DRAMA

WHAT IS DRAMA?
Drama is a literary composition to be acted by players on a stage before an audience.
Its successful portrayal depends on the cooperation that must exist among writers, actors,
producers and audiences in accepting the limitations and the conventions of the stage.
Since the turn of the twentieth century, modern drama has become the greatest form
of mass entertainment in the western world. Experimentation and innovation are basic to this
century’s dramatist. Through movies and television, everyone has experienced the excitement
and emotional involvement that gives the drama its important place in our lives today.
The drama is difficult to read because it is meant to be seen, not read. It demands
much imagination and attention on the part of the reader to enable him to hear the tones and
see the actions of the actors against an imaginary background. The reader has only the
dialogue form which to visualize the costumes, the situation, the facial expressions, and the
movements of the actors.
The drama is also difficult to write because the playwright must be aware of the
interests and opinions of the actors and producer as well as his audience. He must also
recognize the limitation of the stage and work within the many conventions and restrictions it
imposes on the actions of his characters and the locations of his settings.

ELEMENTS OF THE DRAMA

A. Setting
B. Plot and Plot structures
C. Characters and Characterization
D. Conflict
E. Theme
F. Suspense and Atmosphere

The literary elements of the drama include setting, plot, characters and theme.
Essential to the effective presentation of these elements are conflict, structure, suspense
and atmosphere. Each of these elements are inherent in any narrative composition, but
drama adds extra elements of stage direction, lighting effects, and the visual presence of
the actors, the set and costumes.

A. Setting
The setting of a drama presented on stage must be adapted to the limitations of the stage
area. The playwright must confine his locations to scenes that can be constructed on the
stage and limited to as a few changes as possible. The actions must be physically
restricted on the stage, and depend on dialogue, lighting, and sound effects to carry the

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 actions and events that cannot be presented visually. It is this physical confinement that
makes writing plays more difficult than any other narrative form.

B. Plot
The plot of the drama, although limited in its physical actions and changes of location
or scene, is similar to that of the novel or short story. It must have the same
characteristics of development and structuring, and depend on conflict, suspense and
mood to carry the action forward.
1. Technical Divisions – Acts and scenes are the divisions of a play. Shakespeare’s
plays are mainly five acts in length, with many changes of scene with each act.
However, the modern theatre audience is accustomed to sitting for only two to
three hours to watch a play. This means the average modern play must be limited
to three acts, which also has the benefit of keeping set changes minimum. A few
modern plays run longer and have five or six acts.

2. Structure of the play: The technical development or structuring of the action in a

drama is similar to that of a novel:
 A preliminary exposition opens up the play, presenting background
information and any necessary explanation of the situation. It introduces
the characters.
 The moment of inciting force follows the preliminary exposition in
which the conflict is presented and the main action begins.
 The rising action then develops through a series of incidents and minor
crises which lead up to the climax or the turning point of the struggle when
the action turns against the protagonist.
 The falling action follows the climax as the conflict works itself out either
for or against the protagonist.
 The denoument presents the final outcomes of the struggle, sometimes
referred to as the catastrophe which is the end of the struggle, but it is
necessarily a tragic ending.

Diagram of the Six-Fold structure of Drama

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3. Developing the Action

Preliminary Exposition: The beginning must be clear, brief, and interesting.

Every detail must have a purpose: characters are introduced in their roles,
background information is given, the mood and tone are established, the time and
place are given, and any necessary hints at the outcome or suggestion of theme
that will give understanding to the plot is provided.

 Complications: The complications which keep the plot moving forward

must have some basis in real life. They develop through series of crises
that move in waves of heightened emotion, all moving upwards to a peak
of crisis or climax where the action reverses from the previous rising
action and the events go for or against the protagonist towards a final
outcome. The falling action, like the rising action, moves in waves of
emotional crises. The denoument should be natural in its outcome,
inevitable in its solutions, unless it is a surprise ending, and realistic in its
purpose.
 Suspense: Suspense in situations which rouse our concern for the welfare
of the characters can be created in many ways in a play. It can be
accomplished through a series of crises and a major crisis or climax,
foreshadowing, surprise or use of the unexpected, withholding
information, disguise, and the intervention of chance or fate.
 Dramatic Emphasis: Emphasis is maintained by demonstrating every
point to the audience. Every scene or conversation between characters
must have a purpose; dialogue must not wander away from the major
concerns of the plot nor must it be directed towards superfluous or
unrelated detail. Exits and entrances must be managed with purpose and be
properly timed to gain dramatic emphasis, while maintaining a naturalness
that does not destroy the continuity of events. Artistic economy must be
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 observed at all times, permitting no waste of movements, words, or events
to obtain an overall unit and emphasis of purpose.

 Prologue and Epilogue: A prologue is generally given by an actor before

the play begins. Its purpose is to present an explanatory poem or speech
that introduces information that is needed to start the play. An epilogue is a
speech made by an actor after the play is over. It may be used by the
playwright to reveal what happened afterwards or to point out the lesson of
the play. In this way he is able to convey the meaning behind his play and
its outcomes which could not be done naturally within the plot.

 Atmosphere: The atmosphere and mood of the drama is created by the

set, the lighting, the furnishings, the music or sound effects, the opening
dialogue, the facial expressions and gestures of the actors, and the growing
tension of the plot.
 Stage Directions and Their Value: As plays are intended to be seen, not
read, everything in them, must be seen or heard. All information,
emotions, attitudes, and reactions must be presented through speech and
action. This means that stage direction must succeed in reaching the
audience through effective use of speech, action, furnishing, lighting,
exits, entrances, and sound effects. Stage directions must determine the
actor’s movements, choice of costumes, as well as the behaviour of
characters and interpretations of their speeches.

C. Characters and Characterization

Characters in a play are portrayed by actors who speak the dialogue and carry out the
action of the play. Sometimes characters may be merely instruments in the plot; at other
times, they have control of the action.

 All characters must appear natural so that their motivations and

reactions as well as their exits and entrances seem realistic to the
audience. Some dramatists introduce a wider range of characters into their
plays than other authors. Shakespeare has the widest, most developed
range of any playwright.
 Characters are developed through their dialogue and their actions.
Their dialogue carries the plot and theme of the play and must be adapted

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 to their individual characters. If dialogue is unrealistic, it must still reveal
their character.
 Characters must be strongly drawn, consistent and believable. Sudden
changes in character, inappropriate gestures, wrong dialogue, mistimed
facial expressions or smiles when the mood is sad or hostile must be
avoided if the play is to be consistent in its portrayal and effective
emotionally and intellectually for the audience.

D. Conflict
Drama is created by conflict. It usually involves opposing forces, sometimes
external and physical, sometimes internal and psychological. There may be a clash of
wills in a conflict of purposes, or there may be a mental or emotional conflict within on
person.

E. Theme
Theme in a drama is similar in its aspects to those of the short story or novel.

ARISTOTLE’S SIX ELEMENTS OF DRAMA

1. Action or plot
2. Character
3. Thought
4. Language
5. Song and Dance
6. Spectacle or Visual Excess

 Action or plot – For Aristotle, a play’s action is of the utmost importance. By the
term unity of action, he means that the best drama, particularly tragedies,
are limitations of an action that is unified and complete. In this instance,
unified means that all the scenes in the play are linked together by
“probability and necessity.” That is to say, unlike the historian or journalist
who reports events that may be the result of accident or anomaly, the
skillful tragedian introduces only those incidents that follow probably or
logically from those that precede them. Different plots or actions demand
different kinds of characters thought, and language, but all of these
elements of drama, originate in a plays action. This action is constructed

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 in a play, which in turn provides the blueprint for performance or the
script.
 Character - Aristotle believed that dramatic action was so significant that a tragedy
“cannot exist without a plot, but it can without characters,” citing epic
poems of his age as examples. Nevertheless, the history of drama since
Aristotle often appears to suggest just the opposite: that the most
influential plays are so influential precisely because they create unique
characters or “personalities.’
 Though and Language - Language in drama is generally communicated in one of
the three forms: dialogue, monologue (including asides or direct addresses
to the audience), and soliloquies. Dialogues like that in André’s Mother,
frequently accomplishes several things at once: It reveals something about
the characters speaking; it usually reveals something about his /her attitude
towards the characters with whom he or she is speaking and about the
topics they are discussing; it may aid in advancing the plot, either by
providing necessary exposition of the past or foreshadowing of the future;
it may contribute for the or rhythm of the play; it may help orient the
audience to the fictive space in which the action occurs; it may imply a
larger, meaning, in topic, or issue the play will develop as the action
progress.

 Spectacle- When Aristotle denigrated “the visual adornment of the dramatic

persons” as the “least artistic element” or tragic drama, he seemingly was
referring to excess: to violence on stage and lavish visual displays. But in
fact, drama in performance appeals to both the eye and the ear. This also
means the visual elements of the production of a play; the scenery,
costumes, and special effects in a production.

TYPES OF DRAMA

A. Historical
B. Tragedy
C. Comedy
D. Social Criticism
E. One Act Play

A. HISTORICAL DRAMA:

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 1. The Medieval Mystery play dealt with stories of the bible and its
characters. God’s enactments were dramatized for the congregations who
were unable to read or understand the Latin Services.
2. The medieval Miracle Play dramatized the lives of the saints.
3. Chronicle Plays, like the Miracle plays, dealt with the lives of the saints.
4. Masques originally were adaptations of pagan ceremonies in which the
actors, wearing masks paraded through the streets and moved in and out of
houses, dancing silently and then moving on. Masques became rather
elaborate productions during the Elizabethan period. Costume, dancing
and singing were more important than the action. Usually allegorical, the
actors personified religious, political, satirical or moral qualities.

B. TRAGEDY
Is drama which involves the ruin of the leading character(s). Examples are
Shakespeare’s tragedies, Macbeth, Hamlet, and Othello. Modern tragedy includes
Death of a Salesman.

1. Classical Tragedy- as defined by Aristotle is designed to “ arouse the

emotions of pity and fear and thus to produce in the audience a catharsis of
these emotions” (relieving of emotional tension).
Classical tragedy requires a protagonist to make a choice that is the
result of tragic flaw. His choice is an error in judgement which he makes
out of excessive pride, ambition or overconfidence; hubris. In doing so, he
rises above his place in the natural order of men and gods and takes the life
of another human being. His actions bring calamity to all concerned. In
Greek tragedy the nemesis or punishment for such hubris was retribution
equal to or greater than the offense. In classical tragedy nemesis demands
the death of the hero in the final scene and generally all those who were
implicated in his crime.

2. Elizabethan Tragedy- also has a protagonist who is a tragic hero who

falls victim to a tragic flaw in his character. Pride and ambition lead him to
break a moral code or to ignore divine warnings for which he is punished
by death. Shakespeare’s Macbeth, for example, conspires with his wife to
kill Banquo so they may usurp the throne Nemesis for such an immoral
crime is death for them both, she by illness, resulting from her guilt and

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 ensuing insanity, and Macbeth in battle at the hands of Macduff whose
family Macbeth also murdered.

3. Romantic Tragedy- Requires a greater development of character and

theme of plot. Allows for humour and the grotesque. Elizabethan tragedies
are mainly romantic tragedies.

4. Modern Tragedy- combines all forms of tragedy and uses plays from each
of the previous centuries. Shakespearean plays continue to find large
audiences; and modern tragedies, based on the same Greek and
Shakespearean use of the tragic hero with his tragic flaw have become
classics of the twentieth century.

C. Comedy is drama which involves real but temporary difficulties of the leading
characters. The ending is happy in that the conflict is resolved to the advantage of
the protagonist(s). There are several types of comedy:
1. Farce is comedy which depends wholly on laughable situations. It
involves ridiculous or hilarious complications. The antics of the Three
Stooges are farce.
2. Fantastic Comedy deals with impossible situation in terms of ordinary
human nature. An example is Peter Pan.
3. Comedy of Manners treats of polite society satirically and superficially.
Oscar Wilde’s Lady Windermere’s Fan or James Barrie’s Admirable
Creighton are good examples.
4. Tragi-comedy is drama which does not involve death or disaster but
which verges on tragedy or bitter satire. Serious in theme and plot, tragic-
comedy seems to be leading to catastrophe, but an unexpected turn of
events leads to a happy conclusion. Shakespeare’s Merchant of Venice uses
this to present this infamous Shylock.
5. Melodrama depends on exciting scenes, overly dramatic characters and
situation, and highly charged emotional reactions, while paying little
attention to human values or reality. It aims at emotional thrills, but not
laughter.
6. Burlesque depends on laughable or exaggerated imitations of well known
characters or events.
D. Drama of Social Criticism

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 This category includes plays in which social, economic or political problems
and themes are portrayed. Many modern plays on stage, screen, and television fall
into this category.
One-Act Plays
Is similar to a short story in its limitations. There is a complete drama within
one act. It is brief, condensed, and single in effect. One situation or episode is
presented, permitting no minor plots or side actions that may distract attention for the
single purpose and effect being developed. Characters are few in number, quickly
introduced, and very limited in character development. Dialogue and plot must carry
the action forward smoothly and quickly.

ONE ACT PLAY

A one-act play is a play that has only one act, as distinct from plays that occur over
several acts. One-act plays may consist of one or more scenes. In recent years the 10-minute
play known as "flash drama" has emerged as a popular sub-genre of the one-act play,
especially in writing competitions. , is an early example.
Like all drama, one act plays are made up of the same elements that are necessary for
short stories : Theme, Plot, Character, and dialogue.

Theme
The one-act needs to have a theme or thought just as a full-length does. What is the play
about? Revenge? Self-discovery? Whatever your choice, it needs to be clear in your mind
what your theme is. In a full-length play, all characters, plots, and subplots need to point to
and support the theme. The one-act is not much different, except the subplots will likely be
absent.
Plot
This is much different in the one-act than in the full-length. For a full-length play, the plot is
the series and sequence of events that lead the hero (and the audience) on the journey. In a
one-act play there is really only time for one significant event. This is the determining place
for the hero, where all is won or lost. Events that lead up to this must be incorporated into the
script without the benefit of the audience seeing them. And any events that follow must be
inferred or understood by the audience that they will occur.

Character
There is really only enough time in this to get to know one character well -- the hero. In the
short time that the one-act play is going, it is the hero's event that the audience is
experiencing; again, there isn't time for more than that. Some characteristics of the supporting

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characters, including the antagonist, will need to be portrayed for the story to move forward,
but it is the character of the protagonist that is vital to the story line.
Dialogue
Economy is the key here. Each line must be crafted carefully to focus on the theme, the
incident, and the character of the protagonist. The dialogue need not be terse, but must be
concise and full of meaning. Any lines that do not point to the focus of the play should be
carefully considered whether they are needed.

Dramatic Analysis and Construction of the One-Act- Play

1. The Theme of the On-Act play

2. The Technic of the one act play
a. The characters in the one act play
b. The plot of the one act play
1. The beginning of the one act play
2. The middle of the play
3. The end of the play
A. Dialogue of the play

THE INTERPRETATION OF DRAMA

Interpretation is a series of intellectual and analytical mental acts that lead to a
conclusion about the play’s meaning and significance. We can isolate four aspects of
interpretation that we perform almost automatically.
1. Observe details of speech, setting, and action.
2. Connect these details into patterns; we relate them so they begin to make sense to
us.
3. Draw inferences ----educated guess or hypotheses----- based on these connections.
4. Formulate from our inferences a consistent and coherent interpretation of the play.

In reading (or viewing ) any play, it is important to distinguish between our

experience of a play and our interpretation of it. Our experience concerns our direct
apprehension of the ongoing performance either on stage or in our mind’s eye; interpretation
concerns our comprehension of the work after we have finished reading or seeing it
performed. Our experience of a play involves our emotions and subjective impressions of the
plays dramatic action. Our interpretation of a play involves our ideas and thought about the
meaning of that action. Our experience of a play is private, personal, and subjective: we
discover how it entertains, moves, pleases, frustrates, or otherwise affects us. In interpreting a
play, we try to discover what it might mean for others as well. We ask ourselves not so much:

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How do I respond to the speech and actions of the characters?” but instead “ What do their
speech and actions signify: what do they mean?”

THE EVALUATION OF DRAMA

What do we mean by the values displayed in a play? Generally speaking, we mean
such things as cultural attitudes, moral dispositions, religious beliefs, and social norms. In
considering such values as they emerge from our reading of any play, we should be careful to
distinguish between the attitudes and dispositions of individual characters and those of the
play (those of the author). We should also be aware of how our social and perspectives may
differ in important ways from the social norms and cultural attitudes of earlier times. To
acknowledge how our individual way of responding to a play is influenced by gender, race,
and ethnicity, as well as religious and cultural identity, is important in assessing its worth
both for ourselves and for others. Since the values a play’s characters display typically
constitute an important focus of dramatic interest, our perception of the characters’ values
will affect to a considerable degree, or own experience, interpretation, and evaluation of the
overall work.
Further complicating our evaluation of a play is the extent to which we appreciate and
enjoy its literary and theatrical artistry. For example, we may admire the way playwrights
structure plots, largely by dangling before us a series of temporarily unanswered questions.
We may find merit in portrayals of characters or the symbolic use of costume and setting. We
may be affected by the language of the play, both on long speeches and in briefer exchanges
of dialogue. We may derive aesthetic pleasure from these and many other exhibitions of
stagecraft. And the enjoyment we derive, coupled with our assessment of what we understand
as the playwright’s central values or controlling idea, constitute the basis for our evaluation.
So the evaluation of any play is tied to our interpretation of it. But our interpretation is
affected by our perception of the moral and cultural values it exhibits. In identifying the
play’s central concerns and in deciding which values are endorsed by the playwright, we shift
back and forth between interpretation and evaluation. We do not first interpret the play and
then evaluate it. We perform the two acts together. We evaluate and interpret a play,
moreover, in conjunction with a subjective and immediate response to our experience of it.
We can say, then, that each aspect of reading (experience, interpretation, and evaluation)
affects the other, and the three aspects of reading drama taken together define or “reading” of
any play.
In the planning of a production there are several important steps.

1. Selection of the play

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2. Casting of characters
3. The assignment and responsibilities
4. The preparation of the prompt book
5. Schedule of rehearsals.
The play selected should be one in which everyone will enjoy working. A play
having not more than five or six characters is usually most satisfactory, since larger
groups find it difficult to schedule rehearsals; moreover, a small stage is inadequate
for the movement of many people. The characterizations should be stimulating to all
members of the cast and, if possible, should offer parts which are quite different from
those played previously.
As soon as you have decided upon your play you will need to order additional
copies from the publisher. While awaiting the arrival of these you will have an
opportunity to plan all the details of the production.
All production duties should be assigned to and agreed upon by a director,
stage manager, prop manager, costume manager, sound and music manager, make-up
manager, and business or publicity manager

Prompt book- is one of the important techniques to be learned from the project. It is
important because the production of a play is not a haphazard affair, but rather the
result of organized planning, effective leadership, and coordinated responsibilities,
without which there is chaos. The prompt book for a major production is compiled
and kept by the director. It is a working handbook of all of the details connected with
the play.
Director
A. Supervise the preparation of the prompt book, which will contain
1. Cast of characters and staging responsibilities.
2. Interpretation of the play—theme, mood, major conflict, climax
3. Style of production
4. Ground plan
5. Breakdown of the play
6. Rehearsal schedule
7. Prop plot
8. Costume plot
9. Make-up plots
10. Cue sheets for curtain , sound music, lights
11. Complete script with movement and business
12. Publicity management
13. Record of other details
14. Names, addresses, and phone numbers of entire cast
B. Supervise rehearsals
1. Conduct reading rehearsal, in which the play and character
relationships are discussed and agreed upon.

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 2. Study the principles of movement and design; be responsible for
unity, tempo and projection.
II. Stage Manager
A. Draw the ground plan and make set sketch or model set if needed.
B. Set up the stage for rehearsals and production.
C. Supervise all backstage activity during rehearsals and production.
D. Hold the prompt book during the rehearsals.
E. Be familiar with the movement and business of each character so that you can
take an actor’s play during the rehearsal.
F. Make the cue sheet for curtain.

III. Prop Manager

A. Prepare for the set the prop plot, which lists all necessary props on stage and in the
wings when necessary props on stage and in the wings when the curtain rises.
B. Prepare the personal prop chat, which lists by character all props carried or
handles by the actors.
C. Supervise all the collection of necessary props and safe return of all borrowed
items.
D. Supervise props used during rehearsals and productions.

IV. Costume Manager

A. Prepare the costume plot, do any necessary research on period costumes, and draw
costumes sketches for each character.
B. Coordinate the costume ensembles as to color and style.
C. Supervise the collection of costume articles, the making and pressing of costumes,
and the safe return of all borrowed items.
D. Supervise the costume wardrobes during the dress rehearsals and production.
Establish and maintain clean, orderly dressing rooms

V. Sound and Music Manager

A. Supervise the collection of sound-effect equipment.
B. Supervise the selection and collection of music effects:
1. Music to establish mood.
2. Music required in the script.
C. Make the cue sheets for sound and music effects.
D. Operate the sound and music effects during the rehearsals and production.
E. Be responsible for the safe return of all borrowed items.

VI. Make-up Manager

A. Design the make-up charts for each actor, specifying the exact materials used.
B. Acquire the necessary make-up materials.
C. Supervise the application of make-up.
D. Be responsible for the cleanliness of the make-up room and for returning make-up
supplies.

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VII. Publicity Manager
A. Organize the development of publicity as to kind, amount, and tme.
B. Make the posters and programs.
C. See that royalty is paid, if this is required.
D. Make necessary preparations if other cases or guests are to be invited.
E. Provide ushers, a host for invited guests, and an announcer for the
production.

ELEMENTS OF DRAMA / ONE ACT PLAY

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements in

EDL 231

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 A Report
Presented to:
Prof. Rosario Dumagpi
Division of Professional Education
University of the Philippines Visayas

Submitted by:
Ma. Luisa P. Alba
M Ed. ESL- II
August 14, 2010

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

- Barnes,G and Sutcliffe, M.J.(1954) On Stage, Everyone. New York: MacMillan

Company
- DiYanni, R. (1994) Literature: Reading Fiction, Poetry, Drama, and the Essay (3rd
ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.

- Kalaidjian, W.et.all ( 2004) Understanding Literature: An understanding to reading

and Writing. Houghton Mifflin Company

- Kolin, P. ( 1998). Tennessee Williams: A Guide to Research and Performance. CT:

Greenwood Pulishing Group

- “Aristotle’s Six Elements of Drama” (n.d.) Retrieved last August 8,2010 from
http://www.kyshakes.org/Resources/Aristotle.html

- “Contemporary One Act Plays” (n.d) Retrieved August 8,2010 from

http://books.google.com.ph/book

- “One Act Play” (n.d) Retrieved last August 8,2010 from

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One-act_play
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 - “What’s in a One Act Play” (n.d.) Retrieved last August 8,2010 from
http://www.suite101.com/article.cfm/playwriting/72788/1#ixzz0ufadW0I2

7 Kinds of Theatre Stages

06/08/2014

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1. Proscenium

This is also called as the end-on staging. It is a kind of stage where the viewers will sit on a side
only. The viewers will face a part of the stage straight, and usually sits on a reduce height.

2. In-the-round

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This is a kind of stage that is placed at the middle of the audience. You can notice that there is
viewer around the entire stage. This is a kind of stage that will make quite a close ambience, and
is ideal for drama that will require viewer participation.

3. Traverse

This is a type of stage wherein the viewers will sit on 2 sides. It is a brilliant stage for generating a
friendly environment.

4. Thrust theatre

This is type of stage which is encircled by viewers on 3 sides. The fourth area will operate as the
locale. In a classic present preparation, the stage is normally in a square or rectangular square
playing area that is encircled by raked bench.

5. Flexible theatre

This is usually known as the black box theatre. Stages are usually huge unfilled boxes that inside

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are dyed with black. The seating and stage are not attached, but, each can be transformed to suit
the requirements of the play or possibly the fad of the director.

6. Profile theatre

This kind of stage is normally utilized in found space. The viewers are located on risers to any
area of the playing space, with no or little audience on any end side of the stage. Performers are
certainly staged in silhouette to the viewers. This is normally the main effective alternative for
thin yet extended spaces. This is identical to an arena stage. A non-melodramatic kind of the
profile stage is a basketball stadium that if no-one is seated at the back of the hoops.

7. Sports Arena

This usually serves as scene for harmony concerts. It looks like a very huge arena stage, but with a
rectangular floor map. If it is utilized in concerts, a transient stage area usually set up as an end
stage at an end of the base, and the remainder of the floor and the locale become the viewer.

The use of height on a stage similarly make the presentation area appears more motivating, and
can be use in various ways. Divided staging can use more than 2 assorted levels, and the viewers
can perceive qualities better if a group is at the rear and applying the lift level. The progress
between an area and an added one must be measured gently so it will give meaning to the
viewers.

What Are Verbals? (with Examples)

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A verbal is a verb form which functions as a noun or an adjective. In English,
there are three types of verbals:
 Participles (past participles and present participles).
 Gerunds
 Infinitives

Verbals (Participles)
A participle is a verb form which functions as an adjective.

There are two types of participles: the present participle (ending ing) and the past
participle (usually ending -ed, -d, -t, -en, or -n).

Here are some participles being used as adjectives:

The Verb The Present Participle The Past Participle

To bake the baking bread the baked bread

To print the printing document the printed document

To lower the lowering prices the lowered prices

Here are some real-life examples:

 A stirring dwarf we do allowance give before a sleeping giant.
(William Shakespeare, 1564-1616)
(Two present participles)
 Food is an important part of a balanced diet. (Fran Lebowitz)
(A past participle)
Often, a participle will head up a participle phrase which functions as an
adjective. In the examples below, all participles are in bold and the participle
phrases are shaded.
 Drooling saliva over the day's mail, the barking boxer quickly
singled out the parcel from the bills and junk mail.
(This example has two present participles. The first heads up a
participle phrase that describes the barking boxer. The second
modifies boxer in the normal way.)
 Baked in the oven for over six hours, the roast was ruined.
(This example has two past participles. The first heads up a
participle phrase that describes the roast. The second describes the
roast as a subject complement.)
Read more about participle phrases.

Verbals (Gerunds)
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Even though gerunds look like present participles (i.e., they also end -ing), a
gerund is a noun not an adjective. Here are some examples of gerunds
(shaded):
 You don't stop laughing because you grow old. You grow old
because you stop laughing. (Michael Pritchard)
 Discovery consists of seeing what everybody has seen
and thinking what nobody has thought. (Albert Szent-Gyorgyi,
1893-1986)
 I have never taken any exercise except sleeping and resting. (Mark
Twain, 1835-1910)
A gerund will often appear in a gerund phrase. A gerund phrase consists of a
gerund, its object, and all modifiers. For example (gerunds in bold with the
gerund phrases shaded):
 Singing the words out loud helped him with his stammer.
 I started by photographing birds in my garden.
Read more about gerund phrases.

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Verbals (Infinitives)
An infinitive is a verb form (often preceded by to, e.g., to dance, to sing)
which can function as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. For example:

An infinitive as a noun:
 To win was everything.
(The infinitive is the subject of was.)
Compare it to this:
 Winning was everything.
(This proves that the infinitive to win is being used a noun.)
An infinitive as an adjective:
 It is an appropriate saving to propose.
(The infinitive modifies saving. This means it is functioning as an
adjective.)
Compare it to this:
 It is an appropriate saving that he proposed.
(The clause that he proposed is an adjective clause. This proves that
the infinitive to propose is being used an adjective.)
An infinitive as an adverb:
 The man paid to watch.
(The infinitive modifies the verb paid. This means it is functioning as
an adverb.)
Compare it to this:
 The man paid so he could watch.
(The clause so he could watch is an adverbial clause. This proves that
the infinitive to watch is being used an adverb.)
Read more about infinitives.

An infinitive will often appear in a infinitive phrase. An infinitive phrase

consists of the infinitive and any objects and modifiers. For example
(infinitives in bold with the infinitive phrases shaded):
 She needed to find a lot of money quickly.
(The infinitive phrase is being used as a noun.)
 I showed her the best way to make a Yorkshire pudding.
(The infinitive phrase is being used as an adjective.)
 He set the camera to film whatever was eating his chickens.
(The infinitive phrase is being used as an adverb.)

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