager population, the Tailored Design method began with a total
of 1,407 companies randomly selected from the population of 6,275 companies. Prior to
first mailing, the list of 1,407 companies were appended with contact names of the Sales
Manager or Vice President of Sales wherever possible by the list management company
D&B. The contact name was appended in an attempt to personalize the correspondence
throughout the process. If the name was not attained, a generic letter was sent to the CEO
asking him or her to appoint someone in the sales department to help with the research.
Once the contact names were acquired, a postcard was mailed to 1,407 contacts that were
responsible for the populations drawn in the sample. Three days later, a total number of
1,407 letters were mailed on American Society for Training and Development letterhead
stating that an important survey would arrive within one week and explaining the nature
and intent of the research.
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For all samples except the sales professor sample, the packet containing a small
incentive (a ribbon with “sales competency expert” on it, as well as a flyer explaining
they would have the chance to win an IPod Touch™ portable music player), a
questionnaire, access information for the website (if they desired this response method),
and instructions for filling out the questionnaire was sent to the contacts exactly one week
after the pre-letter arrived. A follow up post-card was sent 12 days after the questionnaire
mailing date to the individuals who had not responded to the questionnaire. A
replacement questionnaire was sent to non-respondents 15 days after the previous
questionnaire mailing to the individuals who had not responded. And the fifth and final
contact was made one week after the fourth contact via a final postcard to individuals
who had not responded. To manage the process, a mailing house was used to ensure the
delivery dates could be met and names could be removed from non-deliverable mailings.
For the sales professor sample, email reminders were sent in all instances, and no
incentives were offered.
Variables for the Study
The variables for the study included knowledge and skill competencies.
Knowledge competencies were comprised of competencies derived from the
Delphi rounds which were validated and refined by the pilot test, resulting in 31
competencies. In the expert round survey, respondents rated the extent of their
recommendation for each competency statement on the 7-point Likert scale. In the pilot
study round, the respondents rated the level of recommendation for each competency
statement on a 5-point Likert scale. Knowledge was treated as a continuous variable.

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Individual agreement scores in the expert panel were averaged. Likewise, individual
agreement scores for the pilot study were averaged. The list of knowledge competencies
can be found in Appendix E.
Validity of the knowledge competencies were established by a data analysis. All
competencies attaining a mean higher than a 3.0 during the pilot survey round were kept
in the final SCA. Reliability for the knowledge statements was calculated using the
Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the data collected during the pilot study. For the Sales
Manager sample, a coefficient of .95 was calculated on the knowledge items, indicating
an acceptable level or reliability for the scale. For the Sales Professor sample, a
coefficient of .82 was calculated on the knowledge items, indicating an acceptable level
or reliability for the scale. For the Sales Trainer sample, a coefficient of .96 was
calculated on the knowledge items, indicating an acceptable level or reliability for the
scale. For the Sales Person sample, a coefficient of .97 was calculated on the knowledge
items, indicating an acceptable level or reliability for the scale for use within the final
SCA. Based on the reliability, it was concluded that the knowledge competencies were
reliable and valid as necessary for entry-level business-to-business services selling
positions.
Skill competencies were comprised of competencies derived from the Delphi
rounds which were validated and refined by the pilot test, resulting in 105 skill
competencies. In the expert round survey, respondents rated the extent of their
recommendation for each competency statement on the 7-point Likert scale. In the pilot
study round, the respondents rated the level of recommendation for each competency
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statement on a 5-point Likert scale. Skill was treated as a continuous variable. Individual
agreement scores in the expert panel were averaged. Likewise, individual agreement
scores for the pilot study were averaged. The list of skill competencies used can be found
in Appendix E.
Validity of the skill competencies were established by a data analysis. All
competencies attaining a mean higher than a 3.0 during the pilot survey round were kept
in the final SCA. Reliability for the skill statements was calculated using the Cronbach’s
alpha coefficient for the data collected during the pilot study. For the Sales Manager
sample, a coefficient of 0.95 was calculated on the skill items, indicating an acceptable
level or reliability for the scale. For the Sales Professor sample, a coefficient of .95 was
calculated on the skill items, indicating an acceptable level or reliability for the scale. For
the Sales Trainer sample, a coefficient of 0.95 was calculated on the skill items,
indicating an acceptable level or reliability for the scale. For the Sales Person sample, a
coefficient of 0.92 was calculated on the skill items, indicating an acceptable level or
reliability for the scale for use in the final SCA. Based on the reliability, it was concluded
that the skill competencies were reliable and valid as necessary for entry-level business-
to-business services selling positions and were suitable for use in the final SCA.
Analysis of the Data
The goals of this research were to (a) analyze the importance of competencies for
entry-level business-to-business services sales people for the purpose of developing a
competency model for learning and development purposes, (b) construct a valid and
reliable instrument for determining entry-level sales person knowledge and skill within
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the services industry and (c) ascertain what relationships exist (if any) between sales
skills which are believed to be important for success in entry-level business-to-business
Before analysis could begin, incomplete or unusable surveys were removed from
the data set. The final SCA yielded 931 returned responses for a response rate of 29.9%.
Of these, it was found that 449 were complete, usable, and valid. There were 186
incomplete survey responses. Of those surveys that were complete, survey responses
from respondents who lived outside the United States were not included in the final
survey analysis (n=72). Additionally, survey responses from respondents indicating they
were unemployed were also not included (n=21). An additional 134 responses were not
included in the final data set because the respondents indicated they sold to consumer
markets in question 3 of the survey. A total of 36 survey responses from respondents who
chose none of the above or don’t know were also not included. These 36 individuals
answered none of the above or don’t know to the following four demographic questions:
1. Q2: What is your full time role? (n=17)
2. Q3: What market do you primarily sell to? (n=7)
3. Q4: How many years have you been in your profession? (n=3)
4. Q7: What does your organization primarily sell? (n=9)
The valid and usable data collected from the 449 valid and usable responses was
needed to obtain a ranking the relative importance of the 136 statements of competencies
needed by business-to-business services sales people. To conduct the analysis, both
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quantitative and qualitative procedures were utilized. The Statistical Package for the
Social Sciences (SPSS©) was used to perform all statistical analyses and determine
reliability levels. For all statistical tests, the .05 level was used to determine significance.
The data on the questionnaire was coded according to a consistent code to
facilitate standardization of output. The coding reflected each curriculum area grouping
as well as delineation as a knowledge competency or skill competency. As the mail or fax
questionnaires were received, the data was transferred to a Microsoft Excel© spreadsheet
for importing into SPSS. After the entire questionnaire data set was received via mail, fax
or Internet, several analyses were employed using SPSS.
Before analysis could begin, the demographic information was analyzed using
descriptive statistics to analyze the demographic and background information. These
analyses included cross-tabulations using frequencies, mean scores, and percentages
depicted in tabular form.
1 2 3 4 5
Unnecessary Slightly Moderately Very Essential

Figure 6. The Ordinal Scale Used to Rate Each Competency Statement.
To facilitate analysis of significant differences between competency statements, the mean
scores of each competency was interpreted by assigning numbers to each the ordinal
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scale developed using a 5-point Likert scale based on importance as shown in figure 6
above.
Contingency tables were determined as follows to support the analysis of the data:
1. Cross tabulation of general information, demographics, and potential
competency model use.
2. Tables showing ranking of mean scores for knowledge and skill
competencies.
3. Tables showing mean scores of competency statements by each curriculum
area.
First, the degree to which each type of respondent agreed with other respondents
across the four respondent groups regarding knowledge competencies and skill
competencies was required. Kendall’s coefficient of concordance (W) was used as an
over-all measure of agreement across the four groups of respondents.
Second, the level of agreement and level of importance of competency ratings
across the four samples was required. The one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was
used. Based on the results of the one-way analysis of variance, a multiple comparison of
analysis was conducted to assess the existence of significant differences between subject
categories. If a significant F ratio was found, a post hoc comparison, Tukey’s HSD test,
was applied to determine where significant differences existed. The Tukey’s HSD post
hoc test was applied because it does not assume population variances are equal or that
sample sizes are equal.
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Third, the level of differences between groups in relation to organizational setting
and experience (professional tenure) was determined. The primary test was the Mann-
Whitney U-test. The test is based on the premise that if scores of two similar groups are
ranked together, there will be considerable intermingling of rankings for the two groups.
If the groups are different, most of the superior group’s rankings will be higher than those
of the inferior group. The value of U is computed by concentrating on the lower ranked
group and counting the number of rankings of the higher group that fall below the lower
ranked group to determine if a significant difference exists. The Mann-Whitney U-test is
equivalent to the Wilcoxon 2-sample or the Kruskal-Wallis k-sample tests, and is a
suitable non-parametric equivalent to the t-test (Freedman, D., Pisani R., Purves, R.
2007).
By performing the Mann-Whitney U-test, relationships between the respondent’s
organizational setting and his or her rating of the knowledge and skill competencies were
analyzed. This analysis identified if significant differences existed in how respondents
from privately held organizations or publicly traded organizations rated the
competencies. This analysis also identified if significant differences existed in how
respondents nine years or less of experience and ten years or more of experience rated the
competencies.
Fourth, the degree to which the data could be clustered into groups was required.
To facilitate this analysis, an exploratory factor analysis was employed. Generally
speaking, a factor analysis is defined as “any of several methods of analysis that enable
researchers to reduce a large number of variables to a smaller number of variables or
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factors; a factor is a set of variables, that can be conceptually and statistically related or
grouped together” (Vogt, 1999, p. 107-108). Exploratory factor analysis was used to
determine what factors related to competencies needed in entry-level business-to-
business selling in the services industry. In addition, factor analysis procedures of
maximum likelihood factor analysis with oblimin rotation were used to identify the
related factors to entry-level business-to-business selling in the services industry.
Fifth, identification of the most highly recommended knowledge and skill
competencies required for success as an entry-level business-to-business salesperson
selling services, as perceived by sales managers, sales professors, sales trainers, and sales
people was required. Descriptive statistics (mean, median, interquartile range, and
standard deviation) were calculated in order to analyze the entire set of 136 knowledge
and skills as well as the within each of set of respondents. Based on the mean, the
knowledge and skill competencies perceived as most important and least important were
identified for all respondents combined as well as within each sub population data set.
Sixth, the knowledge and skill competency hierarchy was required across all four
sets of respondents. Descriptive statistics (mean, median, interquartile range, and
standard deviation) were calculated in order to analyze the entire set of 136 knowledge
and skills as well as the within each of set of respondents. Based on the mean and inter-
quartile range, a hierarchy of primary and secondary competencies was established.
Seventh, the level of agreement between all four groups of respondents regarding
ranking of the nine predetermined curriculum areas was required. To facilitate this
analysis, descriptive statistics were also used. The means and medians for each of the ten
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curriculum areas were determined across the entire data set, setting a suggested rank
ordering of curriculum areas by importance.
Finally, recommendations for using the competency model were required. The
recommendations of the four respondent groups in regards to a multiple response set
regarding application of the competency model were calculated using descriptive
statistics.
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CHAPTER 4. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
The primary purpose of this study was to identify the competencies needed for
entry-level business-to-business selling in the services industry from a broad multi-
company perspective that could serve as a guide for learning and development purposes.
A secondary purpose was to construct a valid and reliable instrument for determining
entry-level sales person knowledge and skill within the services industry. A third purpose
was to assess the level of importance assigned to each competency by sales managers,
sales professors, sales trainers, and sales people from a broad cross section of
organizations that could assist in establishing priorities in regard to knowledge and skills
which are believed to be important for success in entry-level business-to-business
services selling. It was hypothesized that through the examination of industry-based
competencies and the delineation of competency significance within knowledge and skill
categories, an industry-wide conceptual framework could be developed which could
serve as a benchmark for an entry-level business-to-business sales person learning and
development purposes. Information about knowledge and skill competencies were
obtained through responses gathered from the administration of the Salesperson
Competency Analysis (SCA). The SCA was created with three rounds of data collection
with the content validation panel using the Delphi technique, input from the expert jury,
and the results of a pilot test. The questionnaires used to collect data from the expert jury
and the pilot study participants appear in Appendices B and C respectively.
The SCA instrument allowed respondents to record their perceptions regarding
the relative importance of 136 competency statements needed by entry-level business-to-
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business sales people in the services industry. Two categories of competencies were
included in the SCA including knowledge and skill.
Data were analyzed to (a) determine the level of agreement between the rankings
of the four respondent groups in regards to knowledge and skill competencies, (b)
differences among the four respondent groups in regards to the level of agreement and
level of importance ratings of competencies for entry-level services sales person
positions, (c) differences among individuals from two organizational settings, as well as
two levels or professional experience regarding the perceptions of the importance of
knowledge and skills competencies, (d) the statistically derived factors in which to group
the competency statements, (e) the most highly recommended knowledge and skill
competencies to include within an entry-level business-to-business salesperson model for
the services industry, (f) the levels of hierarchy within the curriculum areas by respondent
group, (g) the rankings of the named curriculum areas, and (h) the recommended uses of
a competency model for learning and development purposes. A complete list of
competency statements is listed in Appendix E.
Data were collected from sales managers, sales professors, sales trainers, and
sales people in the United States in the fall of 2008. The results of the study are reported
in six sections: (a) rankings of knowledge competencies, (b) rankings of skill
competencies, (c) demographic characteristics, (d) reliability of the scales, (e) analysis of
the research questions, and (f) summary of data analysis.
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Ranking of Knowledge Competencies
Prior to the analysis of the research questions, the knowledge competencies were
rank ordered for the entire set of four respondent groups. On a rating scale of 1 to 5, the
means ranged from 3.28 to 4.51 for the 31 knowledge competencies. The lowest rated
knowledge competency was Q19_20, which was
Infers metrics calculations in order to gauge progress.
The highest rated knowledge competency was Q10_6, which was
Displays appropriate follow up activity to individual meetings.
The data indicated that the group tendency was to view most of the listed
knowledge competencies as being important to entry-level services sales person success.
On average across the data set, all knowledge competencies averaged a mean above a 3.0.
This meant that on average the respondent groups perceived the knowledge contained
within the SCA as important for entry-level business-to-business selling in the services
industry. Table 2 shows the rankings of knowledge competencies for all respondents.
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Table 2.
Rankings of Knowledge Competencies by All Respondents
Knowledge Competency Rank Mean SD

Q10_6: Displays appropriate follow up activity to individual meetings 1 4.51 0.701
Q18_8: Comprehends the features, benefits, and value of the product or
2 4.34 0.749
service
Q12_1: Knows how to use e-mail programs to communicate
3 4.32 0.832
appropriately
Q14_11: Recognizes appropriate strategies to build rapport with clients
4 4.11 0.837
and other key relationships
Q17_3: Recognizes how client firms are organized and how they
5 4.06 0.804
function
Q11_7: Understands what motivates self and others 6 3.98 0.894
Q16_12: Identifies processes for creating compelling sales presentations
7 3.85 0.944
that differentiate
Q15_2: Recalls or recognizes applicable corporate policies in sales
8 3.80 0.963
interactions
Q12_2: Recalls appropriate technical information and relays it to
9 3.79 0.921
customers
Q15_8: Recognizes or distinguishes the accuracy of records and other
10 3.77 0.952
documents
Q17_10: Identifies appropriate time to deliver product or services to
11 3.76 0.952
customers
Q13_6: Selects adequate and appropriate methods to conduct
background research, including on site research, internet, word- 12 3.73 0.933
of-mouth, etc
Q18_4: Summarizes features and benefits of competitor's products or
13 3.72 0.973
services
Q11_5: Has knowledge of the most effective selling activity for the
14 3.69 0.948
situation
Q17_4: Explains and/or distinguishes relevant client planning activities 15 3.67 0.934
Q10_5: Distinguishes between high-quality and low-quality bids or
16 3.67 0.946
proposals when sending to the client
Q19_11: Comprehends appropriate information in order to effectively
17 3.65 0.954
complete data entry
Q14_10: Identifies the appropriate time to utilize customer service
18 3.64 0.853
techniques
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Table 2 continued.
Rankings of Knowledge Competencies by All Respondents
Knowledge Competency Rank Mean SD

Q14_7: Understands technical information and processes 19 3.62 0.876
Q18_1: Interprets research on industry and competition 20 3.54 0.961
Q18_2: Recalls relevant newsletters on important topics for use in the
21 3.52 0.996
sales process
Q19_1: Recognizes and distinguishes financial figures and billing
22 3.50 0.969
procedures
Q13_3: Recalls features and benefits of learned software tools or
23 3.49 1.022
packages
Q19_7: Knows policies for keeping track of invoices 24 3.48 1.065
Q11_6: Comprehends account planning activities for multiple or inter-
25 3.43 0.931
related sales calls
Q13_5: Knows appropriate learning approaches that fill personal gaps 26 3.42 0.965
Q11_3: Comprehends individual or team strengths and weaknesses 27 3.41 1.019
Q15_1: Displays knowledge of applicable state; local; and national laws 28 3.35 1.105
Q12_3: Identifies most appropriate technology for use (e.g., video
29 3.35 1.011
conferencing, web seminars, etc)
Q11_12: Recognizes future demand for products or services 30 3.33 1.007
Q19_20: Infers metrics calculations in order to gauge progress 31 3.28 1.017
Ranking of Skill Competencies
Prior to the analysis of research questions, the skill competencies were rank
ordered by the four ranking groups. On a rating scale of 1 to 5, the means ranged from
2.55 to 4.59. The lowest rated competency from the entire data including all responses
was Q11_11, which was
Manages cross functional, diverse, or international team members.
The highest rated competency from the data set was Q14_15, which was
Displays active and engaged listening skills.

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The data indicated that the group tendency was to view most of the listed skill
competencies as being important to entry-level services sales person success. This meant
that on average the respondent groups perceived the knowledge contained within the
SCA as important for entry-level business-to-business selling in the services industry.
However, four competencies did not attain a mean above 3.0. Therefore, the following
competencies were rated as less than moderately important by respondents:
1. Q16_7: Effectively flatters clients to support end goal (M = 2.97, SD =
1.129)
2. Q14_8: Appropriately organizes client/prospect entertainment (M = 2.96,
SD = 1.049)
3. Q10_13: Creates and/or provides seminars to clients or prospects (M =
2.72, SD = 1.055)
4. Q11_11: Manages cross functional, diverse, or international team
members (M = 2.55, SD = 1.158)
Table 3 shows the rankings of skill competencies for all respondents.
Table 3.
Rankings of Skill Competencies by All Respondents
Competency Rank Mean SD

Q14_15: Displays active and engaged listening skills 1 4.59 0.689
Q17_11: Makes an extra effort to meet customer needs 2 4.43 0.723
Q15_4: Applies a personal or professional ethical code to decision-
3 4.40 0.847
making processes
Q10_7: Responds appropriately to referrals 4 4.39 0.794
Q10_2: Actively calls on (visits) new accounts 5 4.37 0.841
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Table 3 continued.

Q10_10: Discovers and addresses prospect or customer issues and
6 4.37 0.796
concerns
Q19_10: Generates email or letters in proper business format with proper
7 4.36 0.806
grammar and voice
Q10_11: Generates phone calls or emails and to setup appointments or
advance the process 8 4.35 0.863
Q16_16: Constructs effective questions and asks those questions at
appropriate times 9 4.33 0.699
Q10_3: Aggressively finds leads on new prospects 10 4.27 0.921
Q16_4: Constructs an adequately scripted sales pitch 11 4.22 0.889
Q16_11: Effectively and persuasively delivers sales presentations to
12 4.19 0.844
relevant decision makers or influencers
Q14_14: Relates well with organizational influencers or gatekeepers 13 4.17 0.814
Q16_1: Sells the unique value-added aspects of the company, product or
14 4.17 0.882
service
Q16_14: Displays professionalism; poise; and speaking skill while make
speeches 15 4.17 0.877
Q17_1: Effectively follows up on client orders 16 4.14 0.903
Q16_2: Overcomes objections with skill 17 4.11 0.874
Q14_9: Builds good relationships with partners, vendors, or channel
18 4.11 0.949
members
Q11_4: Uses time efficiently to consistently perform at high levels 19 4.10 0.867
Q10_4: Engages personal selling strategies that meet the needs of the
20 4.08 0.934
end-user
Q19_4: Adequately reports on sales activities 21 4.08 0.876
Q18_6: Comprehends feedback from clients, individuals in the market,
and supervisors 22 4.07 0.779
Q10_16: Coordinates and completes relevant sales related activities 23 4.07 0.891
Q14_1: Actively engages in phone activity to sell over the phone or
generate cold calls 24 4.02 1.035
Q19_6: Originates orders by “writing them up” appropriately so they
25 4.01 0.935
don’t get held up
Q19_17: Updates customer files in an effective manner 26 4.01 0.940
127
Table 3 continued.

Q16_17: Recognizes other people’s nonverbal behavior in a selling
27 4.00 0.877
situation
Q18_7: Determines most appropriate materials to bring along on sales
28 4.00 0.865
visits
Q12_6: Sets up, secures, uses, and manages a laptop or personal
computer for a variety of purposes (including making 29 3.99 0.972
presentations, organizing data, collecting information, etc)
Q18_10: Reads company literature and relates content appropriately 30 3.98 0.866
Q19_12: Displays judgment in sales process (including expediting
orders, making decisions, etc) 31 3.97 0.898
Q17_5: Follows up with internal team members regarding customer
contacts or complaints 32 3.96 0.839
Q11_10: Interprets daily plan to maximize efficiency 33 3.95 0.874
Q11_2: Proactively sets challenging and achievable goals 34 3.95 0.829
Q14_2: Actively and effectively sells additional value-added services or
solutions 35 3.95 0.882
Q15_7: Demonstrates appropriate decision making ability that involves
36 3.91 0.852
others
Q19_3: Fills out paperwork with accuracy and within an appropriate time
37 3.91 0.947
frame
Q13_2: Prepares for obstacles to sales success 38 3.90 0.875
Q10_1: Acquires and implements consultative selling processes in order
39 3.88 0.964
to consult with customers on their business problems
Q16_3: Persuades prospects with examples or logic or other pertinent
information 40 3.87 0.892
Q14_12: Acquires and relates to a widespread network of relevant
41 3.86 0.924
business contacts
Q16_6: Manages the delivery of appropriate client proof (such as
42 3.86 0.886
samples or trials)
Q17_7: Cross-sells or up-sells add-on products or services within
existing customer relationships 43 3.86 1.015
Q17_12: Manages the hand-off to other key team members after the sale
44 3.86 1.019
is finalized
128
Table 3 continued.

Q17_6: Facilitates fulfillment or delivery by communicating and
coordinating with sales support 45 3.85 0.851
Q19_19: Attends local sales meetings to discuss and report progress with
colleagues & managers 46 3.84 0.933
Q15_10: Paraphrases or translates key facts about important situations 47 3.84 0.873
Q14_6: Calls on multiple individuals within the customer’s organization 48 3.84 0.980
Q19_2: Appropriately checks in with supervisor and other key staff 49 3.84 0.934
Q10_17: Adequately targets personal activities towards important or key
50 3.83 0.918
accounts
Q16_9: Influences others with direct and indirect skill 51 3.83 0.875
Q18_9: Displays proficiency in new company products (includes
reviewing, analyzing, and introducing) 52 3.81 0.938
Q16_13: Communicates with appropriately designed presentation aids 53 3.79 0.879
Q10_15: Alters approach based on reading body language of others 54 3.78 0.939
Q15_5: Infers the appropriate protection and/or use of intellectual
55 3.77 1.019
property
Q18_5: Responds adequately to competitive threats 56 3.76 0.985
Q16_18: Predicts the effects of own words and actions 57 3.75 0.885
Q15_3: Infers appropriate action to avoid possibility litigation 58 3.75 1.051
Q19_15: Organizes personal records 59 3.73 1.040
Q13_7: Interprets information from multiple sources (including
databases, online, colleagues, etc) 60 3.71 0.902
Q14_3: Tailors unique solutions or modifies existing products to meet
61 3.70 1.039
prospect and/or customer needs
Q12_5: Effectively employs the Internet to achieve selling goals 62 3.70 0.991
Q10_8: Proactively attends networking events (convention, trade shows,
etc) and builds important key contacts 63 3.70 1.025
Q16_5: Constructs an adequately scripted sales pitch 64 3.70 0.982

Q18_12: Responds to environmental forces by seizing opportunities for
65 3.69 0.986
success
Q16_10: Rewrites prepared words and/or presentations adequately 66 3.69 0.922
Q19_21: Manages, prioritizes, and categorizes voice mail messages 67 3.66 1.055
Q19_9: Constructs and delivers individualized correspondence or memos 68 3.65 0.920
129
Table 3 continued.

Q11_1: Finds better, faster, or more efficient ways of doing things 69 3.65 0.968
Q14_13: Tailors unique solutions or modifies existing products to meet
70 3.65 1.027
prospect and/or customer needs
Q16_8: Appropriately gauges perceptions of others regarding one’s self 71 3.65 0.906
Q19_8: Maintains communication with others by telephoning the office 72 3.62 1.016
Q16_15: Displays ability to leave compelling voice mails 73 3.61 1.019
Q11_9: Optimizes time spent when travelling to and from locations (e.g.,
office, client site, travel destinations, etc) 74 3.61 0.958
Q19_14: Follows company policy to appropriately fill out expense
75 3.61 1.085
reports in a timely manner
Q14_16: Actively engages with others at regional sales meetings 76 3.60 1.017
Q13_9: Attends meetings geared toward sales professionalism 77 3.60 0.986
Q13_4: Distinguishes relevant sales training content that will most likely
lead to increased competency 78 3.60 0.982
Q17_2: Reproduces the intended use of product or service to end-user
79 3.60 1.009
customers
Q17_9: Handles orders and backorders effectively and expedites as
80 3.58 1.091
necessary
Q19_13: Studies and verifies personal commissions to ensure accuracy 81 3.57 1.071
Q14_5: Meets with internal project staff to facilitate appropriate actions 82 3.55 0.934
Q17_8: Handles shipment problems as required to keep customers happy 83 3.53 1.096
Q19_18: Maintains a viable and working virtual office 84 3.53 1.071
Q13_1: Fills out and manages a personal development plan 85 3.52 1.031
Q11_8: Arranges for appropriately timed and optimized travel 86 3.47 0.984
Q12_4: Selects most appropriate personal device(s) to manage
information (i.e. a voice recorder; cell phone; pager; PDA) 87 3.45 1.087
Q14_4: Conducts review meetings with key stakeholders 88 3.44 1.003
Q18_3: Interprets trade publications in order to gather appropriate
89 3.44 0.996
knowledge
Q10_9: Predicts other people’s reactions to the sales process 90 3.35 0.962
Q10_12: Plans and conducts conference calls with key corporate and
91 3.35 1.035
client team members
Q15_9: Safely and securely takes clients or prospects on-site 92 3.35 1.092
130
Table 3 continued.

Q10_14: Demonstrates an ability to call on CEOs and other C-Level
93 3.35 1.151
executives
Q15_6: Takes calculated entrepreneurial risks 94 3.32 1.024
Q12_7: Develops; manages; and delivers effective presentations via the
95 3.26 1.025
Internet
Q13_8: Practices personal mentoring with colleagues (including training
96 3.26 1.225
or coaching new or junior sales reps)
Q11_13: Accurately predicts closing rates on new sales opportunities in
order to forecast properly 97 3.22 0.971
Q19_5: Travels with supervisors 98 3.16 1.197
Q19_16: Displays organizational ability by keeping the office tidy 99 3.10 1.098
Q14_17: Gives constructive and discriminate feedback to others 100 3.08 1.123
Q18_11: Determines the appropriate price for a product or service 101 3.07 1.262
Q16_7: Effectively flatters clients to support end goal 102 2.97 1.129
Q14_8: Appropriately organizes client/prospect entertainment 103 2.96 1.049
Q10_13: Creates and/or provides seminars to clients or prospects 104 2.72 1.055
Q11_11: Manages cross functional, diverse, or international team
105 2.55 1.158
members
Demographic Characteristics
Sales Managers
Demographic data on sales managers were collected using the demographic
information section (Part 1) of the SCA. The demographic characteristics of sales
managers included market sold to, number of years in the profession, employment status,
organization, type of sales (products or services), primary country of residence, and
industry.
131
Data collected from 189 sales manager respondents represented nine services
industries including the hotels, personal services, business services, automotive repair
services, motion pictures, health services, legal services, educational services, and
engineering/management services. The sales manager sample included individuals who
resided in the United States (100%) and sold to the business or government markets
(76.2% and 23.8% respectively). A total of 85.2% of sales managers had been in the
profession for five or more years, with 23.8% having more than 20 years of experience. A
majority of sales managers worked in privately held firms (71.9%) and were full time
employees (73.5%), selling services (74.6%). The percentage distribution of sales
managers by demographic characteristic appear in table 4.
Table 4.
Personal Characteristics of Sales Managers
Characteristic n %
Markets sold to
Business markets 144 76.2%
Government markets 45 23.8%
Years in the profession

Less than 1 year 2 1.1%
1-2 years 6 3.2%
2-5 years 20 10.5%
5-10 years 40 21.2%
10-20 years 76 40.2%
20+ years 45 23.8%
Employment Status
Full time employee 139 73.5%
Contractor/Business owner 49 25.9%
Part time employed 1 .6%
132
Table 4 continued.
Personal Characteristics of Sales Managers
Characteristic n %
Organization
Academic institution 3 1.6%
Privately held company 136 71.9%
Publicly traded company 48 25.4%
Non-profit organization 2 1.1%
Solutions the organization sells
Mostly services 139 74.6%
Mostly products
Even mix of products and services 50 26.4%
Primary country of residence

United States 189 100%
Services Industry of Organization

SIC 70 - Hotels, rooming houses, camps, etc 4 2.1%
SIC 72 - Personal services 4 2.1%
SIC 73 - Business services 141 74.6%
SIC 75 - Automotive repair, services, and parking 3 1.5%
SIC 78 - Motion pictures 1 .5%
SIC 80 - Health services 5 2.6%
SIC 81 - Legal services 23 12.2%
SIC 82 - Educational services 3 1.6%
SIC 89 - Miscellaneous services 5 2.6%
Sales Professors
The demographic characteristics collected on sales professors included market
sold to, number of years in the profession, employment status, organization, type of sales
(products or services), primary country of residence, and industry. The percentage
distribution of sales professors by demographic characteristic appear in table 5.
Data collected from 17 sales professor respondents represented two industries
including business and educational services. The sales professor sample included
individuals who resided in the United States (100%) and who sold to the business or
government markets (88.23% and 11.77% respectively). A total of 94.12% of sales

133
professors had been in the profession for five or more years, with 41.18% having more
than 20 years of experience. All of the sales professors worked in academic institutions
(100.0%) and most were full time employees (94.11%), selling services (82.35%).
Table 5.
Personal Characteristics of Sales Professors
Characteristic N %
Markets sold to

Less than 1 year
1-2 years
2-5 years 1 5.88%
5-10 years 7 41.18%
10-20 years 2 11.76%
20+ years 7 41.18%
Employment Status
Part time employed 1 5.88%
Organization
Academic institution 17 100%

Mostly products


SIC 82 - Educational services 16 94.11%
134
Sales Trainers
The demographic characteristics collected about sales trainers included market
sold to, number of years in the profession, employment status, organization, type of sales
(products or services), primary country of residence, and industry. The percentage
distribution of sales trainers by demographic characteristic appear in table 6.
Data collected from 95 sales trainer respondents represented seven industries
including personal services, business services, health services, legal services, educational
services, membership organizations, and engineering/management services. The sales
trainer sample included individuals who resided in the United States (100%) and who
sold to the business or government markets (89.47% and 10.53% respectively). A total of
89.46% of sales trainers had been in the profession for five or more years, with 33.68%
having more than 20 years of experience. Most of the sales trainers worked in privately
held organizations (78.95%). The sales trainer respondents represented the highest
average of contract employees/business owners (62.11%) and they also sold mostly
services (83.16%).
135
Table 6.
Personal Characteristics of Sales Trainers
Characteristic N %
Markets sold to

1-2 years 2 2.1%
2-5 years 7 7.36%
5-10 years 18 18.94%
10-20 years 35 36.84%
20+ years 32 33.68%
Employment Status
Part time employed
Organization
Academic institution

Mostly products


SIC 82 -Educational services 11 11.58%
SIC 86 - Membership organizations 1 1.05%
SIC 87 - Engineering and management services 1 1.05%
SIC 89 - Miscellaneous services
136
Sales People
The demographic characteristics of sales people included market sold to, number
of years in the profession, employment status, organization, type of sales (products or
services), primary country of residence, and industry. The percentage distribution of sales
trainers by demographic characteristic appear in table 7.
Data collected from 148 sales person respondents represented 10 industries
including hotels, personal services, business services, automotive repair, motion pictures,
health services, legal services, educational services, membership organizations, and
engineering/management services. The sales person sample included individuals who
resided in the United States (100%) and who sold to the business or government markets
(83.78% and 16.22% respectively). The sales person respondents represented the lowest
average level of experience of the data collected, with 70.95% of sales people being in
the profession for five or more years, and only 17.57% having more than 20 years of
experience. Most (68.18%) of the sales people worked in privately held organizations and
most were full time employees (76.35%), selling services (75.68%).
137
Table 7.
Personal Characteristics of Sales People
Characteristic n %
Markets sold to

1-2 years 11 7.43%
2-5 years 22 14.86%
5-10 years 33 22.30%
10-20 years 46 31.08%
20+ years 26 17.57%
Employment Status
Part time employed 4 2.70%
Organization
Academic institution 5 3.38%

Mostly products

United States 100%
Services Industry of Organization 1 .68%

SIC 70 - Hotels, rooming houses, camps, etc 4 2.70%
SIC 73 - Business services 1 .68%
SIC 76 - Miscellaneous repair services 1 .68%
SIC 79 - Amusement and recreational services 5 3.38%
SIC 84 - Museums, art galleries, zoos 1 .68%
SIC 86 - Membership organizations 6 4.05%
138
Reliability of the Scales
Reliability for the ten curriculum area scales was determined using a Cronbach’s
alpha statistic for the sales manager, sales professor, sales trainer, and sales person
samples. Across all samples, the Cronbach’s alpha statistic for each curriculum area scale
was above a .70, so it was determined that all scales were reliable across all respondent
groups.
Table 8 summarizes the alpha levels of the scales for the sales manager sample.
Table 9 summarizes the alpha levels of the scales for the sales professor sample. Table 10
summarizes the alpha levels of the scales for the sales trainer sample. And table 11
summarizes the alpha levels of the scales for the sales person sample.
Table 8.
Multi-item Scale Reliability Coefficients for Sales Manager Sample
Instrument Type Items Score Range Cronbach’s Alpha

Sales Process Competencies Likert 17 1-5 α = 0.80
Performance Competencies Likert 13 1-5 α = 0.88
Technology Competencies Likert 7 1-5 α = 0.83
Learning Competencies Likert 9 1-5 α = 0.83
Relationship Competencies Likert 17 1-5 α = 0.86
Risk Competencies Likert 10 1-5 α = 0.87
Influencing Competencies Likert 18 1-5 α = 0.90
Customer Competencies Likert 12 1-5 α = 0.85
Product & Industry Competencies Likert 12 1-5 α = 0.89
Administrative Competencies Likert 21 1-5 α = 0.93
139
Table 9.
Multi-item Scale Reliability Coefficients for Sales Professor Sample

Table 10.
Multi-item Scale Reliability Coefficients for Sales Trainer Sample

140
Table 11.
Multi-item Scale Reliability Coefficients for Sales Person Sample

Analysis of the Research Questions
Ten research questions were developed for this study. Statistical calculations were
analyzed using the SPSS statistical package. For all statistical tests, differences were
considering significant at the .05 level.
Overview of Research Question Analyses
Research question one was tested with Kendall’s coefficient of concordance (W)
in order measure the level of overall agreement among the four groups of respondents for
their ranking of 31 knowledge competencies.
Research question two was tested with Kendall’s coefficient of concordance (W)
their ranking of 105 skill competencies.
Research question three was tested using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA)
and Tukey’s HSD post hoc test to determine if differences existed among sales managers,
141
sales professors, sales trainers, and sales people regarding the 136 competencies.
ANOVA was the appropriate statistical procedure to compare groups which differ on two
or more areas. The Tukey’s HSD post test was the appropriate test because it assumes the
population variances between the respondent groups are equal which was confirmed by
Levene's test.
Research question four and research question five were tested with the Mann-
Whitney U-test to determine if there were any statistical differences in how respondents
from different organizational settings (privately held or publicly traded), or respondents
with different levels of experience (less than or equal to nine and greater than or equal to
ten years) rated the importance of 136 competencies for success as an entry-level
business-to-business salesperson selling services.
Research question six was tested with exploratory principal axis factor analysis
with oblimin rotation (Floyd & Widaman, 1995; Gorush, 1983) in order to determine
what specific factors were included in the underlying structure of the SCA. The
exploratory factor analysis assessed the underlying structure of the 136 competencies on
the SCA. Factor analysis was chosen because it is a statistical approach that can be used
to discover interrelationships among a large number of variables and explain these
variables in term of their common underlying dimensions (factors) and because no
previous theoretical framework existed to describe the structure of factors proposed in the
study. The objective was to find a way of condensing the information contained in of
original variables into a smaller set of variables (factors) with a minimum loss of
information (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, and Black, 1998). The Bartlett test of sphericity
142
was used to examine the presence of correlations among the variables. It showed the
statistical probability that the correlation matrix had significant correlations among at
least some of the variables. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy was
.900, indicating that a factor analysis of the variables was acceptable. Factors were
considered significant and retained only if they had an eigenvalue equal to or greater than
1.0, and variables with factor loading equals to or greater than .30 (Hair et al., 1998). An
oblique rotation was chosen over an orthogonal rotation given moderate correlations,
ranging from .105 to .400 among the factors. The outcome of the analysis was the
identification of the factors necessary for the learning and development purposes of
entry-level business-to-business sales people in the services industry.
Research question seven was tested with was tested using content analysis and
descriptive statistics (mean, median, standard deviation, and interquartile range) to
determine which knowledge and skills were identified as the most important for entry-
level business-to-business sales people in the services industry by the respondents.
Research question eight was tested using descriptive statistics (mean, median,
standard deviation, and interquartile range) to determine which levels of hierarchy existed
in the knowledge and skill competencies. The levels of hierarchy within the knowledge
and skill competencies were established based on the mean importance ratings as
moderately important, very important, or essential. Agreement of the ratings within the
data was identified by including statements with an interquartile range of less than or
equal to one. Research question nine was tested with descriptive statistics (mean and
median) to determine the level of importance the four groups of respondents gave to the
143
ten curriculum areas. Research question ten was tested with descriptive statistics (mean
and median) to determine the most frequently suggested use of the competency model.
Highest and Lowest Ranked Competencies
The SCA instrument included knowledge and skill competencies created after a
three-round content validation process, inputs from expert jury members, and the results
of the statistically valid pilot test. After the final SCA was fielded, and before the
research questions were analyzed, descriptive statistics were used to identify the most
important and least important knowledge and skill competencies required for success as
an entry-level business-to-business salesperson selling services as perceived by sales
managers, sales professors, sales trainers, and sales people. According to the four groups
of respondents, the five most important knowledge and skill competencies for success as
an entry-level business-to-business services sales person were:
Q14_15: Displays active and engaged listening skills.
Q10_6: Displays appropriate follow up to individual meetings.
Q17_11: Makes an extra effort to meet customer needs.
Q15_4: Applies a personal and professional ethical code to decision-making
processes.
Q10_7: Responds appropriately to referrals.
According to the four groups of respondents, the five least important knowledge
and skills competencies for success as an entry-level business-to-business services sales
person are:
Q18_11: Determines the appropriate price for a product or service.

144
Q16_7: Effectively flatters clients to support end goal.
Q14_8: Appropriately organizes client/prospect entertainment.
Q10_13: Creates and/or provides seminars to clients or prospects.
Q11_11: Manages cross-functional, diverse, or international team members.
Research Question 1
Research question one was tested with Kendall’s coefficient of concordance (W)
their ranking of 31 knowledge competencies. On a scale of 0.00 to +1.00, W = 0.816
indicates a very strong level of agreement among the sales managers, sales professors,
sales trainers, and sales people in ranking the 31 knowledge items as to their relative
value.
Chi-square is the appropriate test of significance for Kendall’s W. The chi-square
table for 30 df at the 0.001 level of significance is 59.703. Therefore, since the obtained
chi-square of 84.889 was higher than 59.703, there was a statistically significant positive
correlation among the four ranking groups for the 31 knowledge statements at the 0.01
level of significance. Table 12 shows the resulting Kendall’s W analysis.
Table 12.
Kendall’s W Calculation for the 31 Knowledge Competencies across the Sales Manager,
Sales Professor, Sales Trainer, And Sales Person Groups
Statistic Calculation
Kendall’s W 0.816
Chi-Square 84.889
Df 30
145
Spearman’s rank order correlation coefficient, corrected for tied ranks, was also
used to determine the degree of agreement among three sets of pairings among the four
groups of respondents regarding knowledge competencies. This statistic was used to
assess the following pairs of rankings: (a) sales managers and sales trainers, (b) sales
managers and sales people, (c) sales professors and sales trainers. Table 13 shows
Spearman’s rank order correlations for relationships between paired rankings of the
knowledge competencies for the three sets of pairings among the four groups of
respondents.
On a scale from 0.00 to +1.00, Spearman’s rank order correlation coefficients
were determined to be 0.938 with the sales manager and sales trainer pairing, 0.899 with
the sales manager and sales people pairing, and 0.557 with the sales professor and sales
trainer pairing.
Table 13.
Spearman’s Rank Order Correlation Coefficients for Relationships between Paired
Rankings of the Knowledge Competencies by Sales Managers, Sales Professors, Sales
Trainers and Sales People
Rank Order Correlation Coefficient, rs

Sales Managers Sales Managers Sales Professors
and and and
Sales Trainers Sales People Sales Trainers
*0.938 *0.899 *0.557
* Statistically significant at the 0.01 level.
The calculations showed a very strong degree of agreement for the sales managers
to sales trainers pairing as well as the sales managers to sales people pairing. The
146
calculations also showed a moderate degree of agreement between sales professors and
sales trainers.
Testing Hypothesis 1
Null hypothesis 1 was stated as follows:
There is no agreement in the rankings of the knowledge competency statements
by the four groups of respondents (trainer, professor, manager, and sales person) as
measured by Kendall’s Coefficient of Concordance.
The coefficient of concordance, 0.816, yielded chi-square (X2) equal to 84.889,
which was greater than the 0.001 table value of 59.703. The degree of agreement was
statistically significant well beyond the 0.05 level of significance, which was defined as
the minimally accepted level for this study. Thus, the above-stated null hypothesis was
rejected.
Research Question 2
Research question two was tested with Kendall’s coefficient of concordance (W)
their ranking of 105 skill competencies. On a scale of 0.00 to +1.00, W = 0.871 indicates
a very strong level of agreement among the sales managers, sales professors, sales
trainers, and sales people in ranking the 105 skill items as to their relative value.
Chi-square is the appropriate test of significance for Kendall’s W. The chi-square
table for 104 df at the 0.001 level of significance is 149.449. Therefore, since the
obtained chi-square of 362.143 was higher than 149.449, there was a statistically
147
significant positive correlation among the four ranking groups for the 105 skills
statements. Table 14 shows the resulting Kendall’s W analysis.
Table 14.
Kendall’s W calculation for the 105 Skill Competencies Across the Sales Manager, Sales
Professor, Sales Trainer, And Sales Person Groups
Statistic Calculation
Kendall’s W 0.871
Chi-Square 362.143
Df 104
Spearman’s rank order correlation coefficient, corrected for tied ranks, was also
used to determine the degree of agreement among three sets of pairings among the four
groups of respondents regarding skill competencies. This statistic was used to assess the
following pairs of rankings: (a) sales managers and sales trainers, (b) sales managers and
sales people, (c) sales professors and sales trainer. Table 15 shows Spearman’s rank order
correlations for relationships between paired rankings of the knowledge competencies for
the three sets of pairings among the four groups of respondents.
On a scale from 0.00 to +1.00, Spearman’s rank order correlation coefficients
were determined to be 0.931 with the sales manager and sales trainer paring, 0.940 with
the sales manager and sales people pairing, and 0.705 with the sales professor and sales
trainer pairing. The calculations showed a very strong degree of agreement for the sales
managers to sales trainers pairing as well as the sales managers to sales people pairing.
The calculations also showed a moderate degree of agreement between sales professors
and sales trainers.
148
Table 15.
Spearman’s Rank Order Correlation Coefficients for Relationships between Paired
Rankings of the Skill Competencies by Sales Managers, Sales Professors, Sales Trainers
and Sales People
Rank Order Correlation Coefficient, rs
Sales Managers Sales Managers Sales Professors

and and and
Sales Trainers Sales People Sales Trainers
*0.931 *0.940 *0.705
* Statistically significant at the .01 level.
There is no agreement in the rankings of the skill competency statements by the
four groups of respondents (trainer, professor, manager, and sales person) as measured by
Kendall’s Coefficient of Concordance.
The coefficient of concordance .871 yielded chi-square (X2) equal to 362.143,
which was greater than the 0.001 table value of 149.449. The degree of agreement was
statistically significant well beyond the 0.05 level of significance, which was defined as
the minimally accepted level for this study. Thus, the above-stated null hypothesis was
rejected.
Research Question 3
Research question three was tested using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA)
and a Tukey’s HSD post hoc test to determine if differences existed among sales
149
managers, sales professors, sales trainers, and sales people (independent variables) on the
level of agreement and level of importance ratings (dependent variables) for the
knowledge and skill competencies. When significant F ratios resulted from the analysis
of variance, a Tukey’s HSD post test was utilized to identify where significant
differences existed among groups.
A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was calculated on participants’ ratings
of knowledge competencies. The analysis was found to be significant on seven
knowledge agreement ratings. This meant that these seven competencies were rated
differently with regards to importance depending upon the rater (sales professors, sales
managers, sales trainers, and sales people).
Perceptions of competency statement Q10_5: Distinguishes between high-quality
and low-quality bids and proposals when sending to the client (F(3, 445) = 5.58, p <
0.01) differed significantly across the groups. Tukey post-hoc comparisons of the four
groups indicate that the sales trainer group (M = 3.69), sales manager group (M = 3.64,
and sales person group (M = 3.79) gave higher importance ratings than the sales
professor group (M = 2.82), p = 0.002.
Perceptions of competency statement Q11_12: Recognizes future demand for
products and services (F(3, 445) = 4.53, p < 0.01) differed significantly across the groups.
Tukey post-hoc comparisons of the four groups indicate that the sales person group (M =
3.55), gave higher importance ratings than the sales professor group (M = 2.94), p =
0.011.
150
Perceptions of competency statement Q11_5: Has knowledge of the most
effective selling activity for the situation (F(3, 445) = 2.92, p < 0.05) differed
significantly across the groups. Tukey post-hoc comparisons of the four groups indicate
that the sales person group (M = 3.55, gave significantly higher importance ratings than
the sales professor group (M = 2.94), p = 0.054.
Perceptions of competency statement Q12_3: Identifies most appropriate
technology for use (e.g., web conferencing, web seminars, etc) (F(3, 445) = 2.85, p <
0.05) differed significantly across the groups. Tukey post-hoc comparisons of the four
groups indicate that the sales professor group (M = 3.94), gave higher importance ratings
than the sales trainer group (M = 3.33), sales person group (M = 3.23), and sales manager
group (M = 3.40), p = 0.030.
Perceptions of competency statement Q13_5: Knows appropriate learning
approaches that fill personal gaps (F (3, 445) = 2.82, p < 0.05) differed significantly
across the groups. Tukey post-hoc comparisons of the four groups indicate that the sales
professor group (M = 3.94), gave higher importance ratings than the sales trainer group
(M = 3.39) and sales manager group (M = 3.32), p = 0.054).
Perceptions of competency statement Q13_6: Selects adequate and appropriate
methods to conduct background research, including son site research, Internet, word-of-
mouth, etc (F (3, 445) = 2.67, p < 0.05) differed significantly across the groups. Tukey
post-hoc comparisons of the four groups indicate that the sales professor group (M =
3.88), gave higher importance ratings than the sales manager group (M = 3.61), p =
0.054.
151
Perceptions of competency statement Q14_11: Recognizes appropriate strategies
to build rapport with clients and other key relationships (F (3, 445) = 2.60, p < 0.05)
differed significantly across the groups. Tukey post-hoc comparisons of the four groups
indicate that the sales trainer group (M = 4.31), gave higher importance ratings than the
sales manager group (M = 4.03), p = 0.040.
Table 16.
One-Way ANOVA Results: Knowledge Competencies by Agreement According to Group
Mean
Competency Source Df F
Square
Q10_5: Distinguishes between high-quality Between Groups 3 4.852 5.584**
and low-quality bids and proposals when Within Groups 445 0.869
sending to the client. Total 448
Q11_12: Recognizes future demand for Between Groups 3 4.483 4.529**

products and services. Within Groups 445 0.990
Total 448
Q11_5: Has knowledge of the most effective Between Groups 3 2.590 2.918*
selling activity for the situation. Within Groups 445 0.888
Total 448
Q12_3: Identifies most appropriate Between Groups 3 2.883 2.854*

technology for use (e.g., web conferencing, Within Groups 445 1.010
web seminars, etc). Total 448
Q13_5: Knows appropriate learning Between Groups 3 2.594 2.817*

approaches that fill personal gaps. Within Groups 445 0.921
Total 448
Q13_6: Selects adequate and appropriate Between Groups 3 1.961 2.269*

methods to conduct background research, Within Groups 445 0.864
including son site research, Internet, word-of- Total
448
mouth, etc.
Q14_11: Recognizes appropriate strategies to Between Groups 3 1.799 2.597*

build rapport with clients and other key Within Groups 445 0.693
relationships. Total 448
*p <0.05. **p < 0.01.
152
Table 16 above summarizes the ANOVA results. Table 17 summarizes the
differences in means with regard to specific competencies and respondent group
according to the Tukey’s HSD post hoc test results.
Table 17.
Tukey’s HSD Multiple Comparison Test Results: Knowledge Competencies by Agreement
According to Group
Sales Sales Sales Sales

Competency p
Professor Trainer Manager Person
Q10_5: Distinguishes between high- 3.76a 3.78b 3.84b 4.15b 0.002**
quality and low-quality bids and
proposals when sending to the client.
Q11_12: Recognizes future demand 2.94a 3.15ab 3.29ab 3.55b 0.011**

for products and services.
Q11_5: Has knowledge of the most 4.00a 3.78b 3.54c 3.78d 0.054*
effective selling activity for the
situation.
Q12_3: Identifies most appropriate 3.94a 3.33a 3.40a 3.23b 0.030*
technology for use (e.g., web
conferencing, web seminars, etc).
Q13_5: Knows appropriate learning 3.94ac 3.39bc 3.32c 3.51d 0.054*

approaches that fill personal gaps.
Q13_6: Selects adequate and 3.88a 3.74a 3.61a 3.86a 0.054*

appropriate methods to conduct
background research, including son
site research, Internet, word-of-
mouth, etc.
Q14_11: Recognizes appropriate 4.00a 4.01a 3.71a 3.95a 0.040*
strategies to build rapport with
clients and other key relationships.
Note: Judgments were made on a 5-point scales (1=not necessary, 5=essential). Means
that do not share subscripts differ at p < 0.05 in the Tukey honestly significant difference
comparison. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01.
153
A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was calculated on participants’ ratings
of skill competencies. The analysis was found to be significant on 16 skill agreement
ratings. This meant that these 16 competencies were rated differently with regards to
importance depending upon the rater (sales professors, sales managers, sales trainers, and
sales people). The one-way ANOVA was used to test for differences among the
respondents concerning the importance of each of the 16 competencies for entry-level
business-to-business salesperson success. Perceptions of competency statement Q10_1:
Acquires and implements consultative selling processes in order to consult with
customers on their business problems differed significantly across the four groups (F (3,
445) = 3.34, p < 0.05). Tukey post-hoc comparisons of the four groups indicate that the
sales trainer group (M = 4.15) gave higher importance ratings than the sales manager
group (M = 3.78), p = 0.012.
Perceptions of competency statement Q10_17: Adequately targets personal
activities towards important or key accounts. (F (3, 445) = 2.59, p < 0.05) differed
that the sales professor group (M = 4.29, gave significantly higher importance ratings
than the sales person group (M = 3.71), p = 0.054).
Perceptions of competency statement Q11_2: Proactively sets challenging and
achievable goals (F (3, 445) = 1.78, p < 0.05) differed significantly across the groups.
Tukey post-hoc comparisons of the four groups indicate that the sales professor group (M
= 4.12), gave higher importance ratings than the sales manager group (M = 3.86), p =
0.054.
154
Perceptions of competency statement Q12_6: Sets up, secures, uses, and manages
a laptop or computer for a variety of purposes (e.g., presentations, organizing data,
collecting information) (F (3, 445) = 3.33, p < 0.05) differed significantly across the
groups. Tukey post-hoc comparisons of the four groups indicate that the sales professor
group (M = 4.47), gave higher importance ratings than the sales manager group (M =
3.88) and the sales person group (M = 3.95), p = 0.053.
Perceptions of competency statement Q12_7: Develops, manages, and delivers
effective presentations via the Internet (F (3, 445) = 2.92, p < 0.05) differed significantly
professor group (M = 3.82), gave higher importance ratings than the sales manager group
(M = 3.21) and sales trainer group (M = 3.13), p = 0.048.
Perceptions of competency statement Q13_1: Fills out and manages a personal
development plan (F (3, 445) = 4.17, p < 0.01) differed significantly across the groups.
Tukey post-hoc comparisons of the four groups indicate that the sales trainer group (M =
3.83), gave higher importance ratings than the sales manager group (M = 3.41) and sales
professor group (M = 3.24), p = 0.006.
Perceptions of competency statement Q13_7: Interprets information from
multiple sources (e.g., databases, online, colleagues) (F (3, 445) =4.00, p < 0.01) differed
that the sales professor group (M = 4.29), gave higher importance ratings than the sales
manager group (M = 3.59), sales person group (M = 3.72) and sales trainer group (M =
3.82), p = 0.011.
155
Perceptions of competency statement Q14_12: Acquires and relates to a
widespread network of relevant business contacts (F (3, 445) = 2.69, p < 0.05) differed
that the sales trainer group (M = 4.01), gave higher importance ratings than the sales
manager group (M = 3.71), p = 0.046.
Perceptions of competency statement Q14_6: Calls on multiple individuals
within the customer’s organization (F (3, 445) = 3.17, p < 0.05) differed significantly
professor group (M = 4.06), gave higher importance ratings than the sales manager group
(M = 3.72), p = 0.026.
Perceptions of competency statement Q15_4: Applies a personal or professional
ethical code to decision-making processes (F (3, 445) = 2.87, p < 0.05) differed
manager group (M = 4.33), p = 0.030.
Perceptions of competency statement Q15_6: Takes calculated entrepreneurial
risks (F (3, 445) = 3.77, p < 0.05) differed significantly across the groups. Tukey post-
hoc comparisons of the four groups indicate that the sales professor group (M = 3.82),
gave higher importance ratings than the sales manager group (M = 3.16), p = 0.049.
Perceptions of competency statement Q16_10: Re-writes prepared words and/or
presentations adequately (F (3, 445) = 3.38, p < 0.05) differed significantly across the
156
group (M = 4.00), gave higher importance ratings than the sales trainer group (M = 3.46),
p = 0.054.
Perceptions of competency statement Q16_15: Displays ability to leave
compelling voice mails (F (3, 445) = 2.92, p < 0.05) differed significantly across the
group (M = 4.24), gave significantly higher importance ratings than the sales person
group (M = 3.54), p = 0.038.
Perceptions of competency statement Q17_1: Effectively follows up on client
orders (F (3, 445) = 3.29, p < 0.05) differed significantly across the groups. Tukey post-
hoc comparisons of the four groups indicate that the sales trainer group (M = 4.39), gave
higher importance ratings than the sales person group (M = 4.03), p = 0.012.
Perceptions of competency statement Q17_12: Manages the hand-off to other key
team members after the sale is finalized (F (3, 445) = 2.78, p < 0.05) differed
manager group (M = 3.70), p = 0.053.
Perceptions of competency statement Q18_11: Determines the appropriate price
for a product or service (F (3, 445) = 2.70, p < 0.05) differed significantly across the
group (M = 3.88), gave higher importance ratings than the sales person group (M = 2.99),
p = 0.028.
157
Table 18 summarizes the ANOVA results. Table 19 summarizes the differences in
means with regard to specific competencies and respondent group according to the
Tukey’s HSD post hoc test results.
Table 18.
One-Way ANOVA Results: Skill Competencies by Agreement According to Group
Mean
Square
Q10_1: Acquires and implements consultative Between Groups 3 3.058 3.343*
selling processes in order to consult with Within Groups 445 0.915
customers on their business problems. Total 448
Q10_17: Adequately targets personal activities Between Groups 3 2.158 2.591*

towards important or key accounts. Within Groups 445 0.833
Total 448
Q11_2: Proactively sets challenging and Between Groups 3 1.777 2.614*

achievable goals. Within Groups 445 0.680
Total 448
Q12_6: Sets up, secures, uses, and manages a Between Groups 3 3.099 3.333*
laptop or computer for a variety of purposes Within Groups 445 0.930
(e.g., presentations, organizing data, collecting Total
448
information).
Q12_7: Develops, manages, and delivers Between Groups 3 2.923 2.814*

effective presentations via the Internet. Within Groups 445 1.039
Total 448
Q13_1: Fills out and manages a personal Between Groups 3 4.339 4.171**
development plan. Within Groups 445 1.040
Total 448
Q13_7: Interprets information from multiple Between Groups 3 3.194 4.001**

sources (e.g., databases, online, colleagues) Within Groups 445 0.798
Total 448
Q14_12: Acquires and relates to a widespread Between Groups 3 2.687 3.191*

network of relevant business contacts. Within Groups 445 0.842
Total 448
158
Table 18 continued.
One-Way ANOVA Results: Skill Competencies by Agreement According to Group
Mean
Square
Q14_6: Calls on multiple individuals within the Between Groups 3 3.002 3.169*
customer’s organization. Within Groups 445 0.947
Total 448
Q15_4: Applies a personal or professional Between Groups 3 2.036 2.873*

ethical code to decision-making processes. Within Groups 445 0.709
Total 448
Q15_6: Takes calculated entrepreneurial risks. Between Groups 3 3.773 3.665**

Within Groups 445 1.030
Total 448
Q16_10: Re-writes prepared words and/or Between Groups 3 2.380 2.835*

presentations adequately. Within Groups 445 0.840
Total 448
Q16_15: Displays ability to leave compelling Between Groups 3 2.995 2.924*

voice mails. Within Groups 445 1.024
Total 448
Q17_1: Effectively follows up on client orders. Between Groups 3 2.636 3.291*

Within Groups 445 0.801
Total 448
Q17_12: Manages the hand-off to other key Between Groups 3 2.832 2.757*
team members after the sale is finalized. Within Groups 445 1.027
Total 448
Q18_11: Determines the appropriate price for a Between Groups 3 4.252 2.700*
product or service. Within Groups 445 1.575
Total 448
*p < 0.05. **p < 0.01.
159
Table 19.
Tukey’s HSD Multiple Comparison Test Results: Knowledge Competencies by
importance According to Groups

Competency p
Q10_1: Acquires and implements 3.76a 4.15a 3.78a 3.84a 0.012**
consultative selling processes in
order to consult with customers on
their business problems.
Q10_17: Adequately targets personal 4.29a 3.82bc 3.89bc 3.71c 0.054*

activities towards important or key
accounts
Q11_2: Proactively sets challenging 3.29a 3.36a 3.38a 3.51a 0.054*

and achievable goals.
Q12_6: Sets up, secures, uses, and 4.47a 4.17a 3.88bc 3.95c 0.053*
manages a laptop or computer for a
variety of purposes (e.g.,
presentations, organizing data,
collecting information).
Q12_7: Develops, manages, and 3.82a 3.13a 3.21bc 3.35c 0.048*
delivers effective presentations via
the Internet
Q13_1: Fills out and manages a 3.24a 3.83bc 3.41bc 3.51c 0.006**
personal development plan.
Q13_7: Interprets information from 4.29b 3.82a 3.59a 3.72a 0.011**

multiple sources (e.g., databases,
online, colleagues)
Q14_12: Acquires and relates to a 4.00a 4.01a 3.71a 3.95a 0.046*

widespread network of relevant
business contacts.
Q14_6: Calls on multiple individuals 4.06a 3.76a 3.72a 4.02a 0.026*

within the customer’s organization.
160
Table 19 continued.
Tukey’s HSD Multiple Comparison Test Results: Knowledge Competencies by
importance According to Groups

Competency p
Q15_4: Applies a personal or 4.35a 4.62a 4.33a 4.34a 0.030*
professional ethical code to decision-
making processes.
Q15_6: Takes calculated 3.82c 3.37bc 3.16a 3.43bc 0.049*
entrepreneurial risks.
Q16_10: Re-writes prepared words 4.00c 3.46a 3.73b 3.74b 0.054*

and/or presentations adequately.
Q16_15: Displays ability to leave 4.24b 3.72b 3.56a 3.54a 0.038*

compelling voice mails.
Q17_1: Effectively follows up on 4.18a 4.39a 4.11a 4.03a 0.012**

client orders.
Q17_12: Manages the hand-off to 3.76a 4.02a 3.70a 3.95a .053*

other key team members after the
sale is finalized.
Q18_11: Determines the appropriate 3.88b 3.13a 3.04a 2.99a .028*

price for a product or service.
Note: Judgments were made on a 5-point scales (1=not necessary, 5=essential). Means
that do not share subscripts differ at p < 0.05 in the Tukey honestly significant difference
comparison.
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01.
There is no difference among sales managers, sales professors, sales trainers, and
sales people on the level of agreement and level of importance ratings of competencies
for entry-level business-to-business selling in the services industry as measured by a one
161
way analysis of variance (ANOVA), and if a significant F ratio exists, the results of the
Tukey’s HSD post hoc test.
The one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) identified 23 knowledge and skill
statements varied differently (0.05 level) in regards to agreement and importance by the
respondents. When the Tukey post-hoc comparison was accomplished, three pairs of
competency statements were found vary significantly within the respondent groups. Thus,
the above-stated null hypothesis was rejected.
Research Question 4
Research question four was tested with the Mann-Whitney test to determine if
differences existed between sales managers, sales professors, sales trainers, and sales
people within different organizational settings. This test measured pair wise agreement in
how individuals from privately held or publicly held organizations rated the importance
of knowledge and skill competencies required for entry-level business-to-business sales
person success in selling in the services industry. The .05 significance level was used.
A Mann-Whitney U-test was carried out between the perceptions of the publicly
traded group and the privately held group concerning the importance rating of the 136
competencies. The test showed that there was a highly statistically significant difference
between the ratings on 13 of the competencies.
When the Mann-Whitney U-test was carried out between the perceptions of the
two groups with regards to the importance rating of competency statement Q10_8:
Proactively attends networking events and builds important key contacts, the test showed
that there was a highly statistically significant difference between the ratings, U=15104, p
162
< 0.05. The mean rank of the privately held group was higher than the mean rank of the
publicly traded group and so the privately held group rated the competency as
significantly more important.
publicly traded group and the privately held group with regards to the importance rating
of competency statement Q11_6: Comprehends account planning activities for multiple
or inter-related sales calls, the test showed that there was a highly statistically significant
difference between the ratings, U=15733.5, p < 0.05. The mean rank of the publicly
traded group was higher than the mean rank of the privately held group and so the
publicly traded group rated the competency as significantly more important.
of competency statement Q11_11: Manages cross functional, diverse, or international
team members, the test showed that there was a highly statistically significant difference
between the ratings, U=15651, p < 0.05. The mean rank of the publicly traded group was
higher than the mean rank of the privately held group and so the publicly traded group
rated the competency as significantly more important.
of competency statement Q12_1: Knows how to use e-mail programs to communicate
appropriately, the test showed that there was a highly statistically significant difference
between the ratings, U=15630.5, p < 0.05. The mean rank of the privately held group was
163
higher than the mean rank of the publicly traded group and so the privately held group
of competency statement Q12_5: Effectively employs the Internet to achieve selling
goals, the test showed that there was a highly statistically significant difference between
the ratings, U=15187, p < 0.05. The mean rank of the privately held group was higher
than the mean rank of the publicly traded group and so the privately held group rated the
competency as significantly more important.
of competency statement Q12_6: Sets up, secures, uses, and manages a laptop or personal
computer for a variety of purposes, the test showed that there was a highly statistically
significant difference between the ratings, U=16157, p < 0.05. The mean rank of the
privately held group was higher than the mean rank of the publicly traded group and so
the privately held group rated the competency as significantly more important.
of competency statement Q12_7: Develops, manages, and delivers effective presentations
via the Internet, the test showed that there was a highly statistically significant difference
between the ratings, U=15734, p < 0.05. The mean rank of the privately held group was
164
of competency statement Q14_6: Calls on multiple individuals within the customer’s
organization, the test showed that there was a highly statistically significant difference
between the ratings, U=15762, p < 0.05. The mean rank of the publicly traded group was
higher than the mean rank of the privately held group and so the publicly traded group
of competency statement Q14_13: Maintains appropriate work-related friendships, the
test showed that there was a highly statistically significant difference between the ratings,
U=15373.5, p < 0.05. The mean rank of the privately held group was higher than the
mean rank of the publicly traded group and so the privately held group rated the
competency as significantly more important.
of competency statement Q14_15: Displays active and engaged listening skills, the test
showed that there was a highly statistically significant difference between the ratings,
U=15924, p < 0.05. The mean rank of the publicly traded group was higher than the mean
165
rank of the privately held group and so the publicly traded group rated the competency as
of competency statement Q17_12: Manages the hand-off to other key team members after
the sales is finalized differed, the test showed that there was a highly statistically
significant difference between the ratings, U=15728, p < 0.05. The mean rank of the
privately held group was higher than the mean rank of the publicly traded group and so
the privately held group rated the competency as significantly more important.
of competency statement Q19_8: Maintains communication with others by telephoning
the office, the test showed that there was a highly statistically significant difference
between the ratings, U=15946, p < 0.05. The mean rank of the privately held group was
of competency statement Q19_21: manages, prioritizes, and categorizes voice mail
messages, the test showed that there was a highly statistically significant difference
between the ratings, U=15953.5, p < 0.05. The mean rank of the privately held group was
166
Table 20 summarizes the significant differences in the importance ratings of
respondents from within the two groups.
Table 20.
Statistically Significant Findings between Privately Held Organizations and Publicly
Traded Organizations Regarding Perceived Importance of Knowledge and Skill
Competencies.
Private
Raw Mean Sum of Mann- Sig.2-
Competency vs. N Z
Mean Rank Ranks Whitney U tailed
Public
Private 342 3.77 234.34 80143 15104 -2.84 0.004*
Q10_8 Public 107 3.45 195.16 20882
Total 449
Private 342 3.37 217.5 74386.5 15733.5 -2.31 0.021*

Q11_6 Public 107 3.63 248.96 26638.5
Total 449
Private 342 2.47 223.62 76479 15651 -2.33 0.020*

Q11_11 Public 107 2.79 229.40 24546
Total 449
Private 342 4.37 232.80 79616.5 15630.5 -2.50 0.012*

Q12_1 Public 107 4.16 200.08 24108.5
Total 449
Private 342 3.77 234.09 77637.5 15187 -2.77 0.006*

Q12_5 Public 107 3.47 195.93 23387.5
Total 342
Private 342 4.05 231.26 79090 16157 -1.93 0.053*

Q12_6 Public 107 3.80 205 21935
Total 342
Private 342 3.33 232.49 79513 15734 -2.29 0.022*

Q12_7
Public 107 3.06 201.05 21512
Total 342
167
Table 20 continued.
Statistically Significant Findings between Privately Held Organizations and Publicly
Traded Organizations Regarding Perceived Importance of Knowledge and Skill
Competencies.
Private
Raw Mean Sum of Mann- Sig.2-
Competency vs. N Z
Mean Rank Ranks Whitney U tailed
Public
Private 342 3.78 224.71 76851 15762 -2.27 0.023*
Q14_6
Public 107 4.02 225.93 24174
Total 342
Private 342 3.71 233.55 79873.5 15373.5 -2.60 0.009*

Q14_13
Public 107 3.44 197.68 21151.5
Total 342
Private 342 4.56 218.06 74577 15924 -2.45 0.014*

Q14_15
Public 107 4.71 247.18 26448
Total 342
Private 342 3.91 232.51 79519 15728 -2.32 0.020*

Q17_12 Public 107 3.50 200.99 21506
Total 342
Private 342 3.68 231.87 79301 15946 -2.09 0.037*

Q19_8
Public 107 3.43 203.03 21724
Total 342
Private 342 3.72 231.85 79293.5 15953.5 -2.09 0.037*

Q19_21
Public 107 3.47 203.10 21731.5
Total 342
* Significant at a p <0.05
There is no difference in perception between the four respondent groups and their
importance rating of 136 knowledge and skill competencies when the respondents were
divided into groups based on organizational setting. The analysis indicated a significant
168
difference between the two groups on 13 competencies. Thus, the above-stated null
hypothesis was rejected.
Research Question 5
Research question five was tested with the Mann-Whitney test to determine if
differences existed between sales managers, sales professors, sales trainers, and sales
people with different levels of experience (professional tenure). This test measured the
level of agreement in how individuals who had less than or equal to nine years of
experience and greater than or equal to ten years of experience with regards to the rating
of knowledge and skill competencies required for success of entry-level business-to-
business salespeople selling in the services industry. The 0.05 significance level was
used.
A Mann-Whitney U-test was carried out between the perceptions of individuals
with less than or equal to nine years of experience and greater than or equal to ten years
of experience with regards to the importance rating of the 136 competencies. The test
showed that there was a highly statistically significant difference between the ratings on
eight of the competencies.
Distinguishes relevant sales training content that will most likely lead to increased
competency, the test showed that there was a highly statistically significant difference
between the ratings, U=22257, p < 0.05. The mean rank of the group with less than or
equal to nine years of experience was higher than the mean rank of the group with greater
169
than or equal to ten years of experience and so the respondents with less than or equal to
nine years of experience rated the competency as significantly more important.
Applies a personal or professional ethical code to decision-making processes, the test
U=21828.5, p < 0.05. The mean rank of the group with greater than or equal to ten years
of experience was higher than the mean rank of the group with less than or equal to nine
years of experience and so the respondents with greater than or equal to ten years of
experience rated the competency as significantly more important.
Effectively flatters client to support end goal, the test showed that there was a highly
statistically significant difference between the ratings, U=21347.5, p < 0.05. The mean
rank of the group with less than or equal to nine years of experience was higher than the
mean rank of the group with greater than or equal to ten years of experience and so the
respondents with less than or equal to nine years of experience rated the competency as
Display professionalism, poise, and speaking skill while making speeches, the test
170
Constructs effective questions and asks those questions at appropriate times, the test
U=21508, p < 0.05. The mean rank of the group with greater than or equal to ten years of
experience was higher than the mean rank of the group with less than or equal to nine
Recognizes how client firms are organized and how they function, the test showed that
there was a highly statistically significant difference between the ratings, U=22301, p <
0.05. The mean rank of the group with greater than or equal to ten years of experience
was higher than the mean rank of the group with less than or equal to nine years of
experience and so the respondents with greater than or equal to ten years of experience
171
Manages the hand off to other key team members after the sale is finalized, the test
Updates customer files in an effective manner, the test showed that there was a highly
statistically significant difference between the ratings, U=22115.5, p < 0.05. The mean
rank of the group with greater than or equal to ten years of experience was higher than
the mean rank of the group with less than or equal to nine years of experience and so the
respondents with greater than or equal to ten years of experience rated the competency as
Table 21 below summarizes the significant differences in the importance ratings
of respondents from within the two groups.
172
Table 21.
Statistically Significant Findings Between Respondents With Less than or Equal to Nine
Years of Experience and Greater Than or Equal to Ten Years of Experience Regarding
Perceived Importance of Knowledge and Skill Competencies
< 9 years vs. Raw Mean Sum of Mann- Sig.2-

Competency N Z
> 10 years Mean Rank Ranks Whitney U tailed
< 9 years 195 3.71 237.86 46383 22257 -1.93 0.053*
Q13_4 > 10 years 254 3.52 215.13 55809.5
Total 449
< 9 years 195 4.28 209.94 40938.5 21828.5 -2.44 0.015*

Q15_4 > 10 years 254 4.49 236.56 60086.5
Total 449
< 9 years 195 3.12 242.53 47292.5 21347.5 -2.56 0.009*

Q16_7 > 10 years 254 2.85 211.55 53732.5
Total 449
< 9 years 195 4.08 195 41447.5 22337.5 -1.91 0.053*

Q16_14 > 10 years 254 4.22 254 59577.5
Total 449
< 9 years 195 4.24 195 40618 21508 -2.64 0.008*

Q16_16 > 10 years 254 4.39 254 60407
Total 449
< 9 years 195 3.95 212.36 41411 22301 -1.96 0.050*

Q17_3 > 10 years 254 4.13 234.70 59614
Total 449
< 9 years 195 3.74 209.97 40944.5 21834.5 -2.28 0.023*

Q17_12
> 10 years 254 3.61 236.54 60080.5
Total 449
< 9 years 195 3.92 211.41 41225.5 22115.5 -2.06 0.039*

Q19_17
> 10 years 254 4.08 235.43 59799.5
Total 449
* Significant at a p <0.05
173
There is no difference in perception between the four respondent groups and their
importance rating of 136 knowledge and skill competencies when the respondents were
divided into groups based on the number of years in their profession.
The analysis indicated a significant difference between the two groups on eight
competencies. Thus, the above-stated null hypothesis was rejected.
Research Question 6
Research question six was tested with exploratory factor analysis because while
the underlying dimensions of the SCA have been proposed in the literature, no research
has demonstrated actual existence. A maximum likelihood exploratory factor analysis
with oblimin rotation (Floyd & Widaman, 1995; Gorush, 1983) was utilized in order to
determine the underlying structure of the SCA. Maximum likelihood was the best choice
of extraction method for the factor analysis because “it allows for the computation of a
wide range of indexes of the goodness of fit of the model [and] permits statistical
significance testing of factor loadings and correlations among factors” (Fabrigar et al.,
1999, p. 277). In order to simplify and clarify the extracted data structure, a direct
oblimin oblique rotation was used because at least some correlation was expected among
factors due to the nature of the study.
The factor analysis was conducted with all 136 competencies on the SCA. Factors
were considered significant and retained utilizing Kaiser’s criterion and the scree test
(Stevens, 1986). Kaiser’s criterion states that the components with eigenvalues greater
174
than 1.0 should be retained. Given Kaiser’s criteria, 32 factors would have been retained.
However, one limitation with this criterion is that factors can be retained that have no
practical significance (Zwick & Velicer, 1986). The scree test involved examining a scree
plot and retaining values on the scree plot in the descent of the curve on the line before
the line begins to level off (Stevens, 1986). Therefore, the scree test was utilized to
determine the number of factors to retain. The scree test (Stevens, 1986) indicated a
9-factor model consisting of 122 competency statements that together explained 41.73%
of the total variance. Figure 7 shows the scree test results for the maximum likelihood
exploratory factor analysis with oblimin rotation.
Figure 7. The Scree Plot for the Maximum Likelihood Exploratory Factor Analysis with
Oblimin Rotation
175
Table 22 lists the 10 factors that were retained with the percent of variance
accounted for by each factor as well as the cumulative percent of variance accounted for
by each factor. The first factor explained 19.04% of the variance. With all competencies
accounted for within the nine factors, the resultant SCA was found to have internal
reliability of 0.97, indicating high internal consistency reliability.
Table 22.
Factors Retained with Eigenvalues and Variance
Initial Eigenvalues
% of
Factor Total Cumulative %
Variance
1 25.897 19.042 19.042
2 7.309 5.374 24.416
3 4.537 3.336 27.752
4 3.998 2.940 30.691
5 3.581 2.633 33.325
6 3.311 2.435 35.759
7 3.119 2.294 38.053
8 2.556 1.879 39.932
9 2.444 1.797 41.730
After selecting the 9-factor solution for the factor analysis output, the factor
solution was obtained in which variables had significant loading in order to justify its
placement in a factor. Factor correlations are presented in Table 23.
Variables with factor loadings equal to or greater than 0.30 were considered
significant for loading (Hair et al., 1998). Variables with higher loading were considered
more important and had greater influence on the name selected for the factor. Thus, all
the underlying variables were examined for a particular factor and, placing greater
emphasis on those variables with higher loading, the original set of variables was
176
replaced with an entirely new, smaller set of variables created from factor scores. All of
the variables loading highly on a factor were combined, and the average score of the
variables was used as a replacement variable. Cronbach’s alpha was applied as the
measure of reliability with the lower limit at 0.70 and the measures of reliability ranged
from 0.78 to 0.93, indicating high internal consistency reliability.
Table 23.
Factor Correlations for Oblimin 9-Factor Solution
Factor 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 1.000 -0.290 -0.143 -0.213 0.153 -0.305 0.117 0.380 0.289
2 -0.290 1.000 0.090 0.125 -0.147 0.366 -0.285 -0.311 -0.146
3 -0.143 0.090 1.000 0.091 -0.038 0.127 0.023 -0.092 -0.111
4 -0.213 0.125 0.091 1.000 -0.277 0.309 -0.085 -0.283 -0.239
5 0.153 -0.147 -0.038 -0.277 1.000 -0.287 0.104 0.298 0.307
6 -0.305 0.366 0.127 0.309 -0.287 1.000 -0.183 -0.354 -0.307
7 0.117 -0.285 0.023 -0.085 0.104 -0.183 1.000 0.148 0.101
8 0.380 -0.311 -0.092 -0.283 0.298 -0.354 0.148 1.000 0.358
9 0.289 -0.146 -0.111 -0.239 0.307 -0.307 0.101 0.358 1.000
Factor names were developed by the researcher based on appropriateness for
representing the underlying dimensions of the particular factor. This procedure is
followed for each extracted factor. The final result was a name that represents each of the
derived factors as accurately as possible.
The first factor explained 25.90% of the variance. Examination of the 10
competencies that loaded on Factor 1 included knowledge and skills related to customer
satisfaction, customer interaction, and customer-centric processes. Therefore, factor one
was named Customer. The reliability of this factor was 0.84. Table 24 shows the
knowledge and skill competencies that loaded for the customer factor.
177
Table 24.
Knowledge and Skill Competencies Loaded for Factor 1: Customer.
Number Competency
Q17-1 Effectively follows up on client orders
Q17-2 Reproduces the intended use of product or service to end-user customers
Q17-5 Follows up with internal team members regarding customer contacts or
complaints
Q17-6 Facilitates fulfillment or delivery by communicating and coordinating with
sales support
Q17-7 Cross-sells or up-sells add-on products or services within existing customer
relationships
Q17-8 Handles shipment problems as required to keep customers happy
Q17-9 Handles orders and backorders effectively and expedites as necessary
Q17-10 Identifies appropriate time to deliver product or services to customers
Q17-11 Makes an extra effort to meet customer needs
Q19-12 Displays judgment in sales process (including expediting orders, making
decisions, etc)
The second factor explained 7.31% of the variance. Examination of the 20
competencies that loaded on Factor 2 included items related to office work, paperwork,
documentation, and administration. Therefore, factor two was named Administrative. The
reliability of this factor was 0.93. Table 25 shows the knowledge and skill competencies
that loaded for the administrative factor.
178
Table 25.
Knowledge and Skill Competencies Loaded for the Factor 2: Administrative
Number Competency
Q19-1 Recognizes and distinguishes financial figures and billing procedures
Q19-2 Appropriately checks in with supervisor and other key staff
Q19-3 Fills out paperwork with accuracy and within an appropriate time frame
Q19-4 Adequately reports on sales activities
Q19-5 Travels with supervisors
Q19-6 Originates orders by “writing them up” appropriately so they don’t get held up
Q19-7 Knows policies for keeping track of invoices
Q19-8 Maintains communication with others by telephoning the office
Q19-9 Constructs and delivers individualized correspondence or memos
Q19-10 Generates email or letters in proper business format with proper grammar and voice
Q19-11 Comprehends appropriate information in order to effectively complete data entry
Q19-13 Studies and verifies personal commissions to ensure accuracy
Q19-14 Follows company policy to appropriately fill out expense reports in a timely manner
Q19-15 Organizes personal records
Q19-16 Displays organizational ability by keeping the office tidy
Q19-17 Updates customer files in an effective manner
Q19-18 Maintains a viable and working virtual office
Q19-19 Attends local sales meetings to discuss and report progress with colleagues &
managers
Q19-20 Infers metrics calculations in order to gauge progress
Q19-21 Manages; prioritizes; and categorizes voice mail messages
The third factor explained 4.54% of the variance. Examination of the 13
competencies that loaded on Factor 3 included knowledge and skills related to managing
the sales process, generating sales activities, and moving new sales opportunities forward.
Therefore, factor three was named Sales Process. The reliability of this factor was 0.78.
Table 26 shows the knowledge and skill competencies that loaded for the sales process
factor.
179
Table 26.
Knowledge and Skill Competencies Loaded for Factor 3: Sales Process.
Number Competency
Q10-2 Actively calls on (visits) new accounts
Q10-3 Aggressively finds leads on new prospects
Q10-5 Distinguishes between high-quality and low-quality bids or proposals when sending to
the client
Q10-6 Displays appropriate follow up activity to individual meetings
Q10-7 Responds appropriately to referrals
Q10-8 Proactively attends networking events (convention, trade shows, etc) and builds
important key contacts
Q10-10 Discovers and addresses prospect or customer issues and concerns
Q10-11 Generates phone calls or emails and to setup appointments or advance the process
Q10-12 Plans and conducts conference calls with key corporate and client team members
Q10-13 Creates and/or provides seminars to clients or prospects
Q10-14 Demonstrates an ability to call on CEOs and other C-Level executives
Q10-16 Coordinates and completes relevant sales related activities
Q13-3 Recalls features and benefits of learned software tools or packages
The fourth factor explained 4.00% of the variance. Examination of the 18
competencies that loaded on Factor 4 included knowledge and skills relating to effective
communication, persuasion, and gauging perceptions of buyers. Therefore, factor four
was named Influence. The reliability of this factor was 0.89. Table 27 shows the
knowledge and skill competencies that loaded for influence factor.
180
Table 27.
Knowledge and Skill Competencies Loaded for Factor 4: Influence.
Number Competency
Q16-1 Sells the unique value-added aspects of the company, product or service
Q16-2 Overcomes objections with skill
Q16-3 Persuades prospects with examples or logic or other pertinent information
Q16-4 Possesses skill at closing sales opportunities and obtaining the order
Q16-5 Constructs an adequately scripted sales pitch
Q16-6 Manages the delivery of appropriate client proof (such as samples or trials)
Q16-7 Effectively flatters clients to support end goal
Q16-8 Appropriately gauges perceptions of others regarding one’s self
Q16-9 Influences others with direct and indirect skill
Q16-10 Rewrites prepared words and/or presentations adequately
Q16-11 Effectively and persuasively delivers sales presentations to relevant decision makers
or influencers
Q16-12 Identifies processes for creating compelling sales presentations that differentiate
Q16-13 Communicates with appropriately designed presentation aids
Q16-14 Displays professionalism; poise; and speaking skill while make speeches
Q16-15 Displays ability to leave compelling voice mails
Q16-16 Constructs effective questions and asks those questions at appropriate times
Q16-17 Recognizes other people’s nonverbal behavior in a selling situation
Q16-18 Predicts the effects of own words and actions
The fifth factor explained 3.58% of the variance. Examination of the 15
competencies that loaded on Factor 5 included knowledge and skills related to goal
setting, consulting, account planning, and motivation. Therefore, factor five was named
Performance. The reliability of this factor was 0.87. Table 28 shows the knowledge and
skill competencies that loaded for performance factor.
181
Table 28.
Knowledge and Skill Competencies Loaded for Factor 5: Performance
Number Competency
Q10-1 Acquires and implements consultative selling processes in order to consult with
customers on their business problems
Q10-9 Predicts other people’s reactions to the sales process
Q11-1 Finds better; faster; or more efficient ways of doing things
Q11-2 Proactively sets challenging and achievable goals
Q11-3 Comprehends individual or team strengths and weaknesses
Q11-4 Uses time efficiently to consistently perform at high levels
Q11-5 Has knowledge of the most effective selling activity for the situation
Q11-6 Comprehends account planning activities for multiple or inter-related sales calls
Q11-7 Understands what motivates self and others
Q11-8 Arranges for appropriately timed and optimized travel
Q11-10 Interprets daily plan to maximize efficiency
Q11-11 Manages cross functional, diverse, or international team members
Q11-12 Recognizes future demand for products or services
Q11-13 Accurately predicts closing rates on new sales opportunities in order to forecast
properly
Q10-15 Alters approach based on reading body language of others
The sixth factor explained 3.31% of the variance. Examination of the 14
competencies that loaded on Factor 6 included knowledge and skills related to product,
service, data interpretation, and industry trends. Therefore, factor six was named Product
and Industry. The reliability of this factor was 0.88. Table 29 shows the knowledge and
skill competencies that loaded for product and industry factor.
182
Table 29.
Knowledge and Skill Competencies Loaded for Factor 6: Product and Industry
Number Competency
Q11-9 Optimizes time spent when travelling to and from locations (e.g., office, client site,
travel destinations, etc)
Q13-7 Interprets information from multiple sources (including databases, online,
colleagues, etc)
Q17-3 Recognizes how client firms are organized and how they function
Q18-1 Interprets research on industry and competition
Q18-2 Recalls relevant newsletters on important topics for use in the sales process
Q18-3 Interprets trade publications in order to gather appropriate knowledge
Q18-4 Summarizes features and benefits of competitor's products or services
Q18-5 Responds adequately to competitive threats
Q18-6 Comprehends feedback from clients, individuals in the market, and supervisors
Q18-7 Determines most appropriate materials to bring along on sales visits
Q18-8 Comprehends the features, benefits, and value of the product or service
Q18-9 Displays proficiency in new company products (includes reviewing, analyzing, and
introducing)
Q18-10 Reads company literature and relates content appropriately
Q18-12 Responds to environmental forces by seizing opportunities for success
The seventh factor explained 3.12% of the variance. Examination of the eight
competencies that loaded on Factor 7 included knowledge and skills related to
information technology, personal electronic devices, and computers. Therefore, factor
seven was named Technology. The reliability of this factor was 0.82. Table 30 shows the
knowledge and skill competencies that loaded for the technology factor.
183
Table 30.
Knowledge and Skill Competencies Loaded Factor 7: Technology
Number Competency
Q12-1 Knows how to use e-mail programs to communicate appropriately
Q12-2 Recalls appropriate technical information and relays it to customers
Q12-3 Identifies most appropriate technology for use (e.g., video conferencing, web
seminars, etc)
Q12-4 Selects most appropriate personal device(s) to manage information (i.e. a voice
recorder; cell phone; pager; PDA)
Q12-5 Effectively employs the Internet to achieve selling goals
Q12-6 Sets up; secures; uses; and manages a laptop or personal computer for a variety of
purposes (including making presentations, organizing data, collecting
information, etc)
Q12-7 Develops; manages; and delivers effective presentations via the Internet
Q14-7 Understands technical information and processes
The eighth factor explained 2.57% of the variance. Examination of the nine
competencies that loaded on Factor 8 included knowledge and skills relating to decision-
making, ethics, intellectual property, and legal matters. Therefore, factor eight was named
Risk Management. The reliability of this factor was 0.85. Table 31 shows the knowledge
and skill competencies that loaded for the risk management factor.
184
Table 31.
Knowledge and Skill Competencies Loaded for Factor 8: Risk Management
Number Competency
Q15-1 Displays knowledge of applicable state; local; and national laws
Q15-2 Recalls or recognizes applicable corporate policies in sales interactions
Q15-3 Infers appropriate action to avoid possibility litigation
Q15-4 Applies a personal or professional ethical code to decision-making processes
Q15-5 Infers the appropriate protection and/or use of intellectual property
Q15-7 Demonstrates appropriate decision making ability that involves others
Q15-8 Recognizes or distinguishes the accuracy of records and other documents
Q15-9 Safely and securely takes clients or prospects on-site
Q15-10 Paraphrases or translates key facts about important situations
The ninth factor explained 2.44% of the variance. Examination of the 15
competencies that loaded on Factor 9 included knowledge and skills relating to personal
networking, relationship building, and building rapport. Therefore, factor nine was named
Relationship. The reliability of this factor was 0.86. Table 32 shows the knowledge and
skill competencies that loaded for the relationship factor.
185
Table 32.
Knowledge and Skill Competencies Loaded for Factor 9: Relationship
Number Competency
Q13-1 Fills out and manages a personal development plan
Q13-2 Prepares for obstacles to sales success
Q13-4 Distinguishes relevant sales training content that will most likely lead to increased
competency
Q14-1 Actively engages in phone activity to sell over the phone or generate cold calls
Q14-2 Actively and effectively sells additional value-added services or solutions
Q14-3 Tailors unique solutions or modifies existing products to meet prospect and/or
customer needs
Q14-4 Conducts review meetings with key stakeholders
Q14-5 Meets with internal project staff to facilitate appropriate actions
Q14-6 Calls on multiple individuals within the customer’s organization
Q14-9 Builds good relationships with partners, vendors, or channel members
Q14-10 Identifies the appropriate time to utilize customer service techniques
Q14-11 Recognizes appropriate strategies to build rapport with clients and other key
relationships
Q14-12 Acquires and relates to a widespread network of relevant business contacts
Q14-14 Relates well with organizational influencers or gatekeepers
Q14-15 Displays active and engaged listening skills
There is no underlying structure to the SCA as determined by Exploratory Factor
Analysis.
A maximum likelihood exploratory factor analysis with oblimin rotation found an
underlying structure to the data collected with the SCA. An exploratory factor analysis
was conducted with all 136 competencies and the scree test indicated a 9-factor model
consisting of 122 competency statements that together explained 41.73% of the total
variance. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected.
186
Research Question 7
Research question seven was tested with descriptive statistics (mean and median)
in order to rank the knowledge competencies for each of the sub population groups.
Knowledge competencies were rank ordered for the entire set of four respondent groups.
On a rating scale of 1 to 5, the means ranged from 3.28 to 4.51 for the 31 knowledge
competencies. The lowest rated knowledge competency was Q19_20, which was
The highest rated knowledge competency was Q10_6, which was
The data indicated that the group tendency was to view most of the listed
knowledge competencies as being important to entry-level services sales person success.
When the data were analyzed, two competencies did not score above a 3.0 within
the sales professor data set, which were:
Q11_12: Recognizes future demand for products or services.
Q10_5: Distinguishes between high-quality and low-quality bids or proposals
when sending to the client.
However, on average across the data set, all knowledge competencies averaged a
mean above a 3.0. This meant that on average the respondent groups perceived the
knowledge contained within the SCA as important for entry-level business-to-business
selling in the services industry. Sales managers, sales professors, and sales people all
ranked competency Q10_6 in first place. It was
187
And sales trainers ranked the same competency in second place. Their choice for first
place was competency Q12_1 which was
Knows how to use e-mail programs to communicate appropriately.
Sales managers and sales people both ranked competency Q18_8 in second place
that was
Comprehends the features, benefits, and value of the product or service.
Sales professors and sales trainers had this same competency in third place. Sales
professors put competency Q12_1 in second place, which was
Knows how to use e-mail programs to communicate appropriately.
And sales trainers put competency Q10_6 in second place, which was the same
competency, ranked in first place by sales managers, sales professors, and sales people. It
was:
Sales managers, sales trainers, and sales people had competency Q17_3 in the top
5 of their rankings, which was
Recognizes how client firms are organized and how they function.
And sales trainers had this same competency in the eighth position in their
rankings.
All four groups had competency Q14_11 in their top five within their rankings,
which was
Recognizes appropriate strategies to build rapport with clients and other key
relationships.
188
For the least important competency, each group placed a different competency
statement in last place within their rankings. Sales managers placed competency Q15_1
in last place, which was
Displays knowledge of applicable state; local; and national laws.
Sales professors placed competency Q10_5 in last place, which was:
Distinguishes between high-quality and low-quality bids or proposals when
sending to the client.
Sales trainers placed competency Q11_12 in last place, which was:
Recognizes future demand for products or services.
Sales people placed competency Q19_20 in last place, which was:
Table 33 depicts the ranking of rankings of knowledge competencies by sales
managers, sales professors, sales trainers, and sales people.
189
Table 33.
Rankings of Knowledge Competencies by Sales Managers, Sales Professors, Sales Trainers, and Sales People
Rankings of Knowledge Rankings of Knowledge Rankings of Knowledge Rankings of Knowledge

Competencies Competencies Competencies Competencies
by Sales Managers by Sales Professors by Sales Trainers by Sales People
Competency Rank Mean Competency Rank Mean Competency Rank Mean Competency Rank Mean
Q10_6 1 4.56 Q10_6 1 4.59 Q12_1 1 4.46 Q10_6 1 4.48
Q18_8 2 4.34 Q12_1 2 4.53 Q10_6 2 4.46 Q18_8 2 4.30
Q12_1 3 4.25 Q18_8 3 4.24 Q18_8 3 4.44 Q12_1 3 4.29
Q17_3 4 4.06 Q14_11 4 4.24 Q14_11 4 4.31 Q14_11 4 4.07
Q14_11 5 4.03 Q12_2 5 4.18 Q17_3 5 4.12 Q17_3 5 4.01
Q11_7 6 3.96 Q18_4 6 4.12 Q11_7 6 4.01 Q11_7 6 4.01
Q16_12 7 3.80 Q16_12 7 4.12 Q12_2 7 3.94 Q16_12 7 3.89
Q15_8 8 3.74 Q17_3 8 4.06 Q15_2 8 3.88 Q13_6 8 3.86
Q12_2 9 3.74 Q14_7 9 4.06 Q17_10 9 3.87 Q15_2 9 3.83
Q17_10 10 3.73 Q11_5 10 4.00 Q15_8 10 3.84 Q10_5 10 3.79
Q15_2 11 3.73 Q19_11 11 3.94 Q16_12 11 3.81 Q11_5 11 3.78
Q19_11 12 3.72 Q18_2 12 3.94 Q11_5 12 3.78 Q15_8 12 3.75
Q18_4 13 3.71 Q13_5 13 3.94 Q13_6 13 3.74 Q18_4 13 3.74
Q17_4 14 3.64 Q13_3 14 3.94 Q10_5 14 3.69 Q17_4 14 3.73
Q10_5 15 3.64 Q12_3 15 3.94 Q14_10 15 3.69 Q12_2 15 3.73
190
Table 33 continued.
Rankings of Knowledge Competencies by Sales Managers, Sales Professors, Sales Trainers, and Sales People
Rankings of Knowledge Rankings of Knowledge Rankings of Knowledge Rankings of Knowledge

Q13_6 16 3.61 Q13_6 16 3.88 Q17_4 16 3.66 Q17_10 16 3.72
Q14_7 17 3.57 Q18_1 17 3.88 Q18_4 17 3.65 Q14_10 17 3.70
Q14_10 18 3.56 Q17_10 18 3.76 Q19_1 18 3.59 Q14_7 18 3.66
Q11_5 19 3.54 Q15_8 19 3.76 Q19_11 19 3.58 Q18_1 19 3.61
Q19_7 20 3.51 Q11_7 20 3.76 Q14_7 20 3.58 Q19_11 20 3.57
Q18_2 21 3.49 Q15_2 21 3.71 Q19_7 21 3.55 Q11_12 21 3.55
Q18_1 22 3.49 Q19_1 22 3.65 Q18_2 22 3.52 Q18_2 22 3.53
Q19_1 23 3.47 Q17_4 23 3.65 Q15_1 23 3.48 Q13_3 23 3.53
Q13_3 24 3.46 Q14_10 24 3.65 Q18_1 24 3.46 Q13_5 24 3.51
Q11_6 25 3.43 Q11_6 25 3.65 Q13_3 25 3.43 Q11_3 25 3.51
Q12_3 26 3.40 Q15_1 26 3.59 Q13_5 26 3.39 Q19_1 26 3.47
Q11_3 27 3.38 Q19_20 27 3.53 Q11_6 27 3.36 Q11_6 27 3.46
Q13_5 28 3.32 Q19_7 28 3.41 Q11_3 28 3.36 Q19_7 28 3.42
Q19_20 29 3.30 Q11_3 29 3.29 Q12_3 29 3.33 Q15_1 29 3.41
Q11_12 30 3.29 Q11_12 30 2.94 Q19_20 30 3.29 Q12_3 30 3.23
Q15_1 31 3.23 Q10_5 31 2.82 Q11_12 31 3.15 Q19_20 31 3.22
191
Prior to the analysis of research questions, the skill competencies were also rank
ordered by the four ranking groups. On a rating scale of 1 to 5, the means ranged from
2.55 to 4.59. The lowest rated competency from the entire data including all responses
was Q11_11, which was
Manages cross-functional, diverse, or international team members.
The highest rated competency from the data set including all responses was Q14_15,
which was
The data indicated that the group tendency was to view most of the listed skill
competencies as being important to entry-level services sales person’s success. This
meant that on average the respondent groups perceived the knowledge contained within
the SCA as important for entry-level business-to-business selling in the services industry.
Within the sales manager sample, the following skill competencies were found to
have a mean below a 3.0:
Within the sales professor sample, the following skill competencies were found to
have a mean below a 3.0:
Q19_5: Travels with supervisors.
192
Within the sales trainer sample, the following competencies were found to have a
mean below a 3.0:
Within the sales person sample, the following competencies were found to have a
mean below a 3.0:
Q19_16: Displays organizational ability by keeping the office tidy
Q18_11: Determines the appropriate price for a product or service
The results of the skill competency analysis found there were four competencies
rated with a mean below a 3.0. This meant that collectively, sales manager, sales
professor, sales trainer, and sales person responses found the following competencies less
than moderately important:
193
The highest ranked skill competency according to sales managers, sales trainers,
and sales people was Q14_15, which was:
And sales professors ranked competency 10_2 in the first position, which was
Actively calls on (visits) new accounts.
When ranking the skill competencies, sales managers, sales trainers, and sales
people each ranked competency Q14_15 in first place. It was
Sales professors ranked the same competency in the eighth position while ranking
Q10_2 in first place, which was
Actively calls on (visits) new accounts.
Sales managers ranked Q10_11 in the second position, which was
Generates phone calls or emails in order to setup appointments or advance the
process.
This same competency was found in the thirty-fourth position by sales professors,
eighth position by sales trainers, and tenth position by sales people.
Sales professors ranked Q19_10 in the second position, which was
Generates email or letters in proper business format with proper grammar and
voice
This same competency was ranked in the ninth position by sales managers, tenth
position by sales trainers, and fourth position by sales people.
Sales trainers ranked Q15_4 in the second position, which was
194
Applies a personal or professional ethical code to decision-making processes.
This same competency was ranked in the sixth position by sales managers,
eleventh position by sales professors, and seventh position by sales people.
Sales people rated Q10_10 in the second position, which was
Discovers and addresses prospect or customer issues and concerns.
This same competency was rated in the eighth position by sales managers, thirty-
fifth position by sales professors, and sixth position by sales trainers.
Sales managers, sales trainers, and sales people all placed competency Q11_11 in
last place, which was
Manages cross-functional, diverse, or international team members.
Sales Professors placed competency Q10_13 in last place, which was
Creates and/or provides seminars to clients or prospects.
Table 34 shows the rankings of skill competencies by sales managers, sales
professors, sales trainers, and sales people.
195
Table 34.
Rankings of Skill Competencies by Sales Managers, Sales Professors, Sales Trainers, and Sales People
Rankings of Skill Rankings of Knowledge Rankings of Knowledge Rankings of Knowledge

Competency Rank Mean Competency Rank Mean Competency Rank Mean Competency Rank Mean
Q14_15 1 4.54 Q10_2 1 4.82 Q14_15 1 4.65 Q14_15 1 4.63
Q10_11 2 4.43 Q19_10 2 4.71 Q15_4 2 4.62 Q10_10 2 4.46
Q17_11 3 4.39 Q16_11 3 4.53 Q17_11 3 4.53 Q17_11 3 4.45
Q10_7 4 4.35 Q16_1 4 4.53 Q16_16 4 4.45 Q19_10 4 4.43
Q10_3 5 4.33 Q10_7 5 4.53 Q10_7 5 4.43 Q10_2 5 4.40
Q15_4 6 4.33 Q16_4 6 4.47 Q10_10 6 4.42 Q10_7 6 4.39
Q10_2 7 4.32 Q12_6 7 4.47 Q17_1 7 4.39 Q15_4 7 4.34
Q10_10 8 4.29 Q14_15 8 4.47 Q10_11 8 4.38 Q16_16 8 4.34
Q19_10 9 4.29 Q16_2 9 4.41 Q10_2 9 4.35 Q16_4 9 4.28
Q16_16 10 4.25 Q14_14 10 4.41 Q19_10 10 4.33 Q10_11 10 4.24
Q16_14 11 4.20 Q15_4 11 4.35 Q10_3 11 4.31 Q14_14 11 4.23
Q16_4 12 4.19 Q10_4 12 4.29 Q16_11 12 4.26 Q16_14 12 4.21
Q14_9 13 4.16 Q16_9 13 4.29 Q14_14 13 4.22 Q10_3 13 4.19
Q16_1 14 4.16 Q16_17 14 4.29 Q18_6 14 4.20 Q16_2 14 4.16
196
Table 34 continued.

Q19_4 15 4.15 Q16_16 15 4.29 Q10_4 15 4.19 Q16_11 15 4.16
Q16_11 16 4.14 Q16_14 16 4.29 Q12_6 16 4.17 Q11_4 16 4.14
Q17_1 17 4.11 Q13_7 17 4.29 Q10_16 17 4.16 Q16_1 17 4.14
Q16_2 18 4.07 Q10_17 18 4.29 Q16_1 18 4.16 Q14_9 18 4.10
Q14_14 19 4.07 Q16_6 19 4.24 Q16_4 19 4.15 Q11_2 19 4.09
Q11_4 20 4.06 Q17_5 20 4.24 Q19_4 20 4.15 Q10_16 20 4.08
Q10_4 21 4.05 Q17_11 21 4.24 Q10_1 21 4.15 Q18_6 21 4.08
Q19_17 22 4.05 Q11_4 22 4.24 Q19_17 22 4.14 Q14_2 22 4.05
Q10_16 23 4.05 Q16_15 23 4.24 Q19_6 23 4.13 Q10_4 23 4.04
Q14_1 24 4.02 Q19_21 24 4.18 Q11_4 24 4.09 Q17_1 24 4.03
Q18_6 25 3.99 Q17_7 25 4.18 Q18_7 25 4.08 Q14_6 25 4.02
Q19_6 26 3.99 Q17_1 26 4.18 Q17_5 26 4.08 Q19_12 26 4.01
Q16_17 27 3.98 Q16_13 27 4.18 Q14_1 27 4.05 Q14_1 27 3.99
Q18_10 28 3.97 Q15_10 28 4.18 Q19_12 28 4.04 Q19_6 28 3.99
Q18_7 29 3.97 Q14_1 29 4.18 Q16_2 29 4.04 Q16_17 29 3.99
197
Table 34 continued.
Q14_2 30 3.94 Q19_12 30 4.12 Q18_10 30 4.03 Q18_7 30 3.98
Q11_10 31 3.93 Q18_6 31 4.12 Q14_9 31 4.03 Q19_4 31 3.97
Q19_3 32 3.92 Q15_5 32 4.12 Q17_12 32 4.02 Q18_10 32 3.97
Q19_19 33 3.89 Q11_2 33 4.12 Q16_17 33 4.02 Q11_10 33 3.96
Q17_5 34 3.89 Q10_11 34 4.12 Q19_3 34 4.01 Q14_12 34 3.95
Q10_17 35 3.89 Q10_10 35 4.12 Q14_12 35 4.01 Q17_12 35 3.95
Q12_6 36 3.88 Q16_3 36 4.06 Q16_14 36 4.00 Q12_6 36 3.95
Q19_12 37 3.88 Q14_6 37 4.06 Q11_10 37 3.98 Q15_7 37 3.95
Q19_2 38 3.87 Q13_2 38 4.06 Q17_6 38 3.98 Q17_5 38 3.95
Q11_2 39 3.86 Q11_10 39 4.06 Q15_7 39 3.97 Q13_2 39 3.94
Q17_7 40 3.85 Q18_9 40 4.00 Q19_2 40 3.95 Q18_9 40 3.92
Q13_2 41 3.84 Q18_10 41 4.00 Q17_7 41 3.95 Q16_3 41 3.89
Q16_3 42 3.84 Q15_7 42 4.00 Q13_2 42 3.92 Q19_17 42 3.89
Q15_7 43 3.84 Q14_9 43 4.00 Q16_6 43 3.91 Q16_6 43 3.89
Q17_6 44 3.81 Q14_3 44 4.00 Q19_19 44 3.89 Q15_10 44 3.86
Q16_13 45 3.81 Q14_2 45 4.00 Q15_10 45 3.89 Q16_18 45 3.86
198
Table 34 continued.

Q19_15 46 3.79 Q14_12 46 4.00 Q16_9 46 3.89 Q14_3 46 3.85
Q16_6 47 3.79 Q13_4 47 4.00 Q11_2 47 3.88 Q19_3 47 3.84
Q10_15 48 3.79 Q12_5 48 4.00 Q16_3 48 3.87 Q10_1 48 3.84
Q18_9 49 3.78 Q18_7 49 4.00 Q15_3 49 3.86 Q17_6 49 3.82
Q10_1 50 3.78 Q16_5 50 4.00 Q15_5 50 3.85 Q10_15 50 3.81
Q15_10 51 3.77 Q16_10 51 4.00 Q17_9 51 3.84 Q16_9 51 3.81
Q10_8 52 3.77 Q10_3 52 4.00 Q13_1 52 3.83 Q15_3 52 3.79
Q16_9 53 3.76 Q16_8 53 3.94 Q13_7 53 3.82 Q18_5 53 3.78
Q18_5 54 3.74 Q19_4 54 3.94 Q10_17 54 3.82 Q18_12 54 3.77
Q16_10 55 3.73 Q19_17 55 3.94 Q18_5 55 3.81 Q17_7 55 3.76
Q15_5 56 3.73 Q19_19 56 3.88 Q14_2 56 3.80 Q19_2 56 3.76
Q12_5 57 3.73 Q19_14 57 3.88 Q10_15 57 3.79 Q19_19 57 3.74
Q16_5 58 3.73 Q18_12 58 3.88 Q10_8 58 3.78 Q16_13 58 3.74
Q14_6 59 3.72 Q18_11 59 3.88 Q14_6 59 3.76 Q16_10 59 3.74
Q14_12 60 3.71 Q17_6 60 3.88 Q16_13 60 3.75 Q15_5 60 3.73
199
Table 34 continued.
Q17_12 61 3.70 Q17_2 61 3.88 Q12_5 61 3.74 Q13_7 61 3.72
Q16_18 62 3.70 Q14_16 62 3.88 Q19_15 62 3.74 Q10_17 62 3.71
Q11_1 63 3.67 Q14_5 63 3.88 Q16_15 63 3.72 Q16_8 63 3.70
Q19_14 64 3.66 Q12_7 64 3.82 Q16_18 64 3.72 Q16_5 64 3.70
Q19_9 65 3.66 Q15_6 65 3.82 Q13_9 65 3.72 Q14_13 65 3.68
Q15_3 66 3.65 Q15_3 66 3.82 Q19_14 66 3.71 Q19_15 66 3.67
Q11_9 67 3.65 Q14_4 67 3.82 Q17_8 67 3.71 Q11_1 67 3.66
Q14_13 68 3.64 Q12_4 68 3.82 Q14_16 68 3.68 Q19_21 68 3.66
Q18_12 69 3.63 Q19_9 69 3.76 Q18_9 69 3.67 Q19_9 69 3.65
Q19_8 70 3.62 Q19_6 70 3.76 Q19_21 70 3.66 Q13_4 70 3.64
Q19_21 71 3.61 Q17_12 71 3.76 Q11_1 71 3.65 Q19_13 71 3.63
Q14_16 72 3.59 Q14_13 72 3.76 Q11_9 72 3.65 Q17_2 72 3.63
Q13_7 73 3.59 Q13_9 73 3.76 Q18_12 73 3.65 Q19_8 73 3.63
Q14_3 74 3.59 Q10_9 74 3.76 Q19_9 74 3.64 Q12_5 74 3.61
Q16_8 75 3.58 Q10_16 75 3.76 Q14_3 75 3.64 Q14_5 75 3.59
Q14_5 76 3.57 Q10_1 76 3.76 Q16_8 76 3.64 Q13_9 76 3.57
200
Table 34 continued.
Q16_15 77 3.56 Q19_3 77 3.71 Q13_4 77 3.63 Q14_4 77 3.57
Q13_9 78 3.56 Q18_3 78 3.65 Q17_2 78 3.63 Q10_8 78 3.56
Q17_2 79 3.53 Q10_12 79 3.65 Q19_8 79 3.62 Q11_8 79 3.55
Q13_4 80 3.52 Q10_8 80 3.65 Q19_13 80 3.62 Q19_18 80 3.55
Q19_18 81 3.52 Q11_9 81 3.59 Q14_13 81 3.60 Q16_15 81 3.54
Q19_13 82 3.52 Q19_18 82 3.59 Q16_5 82 3.58 Q11_9 82 3.54
Q11_8 83 3.51 Q17_9 83 3.59 Q18_3 83 3.54 Q17_9 83 3.53
Q17_9 84 3.49 Q16_18 84 3.53 Q12_4 84 3.53 Q14_16 84 3.53
Q17_8 85 3.46 Q13_8 85 3.53 Q19_18 85 3.48 Q17_8 85 3.51
Q12_4 86 3.44 Q19_15 86 3.53 Q16_10 86 3.46 Q13_1 86 3.51
Q13_1 87 3.41 Q19_8 87 3.47 Q10_9 87 3.43 Q10_14 87 3.48
Q18_3 88 3.38 Q19_2 88 3.47 Q15_9 88 3.40 Q19_14 88 3.45
Q14_4 89 3.34 Q17_8 89 3.41 Q14_5 89 3.39 Q10_12 89 3.45
Q10_12 90 3.34 Q14_17 90 3.41 Q15_6 90 3.37 Q15_9 90 3.44
Q10_14 91 3.34 Q18_5 91 3.41 Q14_4 91 3.36 Q15_6 91 3.43
Q10_9 92 3.31 Q10_14 92 3.41 Q11_8 92 3.32 Q18_3 92 3.43
201
Table 34 continued.
Q19_5 93 3.28 Q15_9 93 3.35 Q13_8 93 3.24 Q12_4 93 3.37
Q15_9 94 3.25 Q10_15 94 3.35 Q11_13 94 3.22 Q12_7 94 3.35
Q11_13 95 3.23 Q11_1 95 3.35 Q19_5 95 3.22 Q10_9 95 3.31
Q13_8 96 3.23 Q16_7 96 3.29 Q10_12 96 3.16 Q13_8 96 3.28
Q19_16 97 3.22 Q19_13 97 3.29 Q10_14 97 3.15 Q11_13 97 3.22
Q12_7 98 3.21 Q14_8 98 3.29 Q12_7 98 3.13 Q14_17 98 3.11
Q15_6 99 3.16 Q11_8 99 3.29 Q18_11 99 3.13 Q14_8 99 3.06
Q16_7 100 3.05 Q13_1 100 3.24 Q14_17 100 3.12 Q19_5 100 3.01
Q18_11 101 3.04 Q19_16 101 3.18 Q19_16 101 3.04 Q19_16 101 2.99
Q14_17 102 3.00 Q11_13 102 3.18 Q14_8 102 2.85 Q18_11 102 2.99
Q14_8 103 2.89 Q11_11 103 3.00 Q16_7 103 2.83 Q16_7 103 2.92
Q10_13 104 2.69 Q19_5 104 2.94 Q10_13 104 2.72 Q10_13 104 2.75
Q11_11 105 2.50 Q10_13 105 2.76 Q11_11 105 2.49 Q11_11 105 2.60
202
Research Question 8
Research question eight was tested using content analysis and descriptive
statistics (mean, median, standard deviation, and interquartile range) to determine the
hierarchy for the knowledge and skill competencies as recommended and agreed upon by
all respondents. Table 35 shows the five knowledge competencies and 33 skill
competencies that attained an overall importance rating mean of greater than 4.00,
corresponding to a rating of very important or essential for entry-level business-to-
business selling in the first year within the services industry.
Table 35.
Competencies with an overall importance rating over 4.00
Competency Mean Type

Q14_15: Displays active and engaged listening skills 4.59 Skill
Q10_6: Displays appropriate follow up activity to individual meetings 4.51 Knowledge
Q17_11: Makes an extra effort to meet customer needs 4.43 Skill
Q15_4: Applies a personal or professional ethical code to decision- 4.40 Skill
making processes
Q10_7: Responds appropriately to referrals 4.39 Skill
Q10_2: Actively calls on (visits) new accounts 4.37 Skill
Q10_10: Discovers and addresses prospect or customer issues and 4.37 Skill
concerns
Q19_10: Generates email or letters in proper business format with 4.36 Skill
proper grammar and voice
Q10_11: Generates phone calls or emails and to setup appointments or 4.35 Skill
advance the process
Q18_8: Comprehends the features, benefits, and value of the product or 4.34 Knowledge
service
Q16_16: Constructs effective questions and asks those questions at 4.33 Skill
appropriate times
Q12_1: Knows how to use e-mail programs to communicate 4.32 Knowledge
appropriately
Q10_3: Aggressively finds leads on new prospects 4.27 Skill
203
Table 35 continued.
Competencies with an overall importance rating over 4.00
Competency Mean Type

Q16_4: Possesses skill at closing sales opportunities and obtaining the 4.22 Skill
order
Q16_11: Effectively and persuasively delivers sales presentations to 4.18 Skill
relevant decision makers or influencers
Q14_14: Relates well with organizational influencers or gatekeepers 4.17 Skill
Q16_1: Sells the unique value-added aspects of the company, product 4.17 Skill
or service
Q16_14: Displays professionalism; poise; and speaking skill while 4.16 Skill
make speeches
Q17_1: Effectively follows up on client orders 4.15 Skill
Q14_11: Recognizes appropriate strategies to build rapport with clients 4.11 Knowledge
and other key relationships
Q16_2: Overcomes objections with skill 4.11 Skill
Q14_9: Builds good relationships with partners, vendors, or channel 4.11 Skill
members
Q11_4: Uses time efficiently to consistently perform at high levels 4.10 Skill
Q10_4: Engages personal selling strategies that meet the needs of the 4.08 Skill
end-user
Q19_4: Adequately reports on sales activities 4.08 Skill
Q18_6: Comprehends feedback from clients, individuals in the market, 4.07 Skill
and supervisors
Q10_16: Coordinates and completes relevant sales related activities 4.07 Skill
Q17_3: Recognizes how client firms are organized and how they 4.06 Knowledge
function
Q14_1: Actively engages in phone activity to sell over the phone or 4.02 Skill
generate cold calls
Q19_6: Originates orders by “writing them up” appropriately so they 4.01 Skill
don’t get held up
Q19_17: Updates customer files in an effective manner 4.01 Skill
Q16_17: Recognizes other people’s nonverbal behavior in a selling 4.00 Skill
situation
Q18_7: Determines most appropriate materials to bring along on sales 4.00 Skill
visits
204
Table 36 shows the 28 competencies that attained an overall agreement rating
mean of greater than 4.0 as well as having an interquartile range of 1.00 or less. The
respondents displayed consensus by rating these competencies as the most important
competencies required for success in entry-level business-to-business selling in the
services industry. These 27 competencies also indicated a strong congruity within the
answers given across all groups. Therefore, these competencies are identified as primary
(Tier I) competencies because of the strong consensus and congruity among all
respondents.
Table 36.
Primary Competencies: Tier I Competencies with a Mean of 4.0 or Above and an
Interquartile Range of 1.0 or Less Indicating a High Level of Importance and High Level
of Congruity Between Groups
Competency Mean IQR Type

Q14_15: Displays active and engaged listening skills. 4.59 1 Skill
Q17_11: Makes an extra effort to meet customer needs 4.43 1 Skill
Q15_4: Applies a personal or professional ethical code to 4.40 1 Skill
decision-making processes
Q10_7: Responds appropriately to referrals 4.39 1 Skill
Q10_2: Actively calls on (visits) new accounts 4.37 1 Skill
Q10_10: Discovers and addresses prospect or customer issues 4.37 1 Skill
and concerns
Q19_10: Generates email or letters in proper business format 4.36 1 Skill
with proper grammar and voice
Q10_11: Generates phone calls or emails and to setup 4.35 1 Skill
appointments or advance the process
Q16_16: Manages the delivery of appropriate client proof (such 4.33 1 Skill
as samples or trials)
Q10_3: Aggressively finds leads on new prospects 4.27 1 Skill
205
Table 36 continued.
Primary Competencies: Tier I Competencies with a Mean of 4.0 or Above and an
Interquartile Range of 1.0 or Less Indicating a High Level of Importance and High
Level of Congruity Between Groups

Q16_4: Possesses skill at closing sales opportunities and 4.22 1 Skill
obtaining the order
Q16_11: Effectively and persuasively delivers sales presentations 4.19 1 Skill
to relevant decision makers or influencers
Q14_14: Relates well with organizational influencers or 4.17 1 Skill
gatekeepers
Q16_1: Sells the unique value-added aspects of the company, 4.17 1 Skill
product or service
Q16_14: Displays professionalism; poise; and speaking skill 4.17 1 Skill
while make speeches
Q16_2: Overcomes objections with skill 4.11 1 Skill
Q14_9: Builds good relationships with partners, vendors, or 4.11 1 Skill
channel members
Q11_4: Conducts review meetings with key stakeholders 4.10 1 Skill
Q10_4: Engages personal selling strategies that meet the needs of 4.08 1 Skill
the end-user
Q19_4: Adequately reports on sales activities 4.08 1 Skill
Q18_6: Comprehends feedback from clients, individuals in the 4.07 1 Skill
market, and supervisors
Q10_16: Coordinates and completes relevant sales related 4.07 1 Skill
activities
Q10_6: Displays appropriate follow up activity to individual 4.51 1 Knowledge
meetings
Q18_8: Comprehends the features, benefits, and value of the 4.34 1 Knowledge
product or service
Q12_1: Knows how to use e-mail programs to communicate 4.32 1 Knowledge
appropriately
Q14_11: Recognizes appropriate strategies to build rapport with 4.11 1 Knowledge
clients and other key relationships
Q17_3: Recognizes how client firms are organized and how they 4.06 1 Knowledge
function
206
Table 37 shows the 25 competencies rated above a 4.0, with an interquartile range
of 2.0 or higher. These competencies were rated as very important, but did not receive a
high degree of congruity. They are therefore identified as secondary (Tier II)
competencies.
Table 37.
Secondary Competencies: Tier II Competencies Rated With Importance Ratings Over 4.0
Showing High Importance, But an Interquartile Range Of 2.0 or Higher, Indicating a
Lack of Congruity in the Answers Across All Respondent Groups

Q14_1: Actively engages in phone activity to sell over the phone 4.02 2 Skill
or generate cold calls
Q19_6: Originates orders by “writing them up” appropriately so 4.01 2 Skill
they don’t get held up
Q19_17: Updates customer files in an effective manner 4.01 2 Skill
Q18_7: Determines most appropriate materials to bring along on 4.00 2 Skill
sales visits
Q12_6: Sets up; secures; uses; and manages a laptop or personal 3.99 2 Skill
computer for a variety of purposes (including making
presentations, organizing data, collecting information, etc)
Q18_10: Reads company literature and relates content 3.98 2 Skill
appropriately
Q11_7: Understands what motivates self and others 3.98 2 Knowledge
Q19_12: Displays judgment in sales process (including expediting 3.97 2 Skill
orders, making decisions, etc)
Q11_10: Interprets daily plan to maximize efficiency 3.95 2 Skill
Q11_2: Proactively sets challenging and achievable goals 3.95 2 Skill
Q14_2: Actively and effectively sells additional value-added 3.95 2 Skill
services or solutions
Q15_7: Demonstrates appropriate decision making ability that 3.91 2 Skill
involves others
207
Table 37 continued.

Q19_3: Fills out paperwork with accuracy and within an 3.91 2 Skill
appropriate time frame
Q13_2: Prepares for obstacles to sales success 3.90 2 Skill
Q10_1: Acquires and implements consultative selling processes in 3.88 2 Skill
order to consult with customers on their business problems
Q14_12: Acquires and relates to a widespread network of relevant 3.86 2 Skill
business contacts
Q17_12: Manages the hand-off to other key team members after 3.86 2 Skill
the sale is finalized
Q17_7: Cross-sells or up-sells add-on products or services within 3.86 2 Skill
existing customer relationships
Q16_12: Identifies processes for creating compelling sales 3.84 2 Knowledge
presentations that differentiate
Q19_19: Attends local sales meetings to discuss and report 3.84 2 Skill
progress with colleagues & managers
Q14_6: Calls on multiple individuals within the customer’s 3.84 2 Skill
organization
Q19_2: Appropriately checks in with supervisor and other key 3.84 2 Skill
staff
Q18_9: Displays proficiency in new company products (includes 3.81 2 Skill
reviewing, analyzing, and introducing)
Q10_15: Alters approach based on reading body language of 3.78 2 Skill
others
Q15_5: Infers the appropriate protection and/or use of intellectual 3.77 2 Skill
property
Q15_3: Infers appropriate action to avoid possibility litigation 3.75 2 Skill
Q19_15: Organizes personal records 3.73 2 Skill
Q14_3: Tailors unique solutions or modifies existing products to 3.70 2 Skill
meet prospect and/or customer needs
208
Table 37 continued.

Q10_8: Proactively attends networking events (convention, trade 3.70 2 Skill
shows, etc) and builds important key contacts
Q13_8: Practices personal mentoring with colleagues (including 3.26 2 Skill
training or coaching new or junior sales reps)
Q19_5: Travels with supervisors 3.16 2 Skill
Q19_16: Displays organizational ability by keeping the office tidy 3.10 2 Skill
Q14_17: Gives constructive and discriminate feedback to others 3.08 2 Skill
Q18_11: Determines the appropriate price for a product or service 3.07 2 Skill
Q16_7: Effectively flatters clients to support end goal 2.97 2 Skill
Q14_8: Appropriately organizes client/prospect entertainment 2.96 2 Skill
Research Question 9
Research question nine was tested using content analysis and descriptive statistics
(mean, median, standard deviation, and interquartile range) to ascertain the level of
importance among the four groups of respondents regarding the importance ranking of 10
curriculum areas.
Before the curriculum areas could be included in the final SCA instrument, a
preliminary set of competency groupings was developed by the researcher with the help
of the United Professional Sales Association standards committee as discussed in Chapter
III. The 10 competency groupings identified as containing all competency statements
were:
209
Sales Process Curriculum Area (SPCA): Competencies required in order for
exemplary entry-level sales people to identify, engage, move, close, and protect sales
opportunities.
Performance Curriculum Area (PCA): Competencies required in order for
exemplary entry-level sales people to manage individual outputs and results to
proactively and continuously improve the sales processes.
Technology Curriculum Area (TCA): Competencies required in order for
exemplary entry-level sales people to effectively choose, implement, and manage
information technology and other technology related to the sales process, product or
industry.
Learning Curriculum Area (LCA): Competencies required for exemplary entry-
level sales people learning about relevant industry knowledge, product knowledge, and
selling skills while keeping abreast of changes or trends in the market or the customer
relationship.
Relationship Curriculum Area (RCA): Competencies required in order for
exemplary entry-level sales people to identify, build, and sustain key business
relationships both internally and externally.
Risk Management Curriculum Area (RMCA): Competencies required in order for
exemplary entry-level sales people to effectively manage the gap between the selling
organization and buying organization(s) while minimizing negative impacts for both
entities
210
Influencing Curriculum Area (ICA): Competencies required in order for
exemplary entry-level sales people to effectively listen, speak, persuade, question, and
write within appropriate business norms while representing the interest of the selling
company and exploring the wants and needs of the buying company.
Customer Curriculum Area (CCA): Competencies required in order for exemplary
entry-level sales people to synchronize to customer buying processes, systems, and
requirements while helping the selling organization deliver on the promise of the business
relationship.
Product and Industry Curriculum Area (PICA): Competencies required in order
for exemplary entry-level sales people to build credibility and trust within the
buying/selling relationship and leverage product knowledge and industry knowledge for
the good of the selling situation, decision, or task.
Administrative Curriculum Area (ACA): Competencies required in order for
exemplary entry-level sales people to maintain corporate systems while adhering to
corporate policies and procedures reporting and tracking needs and conducting other non-
selling activities in support of sales goals.
These 10 competency groupings, with competency statements in each were then
forwarded to the content validation panel and expert jury drawn from the population
groups within professional selling. Procedures in chapter III detail this aspect of the
instrument creation process.
The statements were revised by the content validation panel and expert jury and
subsequently revised and renamed to curriculum areas. The 136 competencies found
211
within the curriculum areas formed the major portion of the Salesperson Competency
Analysis (SCA). Copies of the jury, pilot, and final instruments are located in the
Appendices. The competencies and their respective curriculum area were analyzed in the
effort to ascertain the competencies needed for success in the first year of business-to-
business selling in the services industry.
The level of agreement between all four groups of respondents regarding ranking
of the 10 curriculum areas was required. To facilitate this analysis, descriptive statistics
were used. The means and medians for each of the 10 curriculum areas were determined
across the entire data set, setting a suggested rank ordering of curriculum areas by
importance, as well as a rank ordering of competencies within curriculum areas. Table 39
shows the rank order of curriculum area by each respondent group.
Table 38.
Ranking Of Curriculum Areas by All Respondents
Interquartile
Ranking Curriculum Area Mean Median SD
Range
1 Sales Process 3.24 3.00 2.29 4
2 Relationship 3.60 3.00 2.41 3
3 Customer 3.80 3.00 2.45 4
4 Influencing 4.73 4.00 2.45 4
5 Learning 4.88 5.00 2.35 4
6 Performance 5.42 5.00 2.53 4
7 Product/Industry 5.70 6.00 2.40 4
8 Technology 6.95 7.00 2.28 4
9 Risk Mgmt. 7.82 8.00 1.96 2
10 Administration 8.30 9.00 2.45 2
212
Interquartile ranges were also calculated to assess the congruity of responses in
ranking the curriculum areas. Risk management and administrative curricula routinely
ranked as the least important curriculum area necessary for success as an entry-level
salesperson in the services industry. Respondents also routinely rated relationship, sales
process, and customer curricula in the top third, indicating these areas were the most
important for success as an entry-level business-to-business sales person in the service
market. Product and Industry curriculum routinely rated in the bottom third across all
respondent groups. Table 38 shows the rank ordering of curriculum areas for all
respondents.
213
Table 39.
Rankings of Curriculum Areas by Sales Managers, Sales Professors, Sales Trainers, and Sales People
Ranking of Ranking of Ranking of Ranking of

Curriculum Areas Curriculum Areas Curriculum Areas Curriculum Areas
Curriculum Rank Mean Curriculum Rank Mean Curriculum Rank Mean Curriculum Rank Mean
Sales Process 1 3.12 Sales Process 1 2.88 Relationship 1 3.27 Sales Process 1 3.29
Relationship 2 3.43 Relationship 2 3.18 Sales Process 2 3.52 Customer 2 3.66
Customer 3 3.80 Influencing 3 3.59 Customer 3 3.94 Relationship 3 4.08
Learning 4 4.68 Customer 4 4.12 Influencing 4 4.60 Influencing 4 4.77
Influencing 5 4.87 Performance 5 5.12 Learning 5 5.12 Learning 5 4.94
Performance 6 5.53 Learning 6 5.53 Performance 6 5.21 Performance 6 5.46
Product/Ind. 7 5.66 Technology 7 6.29 Product/Industry 7 5.93 Product/Ind. 7 5.53
Technology 8 6.81 Product/Ind. 8 6.53 Technology 8 7.34 Technology 8 6.94
Risk Mgmt. 9 7.73 Risk Mgmt. 9 7.94 Risk Mgmt. 9 8.09 Risk Mgmt. 9 7.70
Admin. 10 8.05 Admin. 10 9.59 Admin. 10 8.56 Admin. 10 8.30
214
Because the research is concerned with identifying a competency model for
learning and development purposes, it was necessary to identify the perceptions of sales
managers, sales professors, sales trainers, and sales people regarding the importance of
the curriculum areas. In the SCA, respondents were presented with the curriculum areas
and short definitions and asked to rank order the curriculum areas from one to ten, with
one being the most important curriculum area and ten being the least important
curriculum area. To facilitate the analysis, the data were organized by top-third, middle-
third, and bottom-third for each respondent group, based on the importance rankings
given. Rankings 1-4 were assigned to the top-third group, rankings 5-7 were assigned to
the middle-third group, and rankings 8-10 were assigned to the bottom-third group. Table
40 shows the curriculum area ranking groups for the respondent groups.
Analyzing the curriculum area data by top third, middle third, and bottom third
based on these importance rankings, four curriculum areas were consistently ranked in
the top third by all four respondent groups. The sales process curriculum area was ranked
in the top-third by 76.50% of sales professors, 77.25% of sales managers, 68.43% of
sales trainers, and 75.00% of sales people. The relationship management curriculum area
was ranked in the top-third by 88.24% of sales professors, 73.54% of sales managers,
76.84% of sales trainers, and 64.86% of sales people. The customer curriculum area was
ranked in the middle-third by 64.71% of sales professors, 62.96% of sales managers,
68.42% of sales trainers, and 65.54% of sales people.
215
The influencing curriculum area was ranked in the middle-third by 64.71% of
sales professors, 49.74% of sales managers, 52.63% of sales trainers, and 47.30% of sales
people.
Three curriculum areas were consistently ranked in the middle third by all four
respondent groups. The learning curriculum area was ranked in the middle-third by
58.82% of sales professors, 37.55% of sales managers, 51.58% of sales trainers, and
43.24% of sales people. The performance management curriculum area was ranked in the
middle-third by 47.06% of sales professors, 42.86% of sales managers, 45.26% of sales
trainers, and 33.78% of sales people. The product and industry curriculum area was
ranked in the middle-third by 41.18% of sales professors, 38.10% of sales managers,
43.16% of sales trainers, and 41.22% of sales people.
Three curriculum areas were consistently ranked in the bottom third by all four
respondent groups. The technology curriculum area was ranked in the bottom-third by
49.32% of sales people. The risk management curriculum area was ranked in the bottom-
third by 70.59% of sales professors, 64.55% of sales managers, 72.63% of sales trainers,
and 64.86% of sales people. The administrative curriculum area was ranked in the
bottom-third by 100.00% of sales professors, 71.43% of sales managers, 82.11% of sales
trainers, and 74.30% of sales people. These three curriculum areas are perceived as the
least important curriculum areas and therefore the least important learning and
development needs for entry-level business-to-business sales people in the services
industry.
216
Table 40.
Rankings of Curriculum Areas by Sales Professors, Sales Managers, Sales Trainers, and Sales People with Groupings of
Curriculum Areas into Thirds
Top 1/3 Ranking Middle 1/3 Ranking Bottom 1/3 Ranking

Curriculum Area Prof. Mgr. Train. SPerson Prof. Mgr. Train. SPerson Prof. Mgr. Train. SPerson
Sales Process 76.50% 77.25% 68.43% 75.00% 23.50% 16.40% 25.26% 18.24% 0.00% 6.35% 6.32% 6.76%
Relationship 88.24% 73.54% 76.84% 64.86% 11.76% 16.94% 13.68% 22.97% 0.00% 9.52% 9.48% 12.17%
Customer 64.71% 62.96% 68.42% 65.54% 23.53% 28.57% 24.21% 25.00% 11.76% 8.47% 7.37% 9.46%
Influencing 64.71% 49.74% 52.63% 47.30% 35.29% 32.27% 30.53% 36.49% 0.00% 17.99% 16.84% 16.21%
Learning 23.53% 48.68% 36.84% 39.87% 58.82% 37.55% 51.58% 43.24% 17.65% 13.77% 11.58% 16.89%
Performance 23.53% 34.39% 37.90% 41.22% 47.06% 42.86% 45.26% 33.78% 29.41% 22.75% 16.84% 25.00%
Product/ Industry 17.64% 34.92% 27.37% 34.46% 41.18% 38.10% 43.16% 41.22% 41.18% 26.98% 29.47% 24.32%
Technology 11.76% 15.34% 10.53% 16.22% 52.94% 38.10% 31.58% 34.46% 35.30% 46.56% 57.89% 49.32%
Risk Mgmt. 5.89% 9.52% 6.32% 7.44% 23.53% 25.93% 21.05% 27.70% 70.59% 64.55% 72.63% 64.86%
Administrative 0.00% 12.17% 8.42% 11.50% 0.00% 16.40% 9.47% 14.20% 100.00% 71.43% 82.11% 74.30%
217
The analysis of the competencies within each curriculum area was also necessary.
Descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) were used to rank order the
competencies within each curriculum area in order to determine the perceived importance
by all respondents. Because of the high level of congruity in responses across the
respondent groups, no respondent group breakouts were required for the rank ordered
competencies within the curriculum areas.
Table 41 shows the rank order of the sales process competencies within the sales
process curriculum area. Table 42 shows the rank order of the relationship competencies
within the relationship curriculum area. Table 43 shows the rank order of the customer
competencies within the customer curriculum area. Table 44 shows the rank order of the
influencing competencies within the influencing curriculum area. Table 45 shows the
rank order of the learning competencies within the learning curriculum area. Table 46
shows the rank order of the performance competencies within the performance
curriculum area. Table 47 shows the rank order of the product and industry competencies
within the product and industry curriculum area. Table 48 shows the rank order of the
technology competencies within the technology curriculum area. Table 49 shows the rank
order of the risk management competencies within the risk management curriculum area.
Table 50 shows the rank order of the administrative competencies within the
administrative curriculum area.
218
Table 41.
Rankings of Competencies within the Sales Process Curriculum Area

Q10_6: Displays appropriate follow up activity to individual meetings. 1 4.51 0.701
Q10_7: Responds appropriately to referrals. 2 4.39 0.794
Q10_2: Actively calls on (visits) new accounts. 3 4.37 0.841
Q10_10: Discovers and addresses prospect or customer issues and 4 4.37 0.796
concerns.
Q10_11: Generates phone calls or emails to setup appointments or 5 4.35 0.863
advance the process.
Q10_3: Aggressively finds leads on new prospects. 6 4.27 0.921
Q10_4: Engages personal selling strategies that meet the needs of the 7 4.08 0.934
end-user.
Q10_16: Coordinates and completes relevant sales related activities. 8 4.07 0.891
Q10_1: Acquires and implements consultative selling processes in order 9 3.88 0.964
to consult with customers on their business problems.
Q10_17: Adequately targets personal activities towards important or 10 3.83 0.918
key accounts.
Q10_15: Alters approach based on reading body language of others. 11 3.78 0.939
Q10_8: Proactively attends networking events (e.g., conventions, trade 12 3.70 1.025
shows, etc) and builds important key contacts.
Q10_5: Distinguishes between high-quality and low-quality bids or 13 3.67 0.946
proposals when sending to the client.
Q10_9: Predicts other people’s reaction to the sales process. 14 3.35 0.962
Q10_12: Plans and conducts conference calls with key corporate or 15 3.35 1.035
client team members.
Q10_14: Demonstrates ability to call on CEOs and other C-Level 16 3.35 1.151
executives.
Q10_13: Creates and/or provides seminars to clients or prospects. 17 2.72 1.055
219
Table 42.
Rankings of Competencies within the Relationship Curriculum Area

Q14_15: Displays active and engaged listening skills. 1 4.59 .689
Q14_14: Relates well with organizational gatekeepers. 2 4.17 .814
Q14_11: Recognizes appropriate strategies to build rapport with clients 3 4.11 .837
and other key relationships.
Q14_9: Builds good relationships with partners, vendors, or channel 4 4.11 .949
members.
Q14_1: Actively engages in phone activity to sell over the phone or 5 4.02 1.035
generate cold calls.
Q14_2: Actively and effectively sells additional value added services or 6 3.95 .882
solutions.
Q14_12: Acquires and relates to a widespread network of relevant 7 3.86 .924
business contacts.
Q14_6: Calls on multiple individuals within the customer’s 8 3.84 .980
organization.
Q14_3: Tailors unique solutions or modifies existing products to meet 9 3.70 1.039
prospect and/or customer needs.
Q14_13: Maintains appropriate work related friendships. 10 3.65 1.027
Q14_10: Identifies the appropriate time to utilize customer service 11 3.64 .853
techniques.
Q14_7: Understands technical information and processes. 12 3.62 .876
Q14_16: Actively engages with others at regional sales meetings. 13 3.60 1.017
Q14_5: Meets with internal project staff to facilitate appropriate actions. 14 3.55 .934
Q14_4: Conducts review meetings with key stakeholders. 15 3.44 1.003
Q14_17: Gives constructive and discriminate feedback to others. 16 3.08 1.123
Q14_8: Appropriately organizes client/prospect entertainment. 17 2.96 1.049
220
Table 43.
Rankings of Competencies within the Customer Curriculum Area

Q17_11: Makes an extra effort to meet customer needs. 1 4.43 .723
Q17_1: Effectively follows up on client orders. 2 4.15 .902
Q17_3: Recognizes how client firms are organized and how they 3 4.06 .804
function
Q17_5: Follows up with internal team members regarding customer 4 3.96 .839
contacts or complaints.
Q17_7: Cross-sells or up-sells add on products or services within 5 3.86 1.015
existing customer relationships.
Q17_12: Manages the hand-off to other key team members after the sale 6 3.86 1.019
is finalized.
Q17_6: Facilitates the fulfillment or delivery by communicating and 7 3.85 .851
coordinating with sales support.
Q17_10: Identifies appropriate time to deliver product or services to 8 3.76 .952
customers.
Q17_4: Explains or distinguishes relevant client planning activities. 9 3.67 .934
Q17_2: Reproduces the intended use of product or service to end-user 10 3.60 1.009
customers.
Q17_9: Handles orders and backorders effectively and expedites as 11 3.58 1.091
necessary.
Q17_8: Handles shipment problems as required to keep customers 12 3.53 1.096
happy.
221
Table 44.
Rankings of Competencies within the Influencing Curriculum Area

Q16_16: Constructs effective questions and asks those questions at the
1 4.33 .698
right time.
Q16_4: Possess skill at closing sales opportunities and obtaining the
2 4.22 .888
order.
Q16_11: Effectively and persuasively delivers sales presentations to
3 4.18 .845
relevant decision makers or influencers.
Q16_1: Sells the unique value-added aspects of the company, product,
4 4.17 .882
or service.
Q16_14: Displays professionalism, poise, and speaking skill when
5 4.16 .878
making speeches.
Q16_2: Overcomes objections with skill. 6 4.11 .873
Q16_17: Recognizes other people’s nonverbal behavior in a selling
7 4.00 .876
situation.
Q16_3: Persuades prospects with examples or logic or other pertinent
8 3.87 .891
information.
Q16_6: Manages the delivery of appropriate client proof (such as
9 3.87 .886
samples or trials).
Q16_12: Indentifies processes for creating compelling sales
10 3.84 .944
presentations that differentiate.
Q16_9: Influences others with direct and indirect skill. 11 3.83 .874
Q16_13: Communicate with appropriately designed presentation aids. 12 3.79 .878
Q16_18: Predicts the effects of own words and actions. 13 3.75 .886
Q16_5: Constructs and adequately scripted sales pitch. 14 3.69 .981
Q16_10: Rewrites prepared words and/or presentations adequately. 15 3.69 .922
Q16_8: Appropriately gauges perceptions of others regarding one’s self. 16 3.64 .905
Q16_15: Displays ability to leave compelling voice mails. 17 3.61 1.019
Q16_7: Effectively flatters clients to support end goal. 18 2.97 1.128
222
Table 45.
Rankings of Competencies within the Learning Curriculum Area

Q13_2: Prepares for obstacles to sales success. 1 3.90 .875
Q13_6: Selects adequate and appropriate methods to conduct 2 3.73 .933
background research, including site research, Internet, word of
mouth, etc)
Q13_7: Interprets information from multiple sources (including 3 3.71 .902
databases, online, colleagues, etc).
Q13_9: Attends meetings geared toward professionalism. 4 3.60 .986
Q13_4: Distinguishes relevant sales training content that will most 5 3.60 .982
likely lead to increased competency.
Q13_1: Fills out and manages a personal development plan. 6 3.52 1.031
Q13_3: Recalls features and benefits of learned software tools or 7 3.49 1.022
packages.
Q13_5: Knows appropriate learning approaches that fill personal gaps. 8 3.42 .965
Q13_8: Practices personal mentoring with colleagues (including 9 3.26 1.225
training or coaching new or junior sales reps).
223
Table 46.
Rankings of Competencies within the Performance Curriculum Area

Q11_4: Uses time efficiently to consistently perform at high levels 1 4.10 .867
Q11_7: Understands what motivates self and others. 2 3.98 .894
Q11_10: Interprets daily plan to maximize efficiency. 3 3.95 .874
Q11_2: Proactively sets challenging and achievable goals. 4 3.95 .829
Q11_5: Has knowledge of the most effective selling activity for the 5 3.69 .948
situation.
Q11_1: Finds better, faster, and more efficient ways of doing things. 6 3.65 .968
Q11_9: Optimizes time spent when traveling to and from locations 7 3.61 .958
(e.g., office, client site, travel destinations, etc).
Q11_8: Arranges for appropriately time and optimized travel. 8 3.47 .984
Q11_6: Comprehends account planning activities for multiple or inter- 9 3.43 .931
related sales calls.
Q11_3: Comprehends individual or team strengths and weaknesses. 10 3.41 1.019
Q11_12: Recognizes future demand for products or services. 11 3.33 1.007
Q11_13: Accurately predicts closing rates on new sales opportunities in 12 3.22 .971
order to forecast properly.
Q11_11: Manages cross-functional, divers, or international team 13 2.55 1.158
members.
224
Table 47.
Rankings of Competencies within the Product and Industry Curriculum Area
Ran
Competency Mean SD
k
Q18_8: Comprehends the features, benefits, and value of the product or 1 4.34 .749
service.
Q18_6: Comprehends feedback from clients, individuals in the market, 2 4.07 .779
and supervisors.
Q18_7: Determines the most appropriate materials to bring along on site 3 4.00 .865
visits.
Q18_10: Reads company literature and relates content appropriately. 4 3.98 .866
Q18_9: Displays proficiency in new company products (including 5 3.81 .938
reviewing analyzing, and introducing.
Q18_5: Responds adequately to competitive threats. 6 3.76 .985
Q18_4: Summarizes features and benefits of competitor’s products or 7 3.72 .973
services.
Q18_12: Responds to environmental forces by seizing opportunities for 8 3.69 .986
success.
Q18_1: Interprets research on industry and competition. 9 3.54 .961
Q18_2: Recalls relevant newsletters on important topics for use in the 10 3.52 .996
sales process.
Q18_3: Interprets trade publications in order to gather appropriate 11 3.44 .996
knowledge.
Q18_11: Determines the appropriate price for a product or service. 12 3.07 1.262
225
Table 48.
Rankings of Competencies within the Technology Curriculum Area
Ran
Competency Mean SD
k
Q12_1: Knows how to use email to communicate properly. 1 4.32 .832
Q12_6: Sets up, secures, uses, and manages a laptop or personal
computer for a variety of purposes (e.g., making presentations, 2 3.99 .972
organizing data, collecting information, etc).
Q12_2: Recalls appropriate technical information and relays it to
3 3.79 .921
customers.
Q12_5: Effectively employs the Internet to achieve sales goals. 4 3.70 .991
Q12_4: Selects most appropriate personal device(s) to manage
5 3.45 1.087
information (i.e., voice recorder, cell phone, pager, PDA).
Q12_3: Identifies the most appropriate technology for use (e.g., video
6 3.35 1.011
conferencing, web seminars, etc).
Q12_7: Develops, manages, and delivers effective presentations via the
7 3.26 1.025
Internet.
Table 49.
Rankings of Competencies within the Risk Curriculum Area

Q15_4: Applies a personal or professional ethical code to decision- 1 4.40 .847
making processes.
Q15_7: Demonstrates appropriate decision making ability that involves 2 3.91 .852
others.
Q15_10: Paraphrases or translates key facts about important situations. 3 3.84 .873
Q15_2: Recalls or recognizes applicable corporate policies in sales 4 3.80 .963
interactions.
Q15_5: Infers appropriate protection and/or use of intellectual property. 5 3.77 1.019
Q15_8: Recognizes and distinguishes the accuracy of records and other 6 3.77 .952
documents.
Q15_3: Infers appropriate actions to avoid possibility of litigation. 7 3.75 1.051
Q15_1: Displays knowledge of applicable state, local, and national 8 3.35 1.105
laws.
Q15_9: Safely and securely takes clients on site. 9 3.35 1.092
Q15_6: Takes calculated entrepreneurial risks. 10 3.32 1.024
226
Table 50.
Rankings of Competencies within the Administrative Curriculum Area

Q19_10: Generates email or letters in proper business format with 1 4.36 .806
proper grammar and voice.
Q19_4: Adequately reports on sales activities. 2 4.08 .876
Q19_6: Originates orders by “writing them up” appropriately so they 3 4.01 .935
don’t get held up.
Q19_17: Updates customer files in an effective manner. 4 4.01 .940
Q19_12: Displays judgment in the sales process (including expediting 5 3.97 .898
orders, making decision, etc).
Q19_3: Fills out paperwork with accuracy and within an appropriate 6 3.91 .947
time frame.
Q19_19: Attends local sales meetings to discuss and report progress 7 3.84 .933
with colleagues and managers.
Q19_2: Appropriately checks in with supervisor and key staff. 8 3.84 .934
Q19_15: Organizes personal records. 9 3.73 1.040
Q19_21: Manages, prioritizes, and categorizes voice mail messages. 10 3.66 1.055
Q19_9: Constructs and delivers individuals correspondence or memos. 11 3.65 .920
Q19_11: Comprehends appropriate information in order to effectively 12 3.65 .954
complete data entry.
Q19_8: Maintains communication with others by telephoning the office. 13 3.62 1.016
Q19_14: Follows company policy to appropriately fill out expense 14 3.61 1.085
reports in a timely manner.
Q19_13: Studies and verifies personal commissions to ensure accuracy. 15 3.57 1.071
Q19_18: Maintains a viable and working virtual office. 16 3.53 1.071
Q19_1: Recognizes and distinguishes financial figures and billing 17 3.50 .969
procedures
Q19_7: Knows policies for keeping track of invoices. 18 3.48 1.065
Q19_20: Infers metrics calculations in order to gauge progress. 19 3.28 1.017
Q19_5: Travels with supervisors. 20 3.16 1.197
Q19_16: Displays organizational ability by keeping office tidy. 21 3.10 1.098
227
Research Question 10
Research question 10 was tested using descriptive statistics (mean and media) to
gain insight into how respondents would use a competency model designed for learning
and development purposes. Respondents were asked what they would do with a
document containing the critical knowledge and skills necessary for success as an entry-
level salesperson in the service industry. Many of the respondents (21.2%) agreed that
they would use the competency model for coaching purposes or they would pass it on to
entry-level sales people (15.5%).
In analyzing each of the respondent groups, three uses for a document that
contained the critical knowledge and skills necessary for success failed to be selected as
the top use across all groups. The three areas that were not selected as the top use
included benchmark my skills, recommend someone else benchmark themselves, and
give it to my sales training organization.
Sales manager respondents rated use as a coaching tool as the highest (23.5%) and
rated recommending someone else benchmark themselves as the lowest (8.4%). Sales
professors rated pass it on to entry-level salespeople as the highest (20.0%) and rated
benchmark my own skills (11.4%), give it to my sales training organization (11.4%) and
recommend it to hiring managers (11.4%) as the lowest. Sales trainers rated recommend
someone else benchmark themselves as highest (28.0%) and rated pass it on to entry-
level salespeople as lowest (17.7%). Sales people rated use as a coaching tool as the
highest (18.5%) and rated use it to design or develop curriculum as the lowest (9.1%).
Table 51 depicts how sales managers, sales professors, sales trainers, and sales people
228
would use a document containing critical knowledge and skills for entry-level sales
people in the services industry.
Table 51.
How Sales Managers, Sales Professors, Sales Trainers, and Sales People Would Use a
Document Containing Critical Knowledge and Skills for Entry-level Sales People in the
Services Industry
Sales
Use of the Model All Data Managers Professors Trainers
People
Benchmark my skills 13.1% 11.7% 11.4% 18.3% 16.9%
Recommend someone else 10.6% 8.4% 15.7% 28.0% 10.5%
benchmark themselves
Give it to my sales training 13.5% 14.6% 11.4% 18.3% 13.6%
organization
Use it as a coaching tool 21.2% 23.5% 14.3% 22.0% 18.5%
Pass it on to entry-level 15.5% 16.2% 20.0% 17.7% 15.7%
salespeople
Recommend it to hiring 13.6% 12.8% 11.4% 22.8% 14.5%
managers
Use it to design or develop 12.0% 12.5% 15.7% 25.3% 9.1%
curriculum
None of the above/I would do .6% .5% 0.0% 0.00% 1.2%
nothing with it
Totals 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%
Summary of Data Analysis
This chapter presented the results of the research study. The analysis of data for
sub-problems in this chapter resulted in the drawing of several conclusions.
Concerning the profile of sales managers, data were collected from individuals
who resided in the United States (100%) and sold to the business or government markets
(76.2% and 23.8% respectively). A total of 85.2% of sales managers had been in the
229
profession for five or more years, with 23.8% having more than 20 years of experience. A
majority of sales managers worked in privately held firms (71.9%) and were full time
employees (73.5%), selling services (74.6%).
Regarding the profile of sales professors, data were collected from 17 sales
professor respondents representing two industries including business and educational
services. The sales professor sample included individuals who resided in the United
States (100%) and who sold to the business or government markets (88.23% and 11.77%
respectively). 94.12% of sales professors had been in the profession for five or more
years, with 41.18% having more than 20 years of experience. All of the sales professors
worked in academic institutions (100.0%) and most were full time employees (94.11%),
selling services (82.35%).
Concerning the profile of sales trainers, data were collected from 95 sales trainer
respondents who represented seven industries including personal services, business
services, health services, legal services, educational services, membership organizations,
and engineering/management services. The sales trainer sample included individuals who
resided in the United States (100%) and who sold to the business or government markets
(89.47% and 10.53% respectively). 89.46% of sales trainers had been in the profession
for five or more years, with 33.68% having more than 20 years of experience. Most of the
sales trainers worked in privately held organizations (78.95%). The sales trainer’s within
the data represented the highest average of contract employees/business owners
(62.11%). They also sold mostly services (83.16%).
230
Regarding the profile of sales people, data were collected from 148 sales person
respondents representing 10 industries including hotels, personal services, business
services, automotive repair, motion pictures, health services, legal services, educational
services, membership organizations, and engineering/management services. The sales
person sample included individuals who resided in the United States (100%) and who
sold to the business or government markets (83.78% and 16.22% respectively). The sales
person respondents represented the lowest average level of experience of the data
collected, with 70.95% of sales people being in the profession for 5 or more years, and
only 17.57% having more than 20 years of experience. Most (68.18%) of the sales
trainers worked in privately held organizations and most were full time employees
(76.35%), selling services (75.68%).
In a test of the two hypotheses regarding the level of agreement in the rankings of
31 knowledge competencies and level of agreement in the rankings of 105 skill
competencies, significant level agreement was found across the sales manager, sales
professor, sales trainer, and sales person respondents, thus the null hypotheses were
rejected.
In a test of the hypothesis to determine if differences existed among sales
managers, sales professors, sales trainers, and sales people regarding the 136
competencies, the analysis was found to be significant on 7 knowledge agreement ratings
and 16 skill agreement ratings. These competencies were found to have been rated
differently concerning importance depending upon the rater (sales professors, sales
managers, sales trainers, and sales people).
231
In a test of the hypotheses to determine if there were any statistical differences in
how respondents from different organizational settings (privately held or publicly traded),
or respondents with different levels of experience (less than or equal to nine years and
greater than or equal to ten years) rated the importance of 136 competencies found that
there was a statistically significant difference between the ratings on 13 of the
competencies when analyzing the responses from individuals from privately held or
publicly traded organization and eight competencies when analyzing the responses from
individuals with less than or equal to nine years and greater than or equal to ten years in
their profession, thus the null hypotheses were rejected.
In a test of the hypothesis to determine if there were any underlying factors to the
data collected by the SCA, the scree test (Stevens, 1986) indicated a 9-factor model
consisting of 122 competency statements that together explained 41.73% of the total
variance. Thus, the null hypothesis was rejected.
An analysis of the skill competencies found the means ranged from 2.55 to 4.59
and an analysis of the knowledge competencies found the means ranged from 3.28 to
4.51.
An analysis of the ranking of competencies revealed consensus and congruity for
28 primary competencies and a high level of consensus for the 25 secondary
competencies.
The level of agreement between all four groups of respondents regarding ranking
of the ten curriculum areas was analyzed. The risk management and administrative
curricula routinely ranked as the least important curriculum. The analysis found that the
232
relationship, sales process, and customer curricula consistently rated in the top third while
the product and industry curriculum was routinely rated in the bottom third across all
respondent groups.
The uses for a document containing the critical knowledge and skills for entry-
level sales person success in the services market varied. While most respondents agreed
on the use of the model as a coaching tool, each respondent group would most likely use
it differently depending upon need.
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CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION
The sales occupation may not have kept pace with other occupations’
advancement of human resource development philosophies. Within the context of human
resource development, as applied to business-to-business professional selling, there is no
commonly accepted, profession-wide approach to hiring, training, and developing sales
talent. The literature review showed very little research in the area of competencies
needed for success in the sales profession as well as competency-based approaches to
training and development. However, competency-based approaches to assessing and
developing entry-level employees for assimilation into a firm have been of key
importance to senior-level managers (Racz, 2000).
This investigation was an exploratory study in an effort to 1) analyze the
importance of competencies for entry-level business-to-business services sales people for
the purpose of developing a competency model for learning and development, 2)
construct a valid and reliable instrument for determining entry-level sales person
knowledge and skill within the services industry and 3) ascertain what relationships exist
(if any) between sales managers, sales professors, sales trainers, and sales people in
regard to knowledge and skills which are believed to be important for success in entry-
level business-to-business selling in the services industry. For the purpose of this
research, entry-level sales people were defined as having less than one year of selling
experience in the services industry.
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This chapter includes the following five aspects of the research project: a)
summary of the study, b) summary of the findings, c) interpretation of results, d)
conclusions and implications, and e) recommendations for future research.
Summary of the Study
A questionnaire was used to gather the data for analysis. An instrument needed to
be developed for the questionnaire because no suitable instrument was found that
measured sales person competency in terms of importance. The first step in the
development of the questionnaire was to create a comprehensive list of competencies that
was revised by a content validation panel of 12 members from each of the four
respondent groups including sales professional representing sales trainers, sales people,
sales managers, and sales professors. The resulting list of competencies was then rated by
a jury of 40 members of an expert panel. The resulting questionnaire was then pilot-tested
with 920 representatives from the four respondent groups with a total of 350
questionnaires returned. This created the final Salesperson Competency Analysis (SCA).
The final SCA was then administered to a population of sales professors (n=96), a
random sample of sales trainers from the American Society for Training and
Development (n=447), and a random sample of sales managers (n=1,407). Additionally,
the SCA was also administered to a random sample of the individual members of the
United Professional Sales Association (n=1,168). Therefore, the final SCA was
administered to a total of 3,113 individuals and a total of 931 (29.9%) questionnaires
were returned. Of these, 449 (48.2%) were complete, valid, and usable. The Cronbach’s
Alpha coefficient of the resulting SCA instrument was found to be 0.967, which was
235
indicative of a high very internal consistency reliability. Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient for
the sales manager, sales professor, sales trainer, and sales person respondents was found
to 0.970, 0.950, 0.965, and 0.966 respectively, also indicating a high internal consistency
reliability among the respondent groups.
Raw data were analyzed for descriptive and inferential statistics using SPSS
software. Descriptive statistics, analysis of variance, coefficient of concordance, rank-
sum tests, and exploratory factor analysis were used to deal with specific sub-problems.
The alpha level selected was 0.05 due to the number of analyses of variance employed.
Significant differences were determined at or below the 0.05 alpha level (α < 0.05).
Summary of the Findings
The major contribution of this research was the advancement of competency-
based research within the field of professional selling. Whereas prior research in the sales
profession was focused on identifying underlying structures of data based upon
frequencies of tasks performed, this research updates the competencies necessary for
success by synthesizing the activity-based literature for salesperson taxonomies from
prior studies with the competency modeling approaches found currently in the human
resource development field. The activity-based literature was updated to create
competencies more clearly defined based upon Bloom’s taxonomy and ratings were
given on a Likert-type scale based on importance of the specific knowledge of skill, not
based on frequency of tasks performed. Additionally, the study contributes to the
literature regarding learning and development applications by incorporating the
perceptions of four respondent groups (sales professors, sales managers, sales trainers,
236
and sales people). To achieve this contribution, the research was designed around the
main hypothesis:
H0: There is no significant difference in the competencies required for entry-level
business-to-business sales people who sell services as perceived by sales trainers, sales
professors, sales managers, and sales people.
Based on this main hypothesis, 10 major sub-problems were created and six sub-
problem hypotheses were tested in order to determine agreement among respondent
groups, determine agreement by organization and professional experience, create a
competency model, and determine the application of a competency model by the
respondents. Data collected from 189 sales manager respondents represented nine
services industries including individuals who resided in the United States (100%) and
sold to the business or government markets (76.2% and 23.8% respectively). A total of
85.2% of sales managers had been in the profession for five or more years with 23.8%
having more than 20 years of experience. A majority of sales managers worked in
privately held firms (71.9%) and were full time employees (73.5%), selling services
(74.6%). Data collected from 17 sales professor respondents represented two industries as
well as individuals residing in the United States (100%) who sold to the business or
professors had been in the profession for five or more years, with 41.18% having more
than 20 years of experience. All of the sales professors worked in academic institutions
(100.0%) and most were full time employees (94.11%) selling services (82.35%). Data
collected from 95 sales trainer respondents represented seven industries and included
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individuals who resided in the United States (100%) and sold to the business or
trainers had been in the profession for five or more years, with 33.68% having more than
20 years of experience. Most of the sales trainers worked in privately held organizations
(78.95%). The sales trainer respondents represented the highest average of contract
employees/business owners (62.11%). They also sold mostly services (83.16%). Data
collected from 148 sales person respondents represented 10 industries and included
individuals who resided in the United States (100%) and who sold to the business or
government markets (83.78% and 16.22% respectively). The sales person respondents
represented the lowest average level of experience of the data collected, with 70.95% of
sales people being in the profession for five or more years, and only 17.57% having more
than 20 years of experience. Most (68.18%) of the sales people worked in privately held
organizations and most were full time employees (76.35%), selling services (75.68%).
The survey responses were determined to be generalizable to the sub-population groups
they represented, and all competency scales were determined to have internal reliability
and consistency.
Agreement among Respondent Groups
A total of 31 knowledge competencies were analyzed in order to determine the
level of agreement among the four rating groups (trainer, professor, manager, and sales
person) with Kendall’s Coefficient of Concordance. The level of agreement regarding the
ranking of knowledge competencies was found to be high and statistically significant (p <
0.05). Thus, the null hypothesis was rejected.

238
A total of 105 skill competencies were analyzed in order to determine the level of
agreement among the four rating groups (trainer, professor, manager, and sales person)
with Kendall’s Coefficient of Concordance. The level of agreement regarding the ranking
of skill competencies was found to be high and statistically significant (p < 0.05). Thus,
the null hypothesis was rejected.
The 136 competencies were analyzed to determine if differences exists among the
four respondent groups (trainer, professor, manager, and sales person) regarding the
importance of ratings given using the one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and
Tukey’s HSD post hoc test. Significant differences between the ratings of knowledge
competencies were found to exist primarily in the sales process and technology
curriculum areas. Significant differences between the ratings of skill competencies were
also found to exist in the sales process, technology, learning, relationship, and risk
management curriculum areas. Thus, the null hypothesis was rejected.
Agreement by Organization and Experience
Significant differences existed between the four respondent groups and their
ratings of 13 knowledge and skill competencies when the respondents were divided into
groups based on organizational setting. Additionally, significant differences existed
between the four respondent groups and their ratings of eight knowledge and skill
competencies when the respondents were divided into groups based on the number of
years in the profession. Therefore, the null hypotheses were rejected.
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Competency Model Creation
Knowledge and skill competencies rated most important for entry-level business-
to-business sales person success in the services industry by sales managers, sales
professors, sales trainers, and sales people were primarily concerned with sales process
and performance. The primary competencies identified by the same respondent groups as
most important for entry-level business-to-business salesperson success in the service
industry were primarily concerned with sales process and influence. Secondary
competencies identified by the same respondent groups were primarily concerned with
relationship, performance, and product and industry competencies.
An underlying structure to the SCA consisted of 122 competencies within nine
factors as determined by a maximum likelihood exploratory factor analysis with oblimin
rotation. These factors were named customer, administrative, sales process, influence,
performance, product and industry, technology, risk management, and relationship by the
researcher. The relationship and sales process curriculum areas ranked were as the most
important and administrative curriculum area was seen as the least important. Therefore,
the null hypothesis was rejected.
Competency Model Application
Descriptive statistics were also used to ascertain the level of consensus among all
respondents as to the application of a competency model as well as the importance
ranking of ten curriculum areas. Many of the respondents (21.2%) agreed that they would
use the a document that contained the critical knowledge and skill for entry-level sales
240
people for coaching purposes or they would pass it on to entry-level sales people
(15.5%).
Interpretation of Results
Generally speaking, the respondents within each sub-population group agreed
with each other and few disagreements existed across sub-population groups. These
findings largely agree with the findings of Hawes (2004) in that there appears to be
agreement on the role entry-level sales people play. While there is agreement on the
importance of specific tasks, distinctions can be drawn between organizational setting
and professional tenure where respondents did show higher levels of disagreement in
rating the competencies by importance. This would agree with the sales management
research in that sales managers have different expectations of the work to perform based
on past experiences and the strategic direction of the firm (Jones, et al., 2005).
More specifically, several interpretations were drawn from the analysis of SCA
respondents including:
1. There appears to be an acceptable body of knowledge essential for identifying an
entry-level specialization for business-to-business selling in the services industry.
2. The competencies needed for entry-level positions primarily fall within nine
curriculum areas determined to be sales process, performance, technology,
relationship, risk management, influencing, customer, product and industry, and
administrative.
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3. Competencies needed by entry-level salespeople in the services industry vary by
type of organization.
4. There appears to be a relationship between the number of years in the profession
and the importance ratings given for entry-level business-to-business sales
success in the services industry.
Research on use of competency-based approaches to sales training is largely void and
most sales training research tends to focus on the content and the delivery of the content.
This study focused on the competencies perceived as necessary to develop entry-level
sales people as determined by sales managers, sales trainers, sales professors and sales
people. For example, data analyzed regarding what these respondent groups would do
with a document containing the essential knowledge and skills for entry-level success
supports the need for competency-based training and development research.
All respondents believe that recognizing appropriate strategies to build rapport with
clients and other key relationships is one of the top five skills needed for entry-level
business-to-business sales person success. Likewise, all respondents agree the absolute
most important competency necessary for success in entry-level business-to-business
selling is displaying active and engaged listening skills. This is supportive of the
research accomplished on adaptive selling techniques (Weitz, 1981). On the other hand,
all respondents believe that the absolute least important competency for success in entry-
level business-to-business selling is managing cross-functional, diverse, or international
team members. This seems to contradict the work of Singh and Roads (1991) which said
what?.
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Four competencies were found to be unimportant for entry-level business-to-business
sales person success. Therefore, these competencies should not receive consideration for
the learning and development needs of entry-level business-to-business sales people in
the services industry:
Q16_7: Effectively flatters clients to support end goal
Q14_8: Appropriately organizes client/prospect entertainment
Q10_13: Creates and/or provides seminars to clients or prospects
Sales managers and sales people tend to place more emphasis on the knowledge and
skill competencies that allow the entry-level sales person attain a high level of individual
activity. This would seem to support the work of researchers who have studied the
frequency of tasks performance (Moncrief, et al., 2005). However, sales trainers and sales
professors seem to place more importance on administrative and planning activities that
are more difficult to measure in terms of frequency. It is also important to note that a
large number of competency statements derived from the literature review (n = 45) were
subsequently dropped through the course of the content validation panel, expert jury,
pilot study, and final data collection yielding a final set of 133 knowledge and skill
competencies. A large number of the competencies could have been dropped due to the
high frequency accomplished by sales people in previous studies whereas this study
focused on measuring perceptions of importance. Therefore, some of a sales person’s job
may contain more mundane activities that sales managers, sales trainers, sales professors,
and sales people believe are less important to success, especially within the first year of
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selling. The literature review produced a large set of attributes (or traits) that researchers
have found important to sales person success (n=253). While the literature review
brought forth these competencies, they were subsequently dropped because traits and
attributes cannot be taught (Spencer & Spencer, 1993).
Sales managers and sales trainers tended to agree on the importance of both
knowledge and skill competencies. Interestingly, when sales managers and sales trainers
are compared to the perceptions of sales people, differences were found. Since most of
the sales person respondents had more than five years in professional selling, differences
were found between what sales, sales managers, and sales trainers believe is important
for an entry-level sales person’s success. This would support the recent research
conducted in order to identify what sales people want in training versus what they are
really getting (Pelham, 2006).
Most of the respondents believe it is very important for an entry-level business-to-
business sales person in the services market to discover and address prospect or customer
issues and concerns; however this competency is rated much lower by sales professors.
These findings agree with the research on adaptable and agile sales process (Jones,
Stevens, & Chonko, 2005).
All respondents agree that inferring metrics calculations in order to gauges progress
is the least important knowledge to have for entry-level success. At the same time, all
respondents agree that managing cross-functional, diverse, or international team members
are the least important skill. These findings agree with Jones, Brown, and Zoltners (2005)
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and their assessment that the sales profession is evolving to more consultative selling
methodologies, especially for more tenured sales people.
Ethical decision-making is seen as a very important skill by all respondents and sales
trainers seem to believe it is more important than the other groups. This would support
the work found by practitioners who have become more cognizant of the long-term need
for trust in the buyer-seller relationship (Stevens & Kinni, 2006).
Several competencies identified in the literature review as being not as important as
perceived by the content validation panel, expert jury, or pilot study participants. The
competencies that dropped would appear to show disagreement with the work of
Moncrief (2006) and Marshall and Moncrief (1999) who identified these competencies as
necessary for sales person success whereas respondents rated the frequency of tasks.
The differences in the perception of importance by the SCA respondents show the
difference in evaluating these competencies, not based on frequency, but importance.
When analyzing the competencies based on importance, the following competencies were
all dropped from the competency model for learning and development purposes:
Q16_7: Effectively flatters clients to support end goal
Q14_8: Appropriately organizes client/prospect entertainment
Q10_13: Creates and/or provides seminars to clients or prospects
Q11_11: Manages cross functional, diverse, or international team members
When it comes to the ranking of the importance of entry-level business-to-business
sales person knowledge, sales professors and sales trainers appear to disagree slightly.
However, sales managers and sales trainers strongly agree and sales managers and sales
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people largely agree as to the rankings of knowledge competencies. When it comes to
ranking the importance of entry-level business-to-business sales person skills, sales
professors and sales trainers also appear to disagree slightly. However, sales managers
and sales trainers strongly agree and sales managers and sales people largely agree as to
the rankings of skill competencies. Sales professors believe the following competencies
are not important enough to include in an entry-level salesperson competency analysis;
however, the sales manager, sales trainer, and sales person groups believe they should be
included:
Q11_12: Recognizes future demand for products or services.
Q10_5: Distinguishes between high-quality and low-quality bids or proposals
when sending to the client.
Sales professors should consider adjusting their curriculum to include content
around distinguishing high-quality proposals and bids, recognizing future demand for
products and services, and developing, managing, and delivering effective presentations
via the because other respondents (sales managers, sales people, or sales trainers) gave
significantly higher importance ratings to those competencies.
Sales professors should further evaluate the importance they place on interpreting
information from multiple sources because they gave significantly higher importance
ratings than the other three groups (sales managers, sales people, and sales trainers). This
would seem to contradict much of the research on knowledge sharing and information
gathering, however, these findings may point to sensitivity with an entry-level sales
person’s knowledge structure and adaptability and the consequences of being presented
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with too much information at one time (Sujan, Wietz, & Kumar, 1994). Other
competencies that support the need for a better understanding of knowledge structures
within entry-level sales people include the following competencies:
Q11_2: Proactively sets challenging and achievable goals because they gave
significantly higher importance ratings than the sales manager group.
Q14_6: Calls on multiple individuals within the customer’s organization because
they gave significantly higher importance ratings than the sales manager group.
Q15_6: Takes calculated entrepreneurial risks because they gave significantly
higher importance ratings than the sales manager group.
Q16_15: Displays ability to leave compelling voice mails because they gave
significantly higher importance ratings than the sales person group.
Q18_11: Determines the appropriate price for a product or service because they
gave significantly higher importance ratings than the sales person group.
Q10_17: Adequately targets personal activities towards important or key
accounts because they gave significantly higher importance ratings than the sales
person group.
Q12_6: Sets up, secures, uses, and manages a laptop or computer for a variety of
purposes (e.g., presentations, organizing data, and collecting information)
because they gave higher importance ratings than the sales manager group and
the sales person group.
The literature points to the possible gap between sales training content and sales
training needs (Pelham, 2006). While many sales people believe sales training is
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important, most agree that some sales training is ineffective in its current form (Attia,
Honeycutt Jr., & Leach, 2005). Sales trainers should therefore evaluate the importance
they place on the competencies that are rated significantly lower by sales managers or
sales people such as acquiring and implementing consultative selling processes in order
to consult with customers on their business problems, acquiring and relating to a
widespread network of relevant business contacts, applying a personal or professional
ethical code to decision-making processes, and effectively following up on client orders,
managing the hand-off to other key team members.
The technology curriculum area was ranked in the bottom-third by 35.30% of
sales professors, 46.56% of sales managers, 57.89% of sales trainers, and 49.32% of sales
people. The risk management curriculum area was ranked in the bottom-third by 70.59%
of sales professors, 64.55% of sales managers, 72.63% of sales trainers, and 64.86% of
sales people. The administrative curriculum area was ranked in the bottom-third by
74.30% of sales people. These three curriculum areas are perceived as the least important
curriculum areas and therefore the least important learning and development needs for
entry-level business-to-business sales people in the services industry. Many of the
respondents (21.2%) agreed that they would use the competency model for coaching
purposes or they would pass it on to entry-level sales people (15.5%).
Conclusions and Implications
The findings of the study contribute to the existing knowledge of entry-level
business-to-business sales people in the services industry by developing a reliable and

248
valid instrument, which may be used in the sales profession. From the practitioner and
academic points of view, the nine-factor salesperson competency model can be used as a
guideline for learning and development purposes. Current sales people can use it to
determine the major areas in which they need to improve and current sales managers can
use it to help guide coaching and mentoring activities during the sale person’s first years
within the sales profession. Additionally, the findings can provide academicians with
information that can be used to structure an entry-level sales person curriculum or modify
existing curricula for courses related to professional selling. Curriculum planners creating
degree programs can use this study to aid in the determination of undergraduate courses
on professional selling that support the larger body of knowledge.
The course content at the undergraduate level should emphasize the primary
competencies identified as Tier I competencies. These primary competencies identified
by sales managers, sales professors, sales trainers, and sales people were determined to be
most important for entry-level business-to-business sales person success in the services
industry. The primary (Tier I) competencies were primarily concerned with sales process
and influence.
The findings can also provide sales trainers with a learning roadmap to ensure the
entry-level competencies are well trained and supported within the sales person’s first
year. Sales trainers should ensure the primary (Tier I) competencies are well understood
by the entry-level sales person and also focus on providing learning solutions that support
the secondary (Tier II) competencies found to be equally as important by most of the
respondents. The secondary (Tier II) competencies identified by the same respondent
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groups were primarily concerned with relationship, performance, and product and
industry competencies.
In addition, the sales trainers and sales managers can give consideration to the
remaining competencies within the SCA for help in creating new hire sales training
processes, on-boarding programs, or recruiting methods focused on the most important
competencies for entry-level business-to-business sales people in the services industry.
Sales professors should better understand the performance measures and competencies
within the performance curriculum area as they pertain to entry-level business-to-
business salespeople in the services industry.
Because a major contribution of this research was the creation of a competency
model for learning and development purposes, table 52 provides the specific set of highly
important competencies that sales managers, sales professors, sales trainers, and sales
people agree upon when rating the importance of competencies for entry-level sales
person success in the services industry. These highly important and agreed upon
competencies are organized by the nine curriculum areas derived from the exploratory
factor analysis.
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Table 52.
A Competency Model for Entry-level Sales People in the Services Industry
SALES PROCESS LEARNING OUTCOMES

• Tier I: Primary
o Responds appropriately to referrals
o Actively calls on (visits) new accounts
o Discovers and addresses prospect or customer issues and concerns
o Generates phone calls or emails and to setup appointments or advance the
process
o Aggressively finds leads on new prospects
o Engages personal selling strategies that meet the needs of the end-user
o Coordinates and completes relevant sales related activities
o Displays appropriate follow up activity to individual meetings
• Tier II: Secondary:
o Proactively attends networking events (convention, trade shows, etc) and builds
RELATIONSHIP LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Tier I: Primary
o Displays active and engaged listening skills.
o Relates well with organizational influencers or gatekeepers
o Builds good relationships with partners, vendors, or channel members
o Recognizes appropriate strategies to build rapport with clients and other key
relationships
o Actively engages in phone activity to sell over the phone or generate cold calls
o Actively and effectively sells additional value-added services or solutions
o Prepares for obstacles to sales success
o Acquires and relates to a widespread network of relevant business contacts
o Calls on multiple individuals within the customer’s organization
o Tailors unique solutions or modifies existing products to meet prospect and/or
customer needs
o Gives constructive and discriminate feedback to others
o Appropriately organizes client/prospect entertainment
CUSTOMER LEARNING OUTCOMES

• Tier I: Primary
o Makes an extra effort to meet customer needs
o Recognizes how client firms are organized and how they function
o Manages the hand-off to other key team members after the sale is finalized
o Cross-sells or up-sells add-on products or services within existing customer
relationships
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Table 52 continued.
INFLUENCING LEARNING OUTCOMES

• Tier I: Primary
o Manages the delivery of appropriate client proof (such as samples or trials)
o Possesses skill at closing sales opportunities and obtaining the order
o Effectively and persuasively delivers sales presentations to relevant decision
makers or influencers
o Sells the unique value-added aspects of the company, product or service
o Displays professionalism; poise; and speaking skill while make speeches
o Overcomes objections with skill
• Tier II: Secondary
o Identifies processes for creating compelling sales presentations that differentiate
o Effectively flatters clients to support end goal
PERFORMANCE LEARNING OUTCOMES

Tier I: Primary
o Conducts review meetings with key stakeholders
o Determines most appropriate materials to bring along on sales visits
o Understands what motivates self and others
o Interprets daily plan to maximize efficiency
o Proactively sets challenging and achievable goals
o Acquires and implements consultative selling processes in order to consult with
o Alters approach based on reading body language of others
PRODUCT AND INDUSTRY LEARNING OUTCOMES

• Tier I: Primary
o Comprehends feedback from clients, individuals in the market, and supervisors
o Comprehends the features, benefits, and value of the product or service
o Determines most appropriate materials to bring along on sales visits
o Reads company literature and relates content appropriately
o Displays proficiency in new company products (includes reviewing, analyzing,
and introducing)
o Practices personal mentoring with colleagues (including training or coaching new
or junior sales reps)
o Determines the appropriate price for a product or service
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Table 52 continued.
TECHNOLOGY LEARNING OUTCOMES

• Tier I: Primary
o Knows how to use e-mail programs to communicate appropriately
o Sets up; secures; uses; and manages a laptop or personal computer for a variety
of purposes (including making Presentations, organizing data, collecting
information, etc)
RISK CURRICULUM LEARNING OUTCOMES

• Tier I: Primary
o Applies a personal or professional ethical code to decision-making processes
o Demonstrates appropriate decision making ability that involves others
o Infers the appropriate protection and/or use of intellectual property
o Infers appropriate action to avoid possibility litigation
ADMINISTRATIVE LEARNING OUTCOMES

• Tier I: Primary
o Generates email or letters in proper business format with proper grammar and
voice:
o Adequately reports on sales activities
o Originates orders by “writing them up” appropriately so they don’t get held up
o Updates customer files in an effective manner
o Displays judgment in sales process (including expediting orders, making
decisions, etc)
o Fills out paperwork with accuracy and within an appropriate time frame
o Attends local sales meetings to discuss and report progress with colleagues &
managers
o Appropriately checks in with supervisor and other key staff
o Organizes personal records
o Travels with supervisors
o Displays organizational ability by keeping the office tidy
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Recommendations for Future Research
The following recommendations are made for further research in the area of entry-level
business-to-business sales person competency:
1. The SCA should be used to test the importance of sales person competencies in
other settings such as industrial/manufacturing, quasi-public, and business-to-
consumer settings such as retail locations.
2. The instrument can also be utilized in other countries. Whether entry-level
business-to-business competencies required in different countries and cultures are
similar to the United States could thus be compared.
3. A study should be conducted that will examine the significant differences where
interaction occurred to determine what effects institutional settings and
professional experience have based on the competencies needed.
4. An exploratory factor analysis should be confirmed by confirmatory factor
analysis and the number of factors should be further validated for entry-level
business-to-business selling.
5. A similar analysis should be conducted with other professional levels (e.g.,
middle, and senior/top levels) to determine if there are consistencies among levels
regarding the importance of competencies.
The sales force is the dominant information link between the customer and
product development teams (Pelham, 2006). As a result, the field of business-to-business
selling has been influenced by many dramatic changes in the highly competitive business
environment. The following difficulties highlight the need for a study of business-to-
254
business sales person competency: (a) the increased expectations of buyers, (b)
challenges in attaining sales quotas (c) increased demands in business-to-business sales
person performance, (d) variances in business-to-business sales person efficiency, (e)
challenges in developing customer satisfaction, market competition.
Because the sales profession is a rapidly changing one, and sales people are facing
dynamic changes, sales trainers, sales managers, sales professors, and the individuals
who call the sales occupation their own can benefit from understanding the knowledge
and skill necessary for success. In turn, this will help sales people attain more success at
the beginning of their career.
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APPENDIX A: EXPERT JURY MEMBERS
The following individuals participated in the content validation panel:
1. Dr Alfred Pelham, Professor of Marketing, College of New Jersey

2. Dr. Mark Johlke, Professor of Marketing, Bradley University
3. Dr. Richard Plank, Professor of Marketing, USF
4. Dr. Daniel Blair, Adjunct Professor, University of Southern California
5. Chris Wellington, President, United Professional Sales Association

6. Andy Miller, President, AMI/SMguru
7. Ian Platt, President, Trainique USA, LLC
8. Pat Mustico, Sales Manager, Ricoh Professional Services, Inc
9. Nigel Edelshain, Founder, Sales 2.0, Inc
10. Scott Colvin, Senior Account Executive, Ascend Software, Inc

11. Martin Brossman, President, Success Coaching, LLC
12. Jonathan Sper, Senior Sale Manager, WSB Media, Inc
13. Randy Balderson, Business Development Manager, Computer Specialists Inc
The following individuals participated in the Expert Jury:
Sales People:
1. Rick Tancreto, Senior Sales Executive, Career Builder

2. Scott Barghaan, Sales Executive, EMC/Microsoft
3. Brian Schneider, Senior Business Development, Improvision, Inc.
4. Sean Carroll, Sales Representative, Center for Creative Leadership, Inc.
5. Jennifer Austin, Sales Specialist, Booz Allen Hamilton, Inc.
6. Ross Barnett, Sales Development, Oracle, Inc.
7. Gregg Beecher, Sales Representative, Office Outpost, Inc.
8. Randy Brown, Sales Representative, Oracle, Inc.
9. Kevin Casper, Business Development Director, Amadesa, Inc.
10. Kevin Taylor, Sales Development, Omnistudio, Inc.
11. Carolyn Scott, Account Manager, ATT, Iinc.
12. Josh Abich, Senior Account Executive, Angel.com
13. Steven Vozenlik, Managing Director, Smith Barney, Inc
14. Stephen Land, Account Manager, IBM, Inc.
15. Guy Langvardt, Sales Executive, IBM, Inc.
269
Sales Managers:
16. Jaaron Taafe, Advertising Group Sales Manager, Merion, Inc.

17. Suzanne Burgess, President, SalesBytes, PLC
18. Robert Cantrell, President, Center for Advantage, Inc
19. Aaron Stevens, Sales Support Executive, Ricoh Professional Services, Inc.
20. Jerry Recht, Partner, National Personnel, Inc.
21. Bill Landers, Director, Xsellense, Inc.
22. Tom Hippensteel, Sales Manager, Liquid Concrete, Inc.
23. Theresa Spangler, Founder, CLAdventures, Inc.
24. Aaron Steeves, Founder, Offix, Inc.
25. Richa Batra, Sales Director, ASTD
26. Michael Levin, Manager, ITA Group, Inc.
27. Pele Raymond, Founder, LeaderPractice
Sales Trainers
28. Keith Stoneman, Group Sales Trainer, Ameritas Insurance, Inc.

29. Tim Ohai, Sales Learning and Development, Shell, Inc.
30. Jan Delory, Founder, Boston Professional Group
31. Tim Moore, President, Dancing elephants Achievement Group
32. Elizabeth Frank, Sales Trainer, Sothebys Realty
33. Tina Busch, Sales Training and Development, Pitney Bowes, Inc.
34. Dave Stein, President, ESResearch Group, Inc.
Other Experts
35. Gerhard Gschwandtner, Publisher of Selling Power Magazine

36. Dan Seidman, Best Selling Author , SalesAutopsy.com
37. Eric Kerkhoff, UPSA Vice Chairman, Hewlett Packard Company
38. Aaron Bare, President, NASP
39. Jennifer Naughton, ASTD Competency & Credentialing
40. Tom Phillips, Managing Director, Sales University
270
APPENDIX B: CONTENT VALIDATION (DELPHI) CORRESPONDENCE
Dear Content Validation Panelist: ROUND 1 CORRESPONDENCE
Hello!
I really appreciate your willingness to be part of an expert panel for a very important
study on entry-level salesperson competency. The attached survey is a survey will serve as the
foundation for future research, articles, and thought leadership—and it all starts with you and
your fellow expert panelists!
The ultimate purpose of this study is to construct a reliable and statistically valid survey
instrument for determining the most important entry-level salesperson competencies in the
services market. Not only can this survey be applied here in the U.S., but it can also be validated
and used in other countries and for other markets (i.e., insurance, manufacturing, etc).
The salesperson competency statements were developed from an extensive review of the
literature as well as a one-day workshop with the United Professional Sales Association
Standards Committee. The literature review included over five text books and over 400 academic
journal articles related to professional selling. Being an exemplary salesperson, sales manager,
sales professor, or sales trainer, your assistance is vital to the completion of the second part of this
3-part process. By completing this open-ended process, you will be contributing your expertise
to the business-to-business selling profession. Once the response from you and the other expert
panelists have been gathered, all the comments will be synthesized and a final copy of the survey
instrument, with the final changes will be sent to you for your final comments. The final part of
this process involves a separate pilot study with over 100 respondents to take the survey you and
the expert panelists have created.
Please, here is what you need to do:
1. You will need to rate each statement based on your expert-opinion of the
competencies required by an exemplary entry-level salesperson that enters into the
profession five years from today (in the year 2013).
2. You should help keep the model compact and relevant to entry-level business-to-business
services salespeople. Identify competencies required of exemplary performers as the most
important.
3. Indicate improperly stated or inadequately grouped competencies,
4. Indicate if certain competencies should be collapsed into one
5. Suggest any other skills, abilities, attributes or knowledge you feel should be included
that were missed,
271
explanation),
7. Provide input into any competencies we have missed for exemplary entry level
salespeople five years in the future
8. Each competency statement has a unique identifier (i.e., CC1-10). Please use it to make
specific comments on each page.
Please complete your review and return it to me at your earliest convenience. A self-addressed
return envelope is enclosed (no postage necessary).
If you prefer, responses can be entered into our research portal located at
http://www.b2bsalescompetency.info/survey
To enter your responses into the web based system use the following survey ID:
Your survey ID is: [insert id here] (note: this is case sensitive)
Thank You very much for your support and assistance!
Sincerely,
Brian W. Lambert
Ph.D. Candidate Researcher contact info: 703-447-5764
administrator@b2bsalescompetency.info
272
Dear Sales Competency Expert: ROUND 2 CORRESPONDENCE
Welcome to Round 2!
I sincerely appreciate your comments and inputs in the first part of validating the
Salesperson Competency Analysis (SCA) instrument! The ultimate purpose of this study is to
construct a reliable and statistically valid survey instrument for determining the most important
entry-level salesperson competencies in the services market. Not only can this survey be applied
here in the U.S., but it can also be validated and used in other countries and for other markets
(i.e., insurance, manufacturing, etc).
Your recommendations and feedback have been carefully synthesized into a new and
updated list of
186 entry-level business-to-business salesperson competency statements within 11
competency clusters.
In this second part of the validation process, you will need to rate the importance of the
competency from (1-lowest importance) to (7-highest importance) for entry-level salespeople
who enter into selling five years from now.
NOTE: 0 on the scale means "not relevant" and 4 = “average importance”.
For example:
0 is “Not
Relevant” 4 is "Average Importance" Crucial for
exemplary
performance
Not relevant
for Absolutely Extremely Somewhat Average Somewhat Extremely Absolutely
exemplary Unimportant Unimportant Unimportant Importance Important Important Critical
performance
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(continued)
273
After you complete the rating, please return the questionnaire within the next 3 business
days. A stamped, self addressed return envelope is enclosed. In order to save time, however, I
would prefer that you fax it back to 866-885-2550 or use the web based survey system
located at http://www.b2bsalescompetency.info/survey
If you choose to use the web based system (preferred), please use the following survey ID:
Your survey ID is: [insert id here] (note: this is case sensitive)
Once again, thank you very much for your support and assistance!
Sincerely,
Brian Lambert Please feel free to contact me for questions or clarifications. I

Ph.D. Candidate can be reached at administrator@b2bsalescompetency.info or
by phone at: 703-447-5764
274
Content Validation Panel Instrument
Instructions: After synthesizing your comments and recommendations, a new list of salesperson
competency statements has been produced. In this step of the validation process, you are asked to rate each
statement using the following 7-point Likert scale. Please circle the number you deem the most appropriate
for each competency:
For Example:
4 is "Average Importance"
Not relevant
Crucial for
for Absolutely Somewhat Average Somewhat Absolutely
exemplary
exemplary Unimportant Unimportant Importance Critical Critical
performance
performance
Possesses knowledge of
applicable state and federal 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
laws
Important Definitions:
• Competency . An underlying characteristic of a person which results in effective and/or superior

performance in a job (Boyatzis, 1982).
• Competency Cluster . A logical grouping of competency statements.
• Competency Identification . The process of identifying job competencies (Rothwell & Lindholm,
1999).
• Competency Model . A written description of the competencies required for fully successful or
exemplary performance in a job category, work team, department, division, or organization
(Dubois & Rothwell, 2004).
• Entry-Level Salesperson . A salesperson with less than 1 year of professional selling experience
in any business-to-business setting.
• Exemplary Performer . Someone who is an exceptionally talented and outstandingly competent
business-to-business services salesperson (Dubois & Rothwell, 2004, p. 33) .
• Salesperson . For this study, a salesperson is an individual engaged in the process of personally
representing a selling organization while uncovering and satisfying the needs of individuals within
a buying organization to the mutual, long-term benefit of both firms (UPSA, 2003).
• Sales Manager . Individuals responsible for generating sales that meet corporate objectives
salespeople (Futrell, 1988).
• Sales Professor . A person who organizes and teaches the topic of professional selling at an
institution of higher education.
• Sales Trainer . A person who specializes in the skills, knowledge, industry, and product training,
and individual development of salespeople in a corporate setting.
275
1) As an expert, please rate how easy the survey directions were to understand:
The directions were (circle one)

1) Very Difficult to Understand
2) Difficult to Understand
3) Neutral
4) Easy to Understand
5) Very Easy to Understand
2) Any comments regarding the directions (wording, reading comprehension, clarity, etc)?
3) Any comments regarding the cover letter (invitation) (wording, reading comprehension, clarity,
etc)?
276
4) Any comments regarding the overall study?
277
PART 1: DEMOGRAPHICS
5) If you had access to this skills inventory right now and it had the critical knowledge, skills, and
abilities necessary for entry-level salespeople, what are the top two actions you would take?
Please circle one:
1) Benchmark my skills
2) Recommend someone else benchmark themselves
3) Give it to my sales training organization
4) Use it as a coaching tool
5) Pass it on to entry-level salespeople
6) Recommend it to hiring managers
7) I would do nothing with it
8) Use it to design or develop curriculum
6) Which of the following is closest to your full time roll within your organization?
Please circle one:
1) Sales manager
2) Sales professor
3) Sales trainer
4) Salesperson
7) How many years have you been in your current position?

Please circle one:
1) 1-5
2) 6-10
3) 11-15
4) 16-20
5) 21-25
6) 26-30
7) 31+
8) How many total years have you been in your profession?

Please circle one:
1) 1-5
2) 6-10
3) 11-15
4) 16-20
5) 21-25
6) 26-30
7) 31+
278
9) If you work full time, what type of organization do you work in?
Please circle one:
1) Academic institution
2) Privately held company
3) Publicly traded company
4) Non-profit organizations
5) I do not work full time
10) Does your organization mostly provide your clients/members with services or tangible products?
Please circle one:
1) Services
2) Tangible products
11) Where do you primarily live?

Please circle one:
1) United States
2) Asia
3) Africa
4) Australia
5) Canada
6) Europe
7) South America
12) What industry is your organization in?

Please circle *only* one:
1) SERVICES
2) NON-SERVICES
3) Do not Know – try not to use this!
279
As an expert, please rate how easy the demographic section was to understand:*
Any comments regarding the wording, organization, or comprehensiveness of Section 1: Demographics?
280
PART 2: COMPETENCIES
Opportunity Management Competency Cluster
As an expert, please rate the competency statements below from (0-not applicable) to (7-critically important) for entry-
level salespeople with less than one year of selling experience:
Absolutely Average Absolutely

Not Unimportant Importance Critical
Applicable
1
Acquires and implements adaptive or consultative selling behaviors 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2
Sells the unique competencies and value of the company 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3
Effectively follows up on client orders 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
4
Generates appropriate financial figures and follows billing procedures 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
5
Overcomes objections with skill 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
6
Persuades prospects with examples or logic or other pertinent information 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
7
Actively calls on (visits) new accounts 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8
Aggressively finds leads on new prospects 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
9
Actively engages in cold call phone activity 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
10
Determines most appropriate materials to bring along on sales visits 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
11
Effectively illustrates intended use of product or service to end-user customers 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
12
Possesses skill at closing opportunities and obtaining orders 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
13
Appropriately checks in with supervisor and other key staff 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
14
Actively and effectively sells additional value-added services or solutions 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
15
Adequately targets personal activities towards important or key accounts 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
16 Proactively discovers customer’s concerns while striving to adequately address
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
underlying needs or conflicts or desires
17
Tailors unique solutions or modify existing products to meet customer needs 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
18
Constructs an adequately scripted sales pitch 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
19
Engages personal selling strategies that sell to the ultimate end user 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
20
Fills out paperwork with accuracy and within an appropriate time frame 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
21
Manages the hand-off to other key team members after the sale is finalized 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
22 Manages for delivery or installation of appropriate client proof (such as samples
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
or trials)
23
Determines the appropriate price for a product or service 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
24
Submits high quality bids or proposals for consideration on time 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
281
As an expert, how easy were the Opportunity Management competency statements to
understand?
The competency statements were:
3) Neutral
Any comments on the competency statements? Please use the number of the competency.
282
Performance Management Competency Cluster
Applicable
1
Completes metrics calculations in order to gauge progress 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2
Accurately forecasts demand for products or services 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3
Accurately predicts closing rates on new sales opportunities 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
4
Adequately reports on sales activities 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
5
Conducts review meetings with key stakeholders 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
6
Meets with internal project staff to facilitate appropriate actions 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
7
Demonstrates appropriate decision making ability 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8
Gathers key facts about a situation before acting 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
9
Fills out and manages a personal development plan 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
10
Examines accuracy of records and other documents 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
11
Prepares for obstacles to sales success 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
12
Finds better; faster; or more efficient ways of doing things 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
As an expert, how easy were the Performance Management competency statements to
understand?
3) Neutral
283
The Technology Management Competency Cluster
Applicable
1
Understands technical processes and supports others with that information 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2
Effectively uses e-mail programs to communicate 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3
Possesses appropriate technical knowledge and relays it to customers 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
4
Effectively uses appropriate software tools and packages 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
5
Increases selling effectiveness by utilizing technology 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
6
Effectively demonstrates the product or service to others 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
7 Effectively leverages personal devices to manage information (i.e. a voice
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8
Effectively employs the Internet to achieve goals 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
9
Sets up; secures; uses; and manages a laptop or personal computer 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
10
Manages; prioritizes; and categorizes voice mail messages 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
11
Uses a fax machine when appropriate to send documentation 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
12
Uses video conference technology 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
As an expert, how easy were the Technology Management competency statements to understand?
3) Neutral
284
The Learning Management Competency Cluster
Applicable
1
Comprehends product features and the benefits of the product or service 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2
Actively attends a sales conference to increase knowledge or skill 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3
Conducts adequate and appropriate background research on client 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
4
Conducts adequate research on industry and competitors 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
5 Adeptly fills personal gaps in knowledge or skill through most appropriate
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
approaches
6
Displays proficiency in reviewing and analyzing new company products 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
7 Reads or stores relevant newsletters on important topics for use in the sales
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
process
8
Reads company literature and relates content appropriately 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
9
Reads trade publications and applies relevant knowledge appropriately 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
10
Attends and actively engages in periodic sales training 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
11
Practices personal mentoring with colleagues and managers 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
12
Ability to acquire and leverage information from multiple sources 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
As an expert, how easy were the Learning Management competency statements to understand?
3) Neutral
285
The Relationship Management Competency Cluster
Applicable
1
Safely and securely takes clients on-site 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2
Displays appropriate follow up to individual meetings 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3
Travels with supervisors 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
4 Organizes client or prospect entertainment while distinguishing between a
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
profitable activity and a non-appropriate activity
5
Effectively flatters clients to support end goal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
6
Builds good relationships with distributors 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
7
Responds appropriately to referrals 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8
Displays professionalism through writing thank you notes or emails 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
9
Selects the most appropriate time and manor to involve vendors 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
10
Formulates strategies for building appropriate key relationships 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
11
Identifies the appropriate time to “hand hold” customers 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
12
Formulates and implements strategies to build rapport with clients 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
13 Proactively attends networking opportunities and builds important key
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
contacts
14
Acquires and relates to a widespread network of relevant business contacts 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
15
Appropriately gauges perceptions of others regarding one’s self 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
16
Influences others with direct and indirect skill 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
17
Understands other people’s nonverbal behavior 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
18 Understands other people’s attitudes and the underlying meaning of their
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
actions
19
Predicts other people’s reactions to the sales process 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
20 Maintains transparency and displays honesty and integrity while becoming
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
a trusted advisor to customers
21
Maintains appropriate work-related friendships 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
22
Solicits input from others and involves others in decision-making 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
23
Gives constructive feedback to others 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
286
As an expert, how easy were the Relationship Management competency statements to
understand?
3) Neutral
287
The Customer Management Competency Cluster
Applicable
1
Provides relevant information to other internal salespeople 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2
Handles orders and backorders effectively and expedites as necessary 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3
Handles shipment problems as required to keep customers happy 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
4 Originates orders by “writing them up” appropriately so they don’t get
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
held up
5
Adheres to policies for keeping track of invoices 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
6 Facilitates fulfillment or delivery by communicating orders to support
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
personnel
7
Organizes and operates seminar or exhibition booth 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8
Displays knowledge of applicable state; local; and national laws 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
9
Prioritizes applicable corporate policies 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
10
Conducts politicking activities outside and inside the company 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
11
Infers appropriate action to avoid potential litigation 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
12
Monitors competitor products or services 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
13 Applies a personal or professional ethical code to decision-making
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
processes
14
Identifies appropriate time to deliver product or services 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
15
Addresses customer issues and concern 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
16
Responds adequately to competitive threats 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
17
Understands how client firms are organized and how they function 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
18 Uses corporate and personal intellectual property (IP) while also
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
protecting the IP from inappropriate audiences
19 Perform maintenance on systems
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
20 Setup displays
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
21 Deliver product samples
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
22 Handle advertising/promotions
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
23 Stock shelves
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
288
As an expert, how easy were the Customer Management competency statements to understand?
3) Neutral
Any comments on any of the competency statements (use the number of the competency)?
289
The Communication Competency Cluster (CCC)
Applicable
1 Possess skill in preparing words and presentations adequately 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Effectively and passionately delivers sales presentations to relevant decision
2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Identifies processes for creating compelling sales presentations that
3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
differentiate
4 Communicates with appropriately designed presentation aids 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
5 Provides discriminate feedback to others 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
6 Gathers and critiques relevant feedback from clients 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
7 Maintains communication with others by telephoning the office 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Follows up with internal team members regarding customer contacts or
8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
complaints
9 Generates phone calls or emails in order to setup appointments 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Plans and conducts conference calls with key corporate and client team
10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
members
11 Displays professionalism; poise; and speaking skill while make speeches 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
12 Possesses ability to ship packages via overnight services 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
13 Creates and provides seminars to clients or prospects 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
14 Constructs and delivers individualized correspondence or memos 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

15 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
voice
Practices and develops skills in a second language or increases skill with
16 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
vocabulary
17 Develops; manages; and delivers effective presentations via the Internet 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
18 Demonstrates an ability to call on CEOs and other C-Level executives 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
19 Relates well with other organizational influencers or gatekeepers 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
20 Displays ability to leave compelling voice mails 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
21 Displays skill in adapting approach based on active listening 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
22 Constructs effective questions and asks those questions at appropriate times 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
23 Alters approach based on reading body language of others 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
290
As an expert, how easy were the Communication competency statements to understand?
3) Neutral
291
The Personal Competency Cluster
Applicable
1 Skillfully predicts the effects of own words and actions 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2 Proactively sets challenging and achievable goals 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3 Accurately conducts self-assessments to identify strengths and weaknesses 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
4 Uses time efficiently to consistently perform at high levels 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
5 Responds to environmental forces by seizing opportunities for success 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
6 Coordinates and completes relevant sales related activities 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
7 Plans and defends the most effective selling activity for the situation 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8 Helps clients conduct planning tasks or processes 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
9 Gathers appropriate information in order to effectively complete data entry 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
10 Displays judgment when expediting orders 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
11 Conducts account planning activities for multiple; inter-related sales calls 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
12 Studies and verifies personal commissions to ensure accuracy 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
13 Follows company policy to appropriately fill out expense reports 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
14 Organizes personal records 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
15 Performs work after hours as needed to effectively perform 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
16 Arranges for appropriately timed and optimized travel 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
17 Optimizes time spent travel to and from the office 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
18 Displays organizational ability by keeping the office tidy 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
19 Updates customer files in an effective manner 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
20 Maintains a viable and working virtual office 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
21 Performs daily planning to determine most efficient routine 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
292
As an expert, how easy were the Personal competency statements to understand?
3) Neutral
293
The Character Competency Cluster (ACC)
Applicable
1 Displays confidence and a sense of self-worth in own capabilities 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2 Optimistically sees the upside in events and maintains a positive attitude 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3 Is driven to improve performance to achieve inner standards of excellence 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
4 Actively engages with others at regional sales meetings 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
5 Takes personal responsibility for failures or problems 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
6 Takes calculated entrepreneurial risks 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
7 Understands what motivates self and others 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Attends local sales meetings to discuss and report progress with colleagues &
8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
managers
9 Enjoys attempting new or challenging tasks 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
10 Displays an outgoing personality to others 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Maintains a results oriented outlook and stays focused on end-results and
11 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
outcomes
Is resilient to many changes; inputs; or stresses throughout the course of
12 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
working
13 Takes on new challenges to support personal development or corporate goals 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
14 Is versatile and displays adaptability at many different tasks and processes 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
15 Displays innovation and creativity in sales-related strategies and processes 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Relates to others during the holiday season or special events by sending
16 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
greeting cards
17 Attends meetings geared toward sales professionalism 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
18 Displays a learning motive and is curious about gaining new information 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
19 Makes an extra effort to meet customer needs 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
20 Displays a sense of urgency and works fast while working smart 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Is an assertive self-starter capable of forging ahead and making things
21 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
happen
22 Is self-determined and persists through adversity while not giving up easily 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
23 Displays a competitive nature and seeks to consistently stay at the top 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
24 Maintains an agreeable persona and helps warm up new acquaintances 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
25 Is consistent in behavior; results; and personality when dealing with others 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
26 Displays self-control and keeps disruptive emotions and impulses in check 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
27 Is dependable to others in business relationships 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
28 Displays responsibility for own actions and results 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
294
As an expert, how easy were the Character competency statements to understand?
3) Neutral
295
COMPETENCY CLUSTER RANK ORDERING:
In the following section, you will be presented with a description of eleven groupings of
competency statements. These “competency clusters” contain all the statements you just rated.
Please rank order the competency clusters from one to eleven, with 1 begin the most important for
exemplary performance and 9 being the least important for exemplary performance.
______ Opportunity Management Competency Cluster

Competencies required to identify, engage, move, close, and protect sales opportunities.
______ Performance Management Competency Cluster

Competencies required to manage individual outputs and results and proactively and continuously
improve the sales process, document progress against established goals, or calculate key metrics
______ Technology Management Competency Cluster

Competencies required to effectively choose, implement, and manage information technology and
other technology related to the sales process
______ Learning Management Competency Cluster

Competencies required to learn about industry, product, and selling skill while keeping abreast of
changes in the market, the product or service, or individual circumstances
______ Relationship Management Competency Cluster

Competencies required to identify, build, and sustain key business relationships
______ Customer Management Competency Cluster

Competencies required to effectively span the gap between the selling organization and buying
organization(s) while developing mutually beneficial selling and buying situations for both entities
and managing the systems and processes between the organizations as necessary.
______ Communication Management Competency Cluster

Competencies required to effectively listen, speak, persuade, question, and write within
appropriate business norms while representing the interest of the selling company and exploring
the wants and needs of the buying company
______ Personal Management Competency Cluster

Competencies required to set goals, implement plans, and achieve aspirations while managing
one’s self
______ Character Competency Cluster:

Competencies such as personal motives, personality traits, emotional intelligence, and beliefs that
an exemplary entry-level business-to-business salesperson should possess in order to attain
exceptional performance.
296
APPENDIX C: EXPERT JURY CORRESPONDENCE
Dear Sales Competency Expert:
Hello!
I really appreciate your willingness to be part of an expert panel for a very important study on
entry-level salesperson competency. The attached survey is a survey will serve as the foundation
for future research, articles, and thought leadership—and it all starts with you and your fellow
expert panelists!
The ultimate purpose of this study is to construct a reliable and statistically valid survey
instrument for determining the most important entry-level salesperson competencies in the
services market. Not only can this survey be applied here in the U.S., but it can also be validated
and used in other countries and for other markets (i.e., insurance, manufacturing, etc).
The salesperson competency statements were developed from an extensive review of the
literature as well as a one-day workshop with the United Professional Sales Association
Standards Committee. The literature review included over five text books and over 30 academic
journal articles related to professional selling. Being an exemplary salesperson, sales manager,
sales professor, or sales trainer, your assistance is vital to the completion of the second part of this
3-part process. By completing this open-ended process, you will be contributing your expertise
to the business-to-business selling profession. Once the response from you and the other expert
jurors have been gathered, all the comments will be synthesized and a final copy of the survey
instrument. The final part of this 3-step process involves a separate pilot study with over 200
respondents to take the survey you and the content validation panelists have created.
Please, here is what you need to do:
9. You will need to rate each statement based on your expert-opinion of the
competencies required by an exemplary entry-level salesperson that enters into the
profession five years from today (in the year 2012).
297
10. You should help keep the model compact and relevant to entry-level business-to-business
services salespeople. Identify competencies required of exemplary performers as the most
important.
11. Indicate improperly stated or inadequately grouped competencies,
12. Indicate if certain competencies should be collapsed into one
13. Suggest any other skills, abilities, attributes or knowledge you feel should be included
that were missed,
explanation),
15. Provide input into any competencies we have missed for exemplary entry level
salespeople five years in the future
16. Each competency statement has a unique identifier (i.e., CC1-10). Please use it to make
specific comments on each page.
Please complete your review and return it to me at your earliest convenience. A self-addressed
return envelope is enclosed (no postage necessary).
If you prefer, responses can be entered into our research portal located at
http://www.b2bsalescompetency.info/survey
To enter your responses into the web based system use the following survey ID:
Your survey ID is: 95M4m3K33Mikg (note: this is case sensitive)
Thank You very much for your support and assistance!
Sincerely,
Brian W. Lambert
Ph.D. Candidate
298
EXPERT JURY CRITIQUE FORM – SALESPERSON COMPETENCY SURVEY
As an expert jury member, please answer the following questions about the survey. You
may return your critique form with the survey responses. If you choose to take your
survey online, you will be able to fill it out online after you take your survey.
As an expert, please rate how easy the competency statements were to understand:*
1. The competency statements were:
a. Very Difficult to Understand
b. Difficult to Understand
c. Neutral
d. Easy to Understand
e. Very Easy to Understand
2. Do you believe any competencies are missing? If yes, please explain in as much
detail as possible:
299
3. Any comments on the competency statements overall?
4. As an expert, please rate how easy the survey directions were to understand:
The directions were:
a. Very Difficult to Understand
b. Difficult to Understand
c. Neutral
d. Easy to Understand
e. Very Easy to Understand
300
5. Any comments overall regarding the survey directions?
6. What do you think of the survey design? What do you think can be done to help
get more responses?
301
What Do Entry Level Salespeople Need To Do?
An Expert Jury Survey
of
Sales People, Sales Managers, and Sales Trainers, and Sales
Professors
Each of us has an idea of what we think entry level salespeople should be doing. And
we think we know what we each salesperson needs to accomplish to achieve success,
especially in the critical first year on the job. But across the world of professional
selling and sales training, there is little agreement on the professional skills and
knowledge necessary to succeed in the crucial first year in a business-to-business
selling role. This makes it difficult for new salespeople to know just what kinds of
books, courses, seminars, and other professional development activities are needed –
and it what order is optimal – for helping launch their career on the right foot.
This questionnaire is being sent to a very select, hand-picked population of

salespeople, sales managers, sales trainers, and sales professors to find out what
activities really need to be performed by entry-level business-to-business salespeople.
We are also gathering your opinion on how crucial those activities are to the success
of entry-level salespeople with less than 1 year of experience. The results will be
helpful in developing a basic set of competencies to aid in the creation of a larger
profession-wide competency model for sales learning and performance use. This
study is being conducted by Brian Lambert, Ph.D. candidate at Capella University.
The questionnaire itself is the product of two years of work involving the suggestions
and input from more than 300 professional and experts.
Please take a few minutes to complete this confidential questionnaire and respond via
mail, fax, or internet link. More information is available at
www.b2bsalescompetency.info
302
SALESPERSON COMPETENCY ANALYSIS (SCA)
Overview: On following pages will be presented with a speculative model and a basic set of competencies
that were generated from a variety of sources. You will need to rate each statement based on your expert-
opinion of the competencies required by an exemplary entry-level salesperson (<1 year in sales) who enters
into the profession five years from now (i.e., they start their first business-to-business sales job in 2013.)
From your responses, we will be able to provide a better final survey intended for a larger audience -- so
thank you for your diligence in answering!
Your Primary Objectives:
• You will need to rate each statement based on your expert-opinion of the competencies
required by an exemplary entry-level salesperson that enters into the profession five years
from today (in the year 2013).
• You should help keep the model compact and relevant to entry-level business-to-business
salespeople. Identify competencies required of exemplary performers as the most important.
• Why five years into the future? The goal of this round of the survey is to leverage your subject
matter expertise relating to market trends, sales profession trends, and the ever-evolving role of the
salesperson. Because you are an expert, we ask you to project five years into the future in order to
relay your expertise to entry-level salespeople through the competency model you help develop.
Other Objectives:
As an expert jury member, please suggest changes in wording or grouping of competencies for inclusion in
the final survey. This is an important step before the final salesperson competency analysis is available for
distribution.
As you think about each competency, please feel free to:
• indicate improperly stated or inadequately grouped competencies,

• indicate if certain competencies should be collapsed into one
• suggest any other skills or knowledge you feel should be included,
• indicate if any of the competencies should be eliminated (with a two sentence explanation),
• provide input into any competencies we have missed for exemplary entry level salespeople five
years in the future
Important Notes:
• All of the survey responses are required (except for comment boxes)
• The competency statements within each competency cluster are in no particular order.
303
Instructions: After synthesizing comments and recommendations from a content panel of experts, a list of
salesperson competency statements has been produced. In this step of the validation process, please rate
each statement using the following 5-point Likert scale. Please circle the number you deem the most
appropriate for each competency:
For Example:
Slightly Moderately Very

Unnecessary Essential
Possesses knowledge of applicable state and
1 2 3 4 5
federal laws

• Competency Cluster . A logical grouping of competency statements.
1999).
• Entry-Level Salesperson . A salesperson with less than 1 year of professional selling experience
business-to-business services salesperson (Dubois & Rothwell, 2004, p. 33) .
• Salesperson . For this study, a salesperson is an individual engaged in the process of personally
salespeople (Futrell, 1988).
and individual development of salespeople in a corporate setting.
304
1. Which of the following is closest to your full time role within your organization?
Sales manager
Sales professor
Sales trainer/consultant/coach
Salesperson
None of the above
2. Which of the following markets do you primarily sell to?

Business markets (B2B)
Consumer markets (B2C)
Government markets
None of the above
3. How many years have you been in your profession?

Less than one year
1 to 2 years
2 to 5 years
5 to 10 years
10 to 20 years
20 or more years
Don’t Know
4. How would you best classify your primary employment status?

I am a full time (salaried) employee
I am a contractor, or own my own business
I am a part time employee
I am not currently employed
5. What type of organization do you work in?

Privately held company
Publicly traded company
Non-profit organizations
Other____________
305
6. Does your organization mostly provide your clients/members with services or tangible products?
Services
Tangible products
A relatively even mix of both
Don’t Know
7. Where do you live?

United States
Asia
Africa
Australia
Canada
Europe
South America
Middle East
8. What industry is your organization in?

Agriculture
Amusement and Recreation Services
Automotive Repair; Services; and Parking
Business Services
Construction
Educational Services
Engineering
Financial
Government
Health Services
Hotels, Rooming Houses; Camps; and Other Lodging Places
Insurance
Legal Services
Manufacturing
Membership Organizations
Mining
Miscellaneous Repair Services
Motion Pictures
Museums; Art Galleries and Botanical and Zoological Gardens
Personal Services
Real-estate
Securities
Social Services
Trade-retail
Trade-wholesale
Transportation/public utilities
Other____________
306
9. If you had access to the final skills inventory right now and it contained the critical knowledge,
skills, and attributes necessary for entry-level salespeople, what are the top two actions you would
take?
a. Benchmark my skills
b. Recommend someone else benchmark themselves
c. Give it to my sales training organization
d. Use it as a coaching tool
e. Pass it on to entry-level salespeople
f. Recommend it to hiring managers
g. I would do nothing with it
h. Use it to design or develop curriculum
307
What Do Entry-Level Salespeople Need To Do?
Sales Process Competencies
As an expert, please rate the competency statements below from (1-unnecessary) to (5-essential) for entry-level
salespeople with less than one year of selling experience:
Unnecessary Important Important Important Essential
Acquires and implements consultative selling processes in order to consult with

1 2 3 4 5
Actively calls on (visits) new accounts 1 2 3 4 5
Aggressively finds leads on new prospects 1 2 3 4 5
Engages personal selling strategies that meet the needs of the end-user 1 2 3 4 5
Distinguishes between high-quality and low-quality bids or proposals when
1 2 3 4 5
sending to the client
Displays appropriate follow up activity to individual meetings 1 2 3 4 5
Responds appropriately to referrals 1 2 3 4 5

Proactively attends networking events (convention, trade shows, etc) and
1 2 3 4 5
builds important key contacts
Predicts other people’s reactions to the sales process 1 2 3 4 5
Discovers and addresses prospect or customer issues and concerns 1 2 3 4 5

Generates phone calls or emails and to setup appointments or advance the
1 2 3 4 5
process
Plans and conducts conference calls with key corporate and client team
1 2 3 4 5
members
Creates and/or provides seminars to clients or prospects 1 2 3 4 5
Demonstrates an ability to call on CEOs and other C-Level executives 1 2 3 4 5
Alters approach based on reading body language of others 1 2 3 4 5
Coordinates and completes relevant sales related activities 1 2 3 4 5
Adequately targets personal activities towards important or key accounts 1 2 3 4 5
308
Performance Competencies
Finds better; faster; or more efficient ways of doing things 1 2 3 4 5
Proactively sets challenging and achievable goals 1 2 3 4 5
Comprehends individual or team strengths and weaknesses 1 2 3 4 5
Uses time efficiently to consistently perform at high levels 1 2 3 4 5
Has knowledge of the most effective selling activity for the situation 1 2 3 4 5
Comprehends account planning activities for multiple or inter-related sales calls 1 2 3 4 5
Willing to perform work “after hours” as needed 1 2 3 4 5
Arranges for appropriately timed and optimized travel 1 2 3 4 5

Optimizes time spent when travelling to and from locations (i.e., office, client
1 2 3 4 5
site, travel destinations, etc)
Interprets daily plan to maximize efficiency 1 2 3 4 5
Driven to improve performance to achieve inner standards of excellence 1 2 3 4 5
Maintains and displays a positive attitude 1 2 3 4 5
Displays an outgoing personality to others 1 2 3 4 5

Maintains a results oriented outlook and stays focused on end-results and
1 2 3 4 5
outcomes
Displays a sense of urgency and works fast while working smart 1 2 3 4 5
Displays a competitive nature and seeks to consistently stay at the top 1 2 3 4 5

Recognizes future demand for products or services 1 2 3 4 5
Accurately predicts closing rates on new sales opportunities in order to forecast
1 2 3 4 5
properly
309
Technology Competencies
Knows how to use e-mail programs to communicate appropriately 1 2 3 4 5
Recalls appropriate technical information and relays it to customers 1 2 3 4 5

Identifies most appropriate technology for use (i.e., video conferencing, web
1 2 3 4 5
seminars, etc)
Selects most appropriate personal device(s) to manage information (i.e. a voice
1 2 3 4 5
Effectively employs the Internet to achieve selling goals 1 2 3 4 5
Sets up; secures; uses; and manages a laptop or personal computer for a variety
of purposes (including making presentations, organizing data, collecting 1 2 3 4 5
information, etc)
Uses a fax machine when appropriate to send documentation 1 2 3 4 5
Develops; manages; and delivers effective presentations via the Internet 1 2 3 4 5
310
Learning Competencies
Fills out and manages a personal development plan 1 2 3 4 5
Prepares for obstacles to sales success 1 2 3 4 5
Recalls features and benefits of learned software tools or packages 1 2 3 4 5

Distinguishes relevant sales conference content that will most likely lead to
1 2 3 4 5
increased competency
Knows appropriate learning approaches that fill personal gaps 1 2 3 4 5
Identifies appropriate sales training content 1 2 3 4 5
Practices and develops skills in a second language 1 2 3 4 5
Enjoys attempting new or challenging tasks 1 2 3 4 5
Takes on new challenges to support personal development or corporate goals 1 2 3 4 5
Displays a learning motive and is curious about gaining new information 1 2 3 4 5

Selects adequate and appropriate methods to conduct background research,
1 2 3 4 5
including on site research, internet, word-of-mouth, etc
Interprets information from multiple sources (including databases, online,
1 2 3 4 5
colleagues, etc)
Practices personal mentoring with colleagues (including training or coaching
1 2 3 4 5
new or junior sales reps)
Attends meetings geared toward sales professionalism 1 2 3 4 5
311
Relationship Competencies
Actively engages in phone activity to sell over the phone or generate cold calls 1 2 3 4 5
Actively and effectively sells additional value-added services or solutions 1 2 3 4 5

Tailors unique solutions or modifies existing products to meet prospect and/or
1 2 3 4 5
customer needs
Conducts review meetings with key stakeholders 1 2 3 4 5
Meets with internal project staff to facilitate appropriate actions 1 2 3 4 5
Calls on multiple individuals within the customer’s organization 1 2 3 4 5
Understands technical information and processes 1 2 3 4 5
Appropriately organizes client/prospect entertainment 1 2 3 4 5
Builds good relationships with partners, vendors, or channel members 1 2 3 4 5
Identifies the appropriate time to utilize customer service techniques 1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5
relationships
Acquires and relates to a widespread network of relevant business contacts 1 2 3 4 5
Maintains appropriate work-related friendships 1 2 3 4 5
Relates well with organizational influencers or gatekeepers 1 2 3 4 5
Displays active and engaged listening skills 1 2 3 4 5
Actively engages with others at regional sales meetings 1 2 3 4 5
312
Risk Management Competencies
salespeople with less than one year of selling experience: Slightly Moderately Very
Safely and securely takes clients or prospects on-site 1 2 3 4 5
Displays knowledge of applicable state; local; and national laws 1 2 3 4 5
Recalls or recognizes applicable corporate policies in sales interactions 1 2 3 4 5
Infers appropriate action to avoid possibility litigation 1 2 3 4 5
Applies a personal or professional ethical code to decision-making processes 1 2 3 4 5
Infers the appropriate protection and/or use of intellectual property (IP) 1 2 3 4 5
Takes calculated entrepreneurial risks 1 2 3 4 5
Demonstrates appropriate decision making ability that involves others 1 2 3 4 5
Recognizes or distinguishes the accuracy of records and other documents 1 2 3 4 5
313
Influencing Competencies
Sells the unique value-added aspects of the company, product or service 1 2 3 4 5
Overcomes objections with skill 1 2 3 4 5
Persuades prospects with examples or logic or other pertinent information 1 2 3 4 5
Possesses skill at closing sales opportunities and obtaining the order 1 2 3 4 5
Constructs an adequately scripted sales pitch 1 2 3 4 5
Manages the delivery of appropriate client proof (such as samples or trials) 1 2 3 4 5
Effectively flatters clients to support end goal 1 2 3 4 5
Appropriately gauges perceptions of others regarding one’s self 1 2 3 4 5
Influences others with direct and indirect skill 1 2 3 4 5
Conducts politicking activities inside the company 1 2 3 4 5
Rewrites prepared words and/or presentations adequately 1 2 3 4 5

Effectively and persuasively delivers sales presentations to relevant decision
1 2 3 4 5
Identifies processes for creating compelling sales presentations that
1 2 3 4 5
differentiate
Communicates with appropriately designed presentation aids 1 2 3 4 5
Displays professionalism; poise; and speaking skill while make speeches 1 2 3 4 5
Displays ability to leave compelling voice mails 1 2 3 4 5
Constructs effective questions and asks those questions at appropriate times 1 2 3 4 5
Recognizes other people’s nonverbal behavior in a selling situation 1 2 3 4 5
314
Leadership Competencies
Paraphrases or translates key facts about important situations 1 2 3 4 5

Maintains transparency and displays honesty and integrity while becoming a
1 2 3 4 5
trusted advisor to customers
Gives constructive and discriminate feedback to others 1 2 3 4 5
Predicts the effects of own words and actions 1 2 3 4 5
Responds to environmental forces by seizing opportunities for success 1 2 3 4 5
Displays confidence and a sense of self-worth in own capabilities 1 2 3 4 5
Takes personal responsibility for failures or problems 1 2 3 4 5
Understands what motivates self and others 1 2 3 4 5

Maintains resiliency to many changes; inputs; or stresses throughout the course
1 2 3 4 5
of working
Displays versatility and adaptability at many different tasks and processes 1 2 3 4 5
Displays innovation and creativity in sales-related strategies and processes 1 2 3 4 5
Makes an extra effort to meet customer needs 1 2 3 4 5
Displays self-starter behaviors; forges ahead and makes things happen 1 2 3 4 5
Is self-determined and persists through adversity; doesn't give up easily 1 2 3 4 5
Displays self-control and keeps disruptive emotions and impulses in check 1 2 3 4 5
Displays responsibility for own actions and results 1 2 3 4 5
Manages cross functional, diverse, or international team members 1 2 3 4 5
315
Customer Competencies
Effectively follows up on client orders 1 2 3 4 5
Reproduces the intended use of product or service to end-user customers 1 2 3 4 5
Recognizes how client firms are organized and how they function 1 2 3 4 5
Explains and/or distinguishes relevant client planning activities 1 2 3 4 5
Collects on past-due accounts 1 2 3 4 5

Follows up with internal team members regarding customer contacts or
1 2 3 4 5
complaints
Facilitates fulfillment or delivery by communicating and coordinating with sales
1 2 3 4 5
support
Cross-sells or up-sells add-on products or services within existing customer
1 2 3 4 5
relationships
Handles shipment problems as required to keep customers happy 1 2 3 4 5
Handles orders and backorders effectively and expedites as necessary 1 2 3 4 5
Identifies appropriate time to deliver product or services to customers 1 2 3 4 5
Manages the hand-off to other key team members after the sale is finalized 1 2 3 4 5
316
Product & Industry Competencies
Interprets research on industry and competition 1 2 3 4 5
Recalls relevant newsletters on important topics for use in the sales process 1 2 3 4 5
Interprets trade publications in order to gather appropriate knowledge 1 2 3 4 5
Summarizes features and benefits of competitor's products or services 1 2 3 4 5
Responds adequately to competitive threats 1 2 3 4 5
Comprehends feedback from clients, individuals in the market, and supervisors 1 2 3 4 5
Determines most appropriate materials to bring along on sales visits 1 2 3 4 5
Effectively demonstrates the product or service to others 1 2 3 4 5
Comprehends the features, benefits, and value of the product or service 1 2 3 4 5

Displays proficiency in new company products (includes reviewing, analyzing,
1 2 3 4 5
and introducing)
Reads company literature and relates content appropriately 1 2 3 4 5
Organizes and operates seminar or exhibition booth 1 2 3 4 5
Determines the appropriate price for a product or service 1 2 3 4 5
317
Administrative Competencies
Recognizes and distinguishes financial figures and billing procedures 1 2 3 4 5
Appropriately checks in with supervisor and other key staff 1 2 3 4 5
Fills out paperwork with accuracy and within an appropriate time frame 1 2 3 4 5
Adequately reports on sales activities 1 2 3 4 5
Travels with supervisors 1 2 3 4 5
Originates orders by “writing them up” appropriately so they don’t get held up 1 2 3 4 5
Knows policies for keeping track of invoices 1 2 3 4 5

Spends night on the road in order to visit new clients, prospects, or current
1 2 3 4 5
customers
Maintains communication with others by telephoning the office 1 2 3 4 5
Identifies most appropriate overnight delivery service 1 2 3 4 5
Constructs and delivers individualized correspondence or memos 1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5
voice
Comprehends appropriate information in order to effectively complete data
1 2 3 4 5
entry
Displays judgment in sales process (including expediting orders, making
1 2 3 4 5
decisions, etc)
Studies and verifies personal commissions to ensure accuracy 1 2 3 4 5
Follows company policy to appropriately fill out expense reports in a timely
1 2 3 4 5
manner
Organizes personal records 1 2 3 4 5
Displays organizational ability by keeping the office tidy 1 2 3 4 5
Updates customer files in an effective manner 1 2 3 4 5
Maintains a viable and working virtual office 1 2 3 4 5

Attends local sales meetings to discuss and report progress with colleagues &
1 2 3 4 5
managers
Infers metrics calculations in order to gauge progress 1 2 3 4 5
Manages; prioritizes; and categorizes voice mail messages 1 2 3 4 5
Please continue to the NEXT PAGE
318
CURRICULUM AREAS RANK ORDERING:
In the following section, you will be presented with a description of eleven curriculum areas. These
“competency clusters” contain all the statements you just rated and they are designed to help for learning and
development purposes. Please rank order the curriculum areas from one to eleven, with 1 begin the most
important for exemplary performance and 11 being the least important for exemplary performance.
___________ Sales Process Curriculum: Competencies required in order for exemplary entry-level salespeople
to identify, engage, move, close, and protect sales opportunities.
___________ Performance Management Curriculum: Competencies required in order for exemplary entry-level
salespeople to manage individual outputs and results to proactively and continuously improve the
sales processes.
___________ Technology Management Curriculum: Competencies required in order for exemplary entry-level
salespeople to effectively choose, implement, and manage information technology and other
technology related to the sales process, product or industry.
___________ Learning Curriculum: Competencies required in order for exemplary entry-level salespeople to
learn about relevant industry knowledge, product knowledge, and selling skills while keeping
abreast of changes or trends in the market or the customer relationship.
___________ Relationship Curriculum: Competencies required in order for exemplary entry-level salespeople to
identify, build, and sustain key business relationships both internally and externally.
___________ Risk Management Curriculum: Competencies required in order for exemplary entry-level
salespeople to effectively manage the gap between the selling organization and buying
organization(s) while minimizing negative impacts for both entities
___________ Influencing Curriculum: Competencies required in order for exemplary entry-level salespeople to
effectively listen, speak, persuade, question, and write within appropriate business norms while
representing the interest of the selling company and exploring the wants and needs of the buying
company.
___________ Leadership Competency Cluster: Competencies required in order for exemplary entry-level
salespeople to achieve aspirations, manage one’s self, maintain an appropriate attitude, and lead
teams and other individuals.
___________ Customer Curriculum: Competencies required in order for exemplary entry-level salespeople to
synchronize to customer buying processes, systems, and requirements while helping the selling
organization deliver on the promise of the business relationship.
___________ Product and Industry Curriculum: Competencies required in order for exemplary entry-level
salespeople to build credibility and trust within the buying/selling relationship and leverage product
knowledge and industry knowledge for the good of the selling situation, decision, or task.
___________ Administrative Curriculum: Competencies required in order for exemplary entry-level salespeople
to maintain corporate systems while adhering to corporate policies and procedures reporting and
tracking needs and conducting other non-selling activities in support of sales goals.
319
APPENDIX D: FINAL SALESPERSON COMPETENCY ANALYSIS (SCA)
What Do Sales People Need To Do?

A Special Survey
of
Sales People, Sales Managers, and Sales Trainers, and Sales
Professors
Each of us has an idea of what we think entry level salespeople should be doing. And we
think we know what we each sales person needs to accomplish to achieve success. But
across the world of professional selling and sales training, there is little agreement on the
professional skills and knowledge necessary to succeed in the crucial first year in a
business-to-business selling role. This makes it difficult for new salespeople to know just
what kinds of books, courses, seminars, and other professional development activities are
needed – and it what order is optimal – for helping launch their career on the right foot.
This questionnaire is being sent to a very select, hand-picked population of salespeople,

sales managers, sales trainers, and sales professors to find out what activities really need
to be performed by entry level business-to-business salespeople. We are also gathering
your opinion on how crucial those activities are to the success of entry level salespeople
with less than 1 year of experience. The results will be helpful in developing a basic set of
competencies to aid in the creation of a larger profession-wide competency model for
sales learning and performance use.
This study is being conducted by Brian Lambert, Ph.D. candidate at Capella University.
The questionnaire itself is the product of two years’ of work involving the suggestions
and input from more than 200 professional and experts.
320
SALESPERSON COMPETENCY ANALYSIS (SCA)
Instructions: You will be presented with a list of competency statements. Please rate each statement using
the following 5-point Likert scale. Please circle the number you deem the most appropriate for each
competency:
For Example:
No relevancy Crucial for

for exemplary exemplary
performance performance
Unnecessary Essential
Possesses knowledge of applicable 1 2 3 4 5
state and federal laws
• Attributes . Hidden competencies defined as motives, traits, and a person’s self concept. (Spencer
& Spencer, 1993).
1999).
• Entry level Salesperson . A sales person with less than 1 year of professional selling experience
business-to-business services sales person (Dubois & Rothwell, 2004, p. 33) .
• Salesperson . For this study, a sales person is an individual engaged in the process of personally
through the process of planning, staffing, training, directing, and controlling the efforts of sales
people (Futrell, 1988).
and individual development of sales people in a corporate setting.
321
1. Which of the following is closest to your full time role within your organization?
Sales manager
Sales professor
Sales trainer/consultant/coach
Salesperson
None of the above
2. Which of the following markets do you primarily sell to?
Business markets (B2B)

Consumer markets (B2C)
Government markets
None of the above
3. How many years have you been in your profession?
Less than one year

1 to 2 years
2 to 5 years
5 to 10 years
10 to 20 years
20 or more years
Don’t Know
4. How would you best classify your primary employment status?
I am a full time (salaried) employee

I am a contractor, or own my own business
I am a part time employee
I am not currently employed
5. What type of organization do you work in?
Privately held company
Publicly traded company
Non-profit organizations
Other____________
322
6. Does your organization mostly provide your clients/members with services or tangible products?
Services
Tangible products
A relatively even mix of both
Don’t Know
7. Where do you live?
United States
Asia
Africa
Australia
Canada
Europe
South America
Middle East
8. What industry is your organization in?
Agriculture
Amusement and Recreation Services
Automotive Repair; Services; and Parking
Business Services
Construction
Educational Services
Engineering
Financial
Government
Health Services
Hotels, Rooming Houses; Camps; and Other Lodging Places
Insurance
Legal Services
Manufacturing
Membership Organizations
Mining
Miscellaneous Repair Services
Motion Pictures
Museums; Art Galleries and Botanical and Zoological Gardens
Personal Services
Real-estate
Securities
Social Services
Trade-retail
323
Trade-wholesale
Transportation/public utilities
Other____________
Don’t Know
What Sales People Really Do?
How important is each of the following statements to an entry level (less than 1 year) business-to-business sales person
who sells services? Remember to focus on exemplary performance.
Essential
Very Important
Please rate each competency from (1-unncessary) to (5-essential). Moderately Important
Slightly important
Unnecessary
Acquires and implements consultative selling processes in order to consult with 1 2 3 4 5

Actively calls on (visits) new accounts 1 2 3 4 5
Aggressively finds leads on new prospects 1 2 3 4 5
Engages personal selling strategies that meet the needs of the end-user 1 2 3 4 5
Distinguishes between high-quality and low-quality bids or proposals when sending to 1 2 3 4 5

the client
Displays appropriate follow up activity to individual meetings 1 2 3 4 5
Responds appropriately to referrals 1 2 3 4 5
Proactively attends networking events (convention, trade shows, etc) and builds 1 2 3 4 5
Predicts other people’s reactions to the sales process 1 2 3 4 5
Discovers and addresses prospect or customer issues and concerns 1 2 3 4 5
Generates phone calls or emails and to setup appointments or advance the process 1 2 3 4 5
Plans and conducts conference calls with key corporate and client team members 1 2 3 4 5
Creates and/or provides seminars to clients or prospects 1 2 3 4 5
Demonstrates an ability to call on CEOs and other C-Level executives 1 2 3 4 5
Alters approach based on reading body language of others 1 2 3 4 5
Coordinates and completes relevant sales related activities 1 2 3 4 5
Adequately targets personal activities towards important or key accounts 1 2 3 4 5
Finds better; faster; or more efficient ways of doing things 1 2 3 4 5
324
Proactively sets challenging and achievable goals 1 2 3 4 5
Comprehends individual or team strengths and weaknesses 1 2 3 4 5
Uses time efficiently to consistently perform at high levels 1 2 3 4 5
Has knowledge of the most effective selling activity for the situation 1 2 3 4 5
Comprehends account planning activities for multiple or inter-related sales calls 1 2 3 4 5
Understands what motivates self and others 1 2 3 4 5
Arranges for appropriately timed and optimized travel 1 2 3 4 5
Optimizes time spent when travelling to and from locations (e.g., office, client site, 1 2 3 4 5
travel destinations, etc)
Interprets daily plan to maximize efficiency 1 2 3 4 5
Manages cross functional, diverse, or international team members 1 2 3 4 5
Recognizes future demand for products or services 1 2 3 4 5
Accurately predicts closing rates on new sales opportunities in order to forecast 1 2 3 4 5

properly
Knows how to use e-mail programs to communicate appropriately 1 2 3 4 5
Recalls appropriate technical information and relays it to customers 1 2 3 4 5

Identifies most appropriate technology for use (e.g., video conferencing, web seminars,
1 2 3 4 5
etc)
Selects most appropriate personal device(s) to manage information (i.e. a voice
1 2 3 4 5
Effectively employs the Internet to achieve selling goals 1 2 3 4 5
Sets up; secures; uses; and manages a laptop or personal computer for a variety of
1 2 3 4 5
purposes (including making presentations, organizing data, collecting information, etc)
Develops; manages; and delivers effective presentations via the Internet 1 2 3 4 5
Fills out and manages a personal development plan 1 2 3 4 5
Prepares for obstacles to sales success 1 2 3 4 5
Recalls features and benefits of learned software tools or packages 1 2 3 4 5

Distinguishes relevant sales training content that will most likely lead to increased
1 2 3 4 5
competency
Knows appropriate learning approaches that fill personal gaps 1 2 3 4 5
Selects adequate and appropriate methods to conduct background research, including on
1 2 3 4 5
site research, internet, word-of-mouth, etc
Interprets information from multiple sources (including databases, online, colleagues,
1 2 3 4 5
etc)
Practices personal mentoring with colleagues (including training or coaching new or
1 2 3 4 5
junior sales reps)
Attends meetings geared toward sales professionalism 1 2 3 4 5
325
Actively engages in phone activity to sell over the phone or generate cold calls 1 2 3 4 5
Actively and effectively sells additional value-added services or solutions 1 2 3 4 5

Tailors unique solutions or modifies existing products to meet prospect and/or customer
1 2 3 4 5
needs
Conducts review meetings with key stakeholders 1 2 3 4 5
Meets with internal project staff to facilitate appropriate actions 1 2 3 4 5
Calls on multiple individuals within the customer’s organization 1 2 3 4 5
Understands technical information and processes 1 2 3 4 5
Appropriately organizes client/prospect entertainment 1 2 3 4 5
Builds good relationships with partners, vendors, or channel members 1 2 3 4 5
Identifies the appropriate time to utilize customer service techniques 1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5
relationships
Acquires and relates to a widespread network of relevant business contacts 1 2 3 4 5
Maintains appropriate work-related friendships 1 2 3 4 5
Relates well with organizational influencers or gatekeepers 1 2 3 4 5
Displays active and engaged listening skills 1 2 3 4 5
Actively engages with others at regional sales meetings 1 2 3 4 5
Gives constructive and discriminate feedback to others 1 2 3 4 5
Displays knowledge of applicable state; local; and national laws 1 2 3 4 5
Recalls or recognizes applicable corporate policies in sales interactions 1 2 3 4 5
Infers appropriate action to avoid possibility litigation 1 2 3 4 5
Applies a personal or professional ethical code to decision-making processes 1 2 3 4 5
Infers the appropriate protection and/or use of intellectual property 1 2 3 4 5
Takes calculated entrepreneurial risks 1 2 3 4 5
Demonstrates appropriate decision making ability that involves others 1 2 3 4 5
Recognizes or distinguishes the accuracy of records and other documents 1 2 3 4 5
Paraphrases or translates key facts about important situations 1 2 3 4 5
Sells the unique value-added aspects of the company, product or service 1 2 3 4 5
Overcomes objections with skill 1 2 3 4 5
Persuades prospects with examples or logic or other pertinent information 1 2 3 4 5
Possesses skill at closing sales opportunities and obtaining the order 1 2 3 4 5
326
Constructs an adequately scripted sales pitch 1 2 3 4 5
Manages the delivery of appropriate client proof (such as samples or trials) 1 2 3 4 5
Effectively flatters clients to support end goal 1 2 3 4 5
Appropriately gauges perceptions of others regarding one’s self 1 2 3 4 5
Influences others with direct and indirect skill 1 2 3 4 5
Rewrites prepared words and/or presentations adequately 1 2 3 4 5

Effectively and persuasively delivers sales presentations to relevant decision makers or
1 2 3 4 5
influencers
Identifies processes for creating compelling sales presentations that differentiate 1 2 3 4 5
Communicates with appropriately designed presentation aids 1 2 3 4 5
Displays professionalism; poise; and speaking skill while make speeches 1 2 3 4 5
Displays ability to leave compelling voice mails 1 2 3 4 5
Constructs effective questions and asks those questions at appropriate times 1 2 3 4 5
Recognizes other people’s nonverbal behavior in a selling situation 1 2 3 4 5
Predicts the effects of own words and actions 1 2 3 4 5
Effectively follows up on client orders 1 2 3 4 5
Reproduces the intended use of product or service to end-user customers 1 2 3 4 5
Recognizes how client firms are organized and how they function 1 2 3 4 5
Explains and/or distinguishes relevant client planning activities 1 2 3 4 5
Follows up with internal team members regarding customer contacts or complaints 1 2 3 4 5

Facilitates fulfillment or delivery by communicating and coordinating with sales
1 2 3 4 5
support
Cross-sells or up-sells add-on products or services within existing customer
1 2 3 4 5
relationships
Handles shipment problems as required to keep customers happy 1 2 3 4 5
Handles orders and backorders effectively and expedites as necessary 1 2 3 4 5
Identifies appropriate time to deliver product or services to customers 1 2 3 4 5
Makes an extra effort to meet customer needs 1 2 3 4 5
Manages the hand-off to other key team members after the sale is finalized 1 2 3 4 5
Interprets research on industry and competition 1 2 3 4 5
Recalls relevant newsletters on important topics for use in the sales process 1 2 3 4 5
Interprets trade publications in order to gather appropriate knowledge 1 2 3 4 5
Summarizes features and benefits of competitor's products or services 1 2 3 4 5
Responds adequately to competitive threats 1 2 3 4 5
327
Comprehends feedback from clients, individuals in the market, and supervisors 1 2 3 4 5
Determines most appropriate materials to bring along on sales visits 1 2 3 4 5
Comprehends the features, benefits, and value of the product or service 1 2 3 4 5

Displays proficiency in new company products (includes reviewing, analyzing, and
1 2 3 4 5
introducing)
Reads company literature and relates content appropriately 1 2 3 4 5
Determines the appropriate price for a product or service 1 2 3 4 5
Responds to environmental forces by seizing opportunities for success 1 2 3 4 5
Recognizes and distinguishes financial figures and billing procedures 1 2 3 4 5
Appropriately checks in with supervisor and other key staff 1 2 3 4 5
Fills out paperwork with accuracy and within an appropriate time frame 1 2 3 4 5
Adequately reports on sales activities 1 2 3 4 5
Travels with supervisors 1 2 3 4 5
Originates orders by “writing them up” appropriately so they don’t get held up 1 2 3 4 5
Knows policies for keeping track of invoices 1 2 3 4 5
Maintains communication with others by telephoning the office 1 2 3 4 5
Constructs and delivers individualized correspondence or memos 1 2 3 4 5
Generates email or letters in proper business format with proper grammar and voice 1 2 3 4 5
Comprehends appropriate information in order to effectively complete data entry 1 2 3 4 5
Displays judgment in sales process (including expediting orders, making decisions, etc) 1 2 3 4 5
Studies and verifies personal commissions to ensure accuracy 1 2 3 4 5
Follows company policy to appropriately fill out expense reports in a timely manner 1 2 3 4 5
Organizes personal records 1 2 3 4 5
Displays organizational ability by keeping the office tidy 1 2 3 4 5
Updates customer files in an effective manner 1 2 3 4 5
Maintains a viable and working virtual office 1 2 3 4 5
Attends local sales meetings to discuss and report progress with colleagues & managers 1 2 3 4 5
Infers metrics calculations in order to gauge progress 1 2 3 4 5
Manages; prioritizes; and categorizes voice mail messages 1 2 3 4 5
328
CURRICULUM AREAS:
In the following section, you will be presented with a description of ten curriculum areas. These curriculum
areas contain all the statements you just rated and represent major curriculum areas for learning and
development purposes. Please rank order the curriculum areas from one to ten, with 1 begin the most
important for exemplary performance for an entry level business-to-business salesperson selling in the
service industry and 10 being the least important for exemplary performance.
___________ Sales Process Curriculum: Training and learning on the competencies required in order for
exemplary entry level sales people to identify, engage, move, close, and protect sales opportunities.
___________ Performance Management Curriculum: Training and learning on the competencies required in
order for exemplary entry level sales people to manage individual outputs and results to proactively
and continuously improve the sales processes.
___________ Technology Management Curriculum: Training and learning on the competencies required in order
for exemplary entry level sales people to effectively choose, implement, and manage information
technology and other technology related to the sales process, product or industry.
___________ Learning Curriculum: Training and learning on the competencies required in order for exemplary
entry level sales people to learn about relevant industry knowledge, product knowledge, and selling
skills while keeping abreast of changes or trends in the market or the customer relationship.
___________ Relationship Curriculum: Training and learning on the competencies required in order for
exemplary entry level sales people to identify, build, and sustain key business relationships both
internally and externally.
___________ Risk Management Curriculum: Training and learning on the competencies required in order for
exemplary entry level sales people to effectively manage the gap between the selling organization
and buying organization(s) while minimizing negative impacts for both entities
___________ Influencing Curriculum: Training and learning on the competencies required in order for
exemplary entry level sales people to effectively listen, speak, persuade, question, and write within
appropriate business norms while representing the interest of the selling company and exploring the
wants and needs of the buying company.
___________ Customer Curriculum: Training and learning on the competencies required in order for exemplary
entry level sales people to synchronize to customer buying processes, systems, and requirements
while helping the selling organization deliver on the promise of the business relationship.
___________ Product and Industry Curriculum: Training and learning on the competencies required in order for
exemplary entry level sales people to build credibility and trust within the buying/selling
relationship and leverage product knowledge and industry knowledge for the good of the selling
situation, decision, or task.
___________ Administrative Curriculum: Training and learning on the competencies required in order for
exemplary entry level sales people to maintain corporate systems while adhering to corporate
policies and procedures reporting and tracking needs and conducting other non-selling activities in
support of sales goals.
329
18. If you were given a document containing the critical knowledge and skills necessary for entry level
sales people in the services industry, what would you do with it?
Benchmark my skills
Recommend someone else benchmark themselves
Give it to my sales training organization
Use it as a coaching tool
Pass it on to entry level sales people
Recommend it to hiring managers
Use it to design or develop curriculum
None of the above/I would do nothing with it
330
APPENDIX E. LISTING OF KNOWLEDGE AND SKILL COMPETENCIES
Number Competency Statement Type

Q10-1 Acquires and implements consultative selling processes in order to consult with
customers on their business problems S
Q10-2 Actively calls on (visits) new accounts S
Q10-3 Aggressively finds leads on new prospects S
Q10-4 Engages personal selling strategies that meet the needs of the end-user S
Q10-5 Distinguishes between high-quality and low-quality bids or proposals when sending to
the client K
Q10-6 Displays appropriate follow up activity to individual meetings K
Q10-7 Responds appropriately to referrals S
Q10-8 Proactively attends networking events (convention, trade shows, etc) and builds
important key contacts S
Q10-9 Predicts other people’s reactions to the sales process S
Q10-10 Discovers and addresses prospect or customer issues and concerns S
Q10-11 Generates phone calls or emails and to setup appointments or advance the process S
Q10-12 Plans and conducts conference calls with key corporate and client team members S
Q10-13 Creates and/or provides seminars to clients or prospects S
Q10-14 Demonstrates an ability to call on CEOs and other C-Level executives S
Q10-15 Alters approach based on reading body language of others S
Q10-16 Coordinates and completes relevant sales related activities S
Q10-17 Adequately targets personal activities towards important or key accounts S
Q11-1 Finds better; faster; or more efficient ways of doing things S
Q11-2 Proactively sets challenging and achievable goals S
Q11-3 Comprehends individual or team strengths and weaknesses K
Q11-4 Uses time efficiently to consistently perform at high levels S
Q11-5 Has knowledge of the most effective selling activity for the situation K
Q11-6 Comprehends account planning activities for multiple or inter-related sales calls K
Q11-7 Understands what motivates self and others K
Q11-8 Arranges for appropriately timed and optimized travel S
Q11-9 Optimizes time spent when travelling to and from locations (e.g., office, client site,
travel destinations, etc) S
Q11-10 Interprets daily plan to maximize efficiency S
Q11-11 Manages cross functional, diverse, or international team members S
Q11-12 Recognizes future demand for products or services K
Q11-13 Accurately predicts closing rates on new sales opportunities in order to forecast
properly S
Q12-1 Knows how to use e-mail programs to communicate appropriately K
Q12-2 Recalls appropriate technical information and relays it to customers K
331
Q12-3 Identifies most appropriate technology for use (e.g., video conferencing, web seminars) K
Q12-4 Selects most appropriate personal device(s) to manage information (i.e. a voice
recorder; cell phone; pager; PDA) S
Q12-5 Effectively employs the Internet to achieve selling goals S
Q12-6 Sets up; secures; uses; and manages a laptop or personal computer for a variety of
purposes (including making presentations, organizing data, collecting information, etc)
S
Q12-7 Develops; manages; and delivers effective presentations via the Internet S
Q13-1 Fills out and manages a personal development plan S
Q13-2 Prepares for obstacles to sales success S
Q13-3 Recalls features and benefits of learned software tools or packages K
Q13-4 Distinguishes relevant sales training content that will most likely lead to increased
competency S
Q13-5 Knows appropriate learning approaches that fill personal gaps K
Q13-6 Selects adequate and appropriate methods to conduct background research, including on
site research, internet, word-of-mouth, etc
K
Q13-7 Interprets information from multiple sources (including databases, online, colleagues,
etc) S
Q13-8 Practices personal mentoring with colleagues (including training or coaching new or
junior sales reps) S
Q13-9 Attends meetings geared toward sales professionalism S
Q14-1 Actively engages in phone activity to sell over the phone or generate cold calls S
Q14-2 Actively and effectively sells additional value-added services or solutions S
Q14-3 Tailors unique solutions or modifies existing products to meet prospect and/or customer
needs S
Q14-4 Conducts review meetings with key stakeholders S
Q14-5 Meets with internal project staff to facilitate appropriate actions S
Q14-6 Calls on multiple individuals within the customer’s organization S
Q14-7 Understands technical information and processes K
Q14-8 Appropriately organizes client/prospect entertainment S
Q14-9 Builds good relationships with partners, vendors, or channel members S
Q14-10 Identifies the appropriate time to utilize customer service techniques K
Q14-11 Recognizes appropriate strategies to build rapport with clients and other key
relationships K
Q14-12 Acquires and relates to a widespread network of relevant business contacts S
Q14-13 Maintains appropriate work-related friendships S
Q14-14 Relates well with organizational influencers or gatekeepers S
Q14-15 Displays active and engaged listening skills S
Q14-16 Actively engages with others at regional sales meetings S
Q14-17 Gives constructive and discriminate feedback to others S
Q15-1 Displays knowledge of applicable state; local; and national laws K
332
Q15-2 Recalls or recognizes applicable corporate policies in sales interactions K
Q15-3 Infers appropriate action to avoid possibility litigation S
Q15-4 Applies a personal or professional ethical code to decision-making processes S
Q15-5 Infers the appropriate protection and/or use of intellectual property S
Q15-6 Takes calculated entrepreneurial risks S
Q15-7 Demonstrates appropriate decision making ability that involves others S
Q15-8 Recognizes or distinguishes the accuracy of records and other documents K
Q15-9 Safely and securely takes clients or prospects on-site S
Q15-10 Paraphrases or translates key facts about important situations S
Q16-1 Sells the unique value-added aspects of the company, product or service S
Q16-2 Overcomes objections with skill S
Q16-3 Persuades prospects with examples or logic or other pertinent information S
Q16-4 Possesses skill at closing sales opportunities and obtaining the order S
Q16-5 Constructs an adequately scripted sales pitch S
Q16-6 Manages the delivery of appropriate client proof (such as samples or trials) S
Q16-7 Effectively flatters clients to support end goal S
Q16-8 Appropriately gauges perceptions of others regarding one’s self S
Q16-9 Influences others with direct and indirect skill S
Q16-10 Rewrites prepared words and/or presentations adequately S
Q16-11 Effectively and persuasively delivers sales presentations to relevant decision makers or
influencers S
Q16-12 Identifies processes for creating compelling sales presentations that differentiate K
Q16-13 Communicates with appropriately designed presentation aids S
Q16-14 Displays professionalism; poise; and speaking skill while make speeches S
Q16-15 Displays ability to leave compelling voice mails S
Q16-16 Constructs effective questions and asks those questions at appropriate times S
Q16-17 Recognizes other people’s nonverbal behavior in a selling situation S
Q16-18 Predicts the effects of own words and actions S
Q17-1 Effectively follows up on client orders S
Q17-2 Reproduces the intended use of product or service to end-user customers S
Q17-3 Recognizes how client firms are organized and how they function K
Q17-4 Explains and/or distinguishes relevant client planning activities K
Q17-5 Follows up with internal team members regarding customer contacts or complaints S
Q17-6 Facilitates fulfillment or delivery by communicating and coordinating with sales
support S
Q17-7 Cross-sells or up-sells add-on products or services within existing customer
relationships S
Q17-8 Handles shipment problems as required to keep customers happy S
Q17-9 Handles orders and backorders effectively and expedites as necessary S
333
Q17-10 Identifies appropriate time to deliver product or services to customers K
Q17-11 Makes an extra effort to meet customer needs S
Q17-12 Manages the hand-off to other key team members after the sale is finalized S
Q18-1 Interprets research on industry and competition K
Q18-2 Recalls relevant newsletters on important topics for use in the sales process K
Q18-3 Interprets trade publications in order to gather appropriate knowledge S
Q18-4 Summarizes features and benefits of competitor's products or services K
Q18-5 Responds adequately to competitive threats S
Q18-6 Comprehends feedback from clients, individuals in the market, and supervisors S
Q18-7 Determines most appropriate materials to bring along on sales visits S
Q18-8 Comprehends the features, benefits, and value of the product or service K
Q18-9 Displays proficiency in new company products (includes reviewing, analyzing, and
introducing) S
Q18-10 Reads company literature and relates content appropriately S
Q18-11 Determines the appropriate price for a product or service S
Q18-12 Responds to environmental forces by seizing opportunities for success S
Q19-1 Recognizes and distinguishes financial figures and billing procedures K
Q19-2 Appropriately checks in with supervisor and other key staff S
Q19-3 Fills out paperwork with accuracy and within an appropriate time frame S
Q19-4 Adequately reports on sales activities S
Q19-5 Travels with supervisors S
Q19-6 Originates orders by “writing them up” appropriately so they don’t get held up S
Q19-7 Knows policies for keeping track of invoices K
Q19-8 Maintains communication with others by telephoning the office S
Q19-9 Constructs and delivers individualized correspondence or memos S
Q19-10 Generates email or letters in proper business format with proper grammar and voice S
Q19-11 Comprehends appropriate information in order to effectively complete data entry K
Q19-12 Displays judgment in sales process (including expediting orders, making decisions, etc) S
Q19-13 Studies and verifies personal commissions to ensure accuracy S
Q19-14 Follows company policy to appropriately fill out expense reports in a timely manner S
Q19-15 Organizes personal records S
Q19-16 Displays organizational ability by keeping the office tidy S
Q19-17 Updates customer files in an effective manner S
Q19-18 Maintains a viable and working virtual office S
Q19-19 Attends local sales meetings to discuss and report progress with colleagues &
managers S
Q19-20 Infers metrics calculations in order to gauge progress K
Q19-21 Manages; prioritizes; and categorizes voice mail messages S
334
335

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Q1 - Service Delivery Creation and Validation of The Salesperson Competency Analysis A Competency Model For Entry Level Business To Business Salespeople in The Services Industry PDF

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CREATION AND VALIDATION OF THE SALESPERSON COMPETENCY

ANALYSIS: A COMPETENCY MODEL FOR

ENTRY-LEVEL BUSINESS-TO-BUSINESS SALESPEOPLE

IN THE SERVICES INDUSTRY

PERRY HAAN, D.B.A., Faculty Mentor and Chair

RICHARD MURPHY, D.B.A., Committee Member

RICHARD E. PLANK, Ph.D., Committee Member

A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Degree

All rights reserved

UMI Microform 3349783

a transaction selling approach to a more consulting-oriented approach (Pelham, 2006b).

selling in the services industry.

The final SCA was administered to a population of sales professors (n=96), a

who did not participate in the pilot study (n=1,168).

found to be reliable. The rankings of competency knowledge and skills competencies as

understand the importance of life-long learning, the importance of continuous

motivation to continue to make a difference:

• To my wife Donna, for faithfully and sacrificially supporting the pursuits of my

• To my mom, who taught me how to learn and gave me a foundation of curiosity

would even dare to try.

always do what you love.

allowed me to receive truth, sharing in the real meaning of life, receive

Many individuals have dedicated time, support, and commitment to this

completion of this project at Capella University. Sincere gratitude is also extended

visiting professor from the University of South Florida - Polytechnic.

Appreciation is expressed to Dr. Richard Murphy for sharing his thoughtful

advice and professional experiences.

The researcher would like to acknowledge the professional expertise and

my commitment to helping the sales world work better.

the customer and help advance the profession of selling.

Dedication .......................................................................................................................... iii

Table of Contents ................................................................................................................ v

List of Tables ................................................................................................................... viii

List of Figures ................................................................................................................... xii

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 1

Statement of the Problem ........................................................................................ 3

Theoretical Perspective ........................................................................................... 6

Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................. 11

Delimitations of the Study .................................................................................... 11

Limitations of the Study........................................................................................ 13

Basic Assumptions of the Study ........................................................................... 14

Definition of Terms............................................................................................... 15

Need for the Study ................................................................................................ 19

Summary ............................................................................................................... 24

CHAPTER 2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ................................................. 25

The Definition of Competency ............................................................................. 26

Competency Models: Foundation for this Study .................................................. 31

Business-to-Business Sales Taxonomies .............................................................. 38

Business-to-Business Sales Person Competencies ............................................... 57

Other Key Considerations ..................................................................................... 63

Summary ............................................................................................................... 69

CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY .................................................................................... 71

Hypotheses ............................................................................................................ 73

Determination of the Sample ................................................................................ 75

Preliminary Competency Groupings..................................................................... 80

Selection of the Expert Jury .................................................................................. 84

Selection of the Sample ........................................................................................ 86

Determination of the Instrument ........................................................................... 89

Development of the Research Instrument ............................................................. 90

Expert Jury ............................................................................................................ 98

Ethical Considerations ........................................................................................ 102

Pilot Test of the Instrument................................................................................. 104