Submitted by:

Zohaib zada
BS English
3 Semester
RD

ROLL NO:
016/F-18

Submitted to:
M. BASHIR KHAN SAHB
 History of computers:
The first substantial computer was the giant ENIAC machine by John W. Mauchly and J. Presper
Eckert at the University of Pennsylvania. ENIAC (Electrical Numerical Integrator and Calculator)
used a word of 10 decimal digits instead of binary ones like previous automated
calculators/computers. ENIAC was also the first machine to use more than 2,000 vacuum tubes,
using nearly 18,000 vacuum tubes. Storage of all those vacuum tubes and the machinery
required to keep the cool took up over 167 square meters (1800 square feet) of floor space.
Nonetheless, it had punched-card input and output and arithmetically had 1 multiplier, 1
divider-square rooter, and 20 adders employing decimal "ring counters," which served as
adders and also as quick-access (0.0002 seconds) read-write register storage.

The executable instructions composing a program were embodied in the separate units of
ENIAC, which were plugged together to form a route through the machine for the flow of
computations. These connections had to be redone for each different problem, together with
presetting function tables and switches. This "wire-your-own" instruction technique was
inconvenient, and only with some license could ENIAC be considered programmable; it was,
however, efficient in handling the particular programs for which it had been designed. ENIAC is
generally acknowledged to be the first successful high-speed electronic digital computer (EDC)
and was productively used from 1946 to 1955. A controversy developed in 1971, however, over
the patentability of ENIAC's basic digital concepts, the claim being made that another U.S.
physicist, John V. Atanasoff, had already used the same ideas in a simpler vacuum-tube device
he built in the 1930s while at Iowa State College. In 1973, the court found in favor of the
company using Atanasoff claim and Atanasoff received the acclaim he rightly deserved.

In the 1950's two devices would be invented that would improve the computer field and set in
motion the beginning of the computer revolution. The first of these two devices was the
transistor. Invented in 1947 by William Shockley, John Bardeen, and Walter Brattain of Bell
Labs, the transistor was fated to oust the days of vacuum tubes in computers, radios, and other
electronics.

The vacuum tube, used up to this time in almost all the computers and calculating machines,
had been invented by American physicist Lee De Forest in 1906. The vacuum tube, which is
about the size of a human thumb, worked by using large amounts of electricity to heat a
filament inside the tube until it was cherry red. One result of heating this filament up was the
release of electrons into the tube, which could be controlled by other elements within the tube.
De Forest's original device was a triode, which could control the flow of electrons to a positively
charged plate inside the tube. A zero could then be represented by the absence of an electron
current to the plate; the presence of a small but detectable current to the plate represented a
one.
Vacuum tubes were highly inefficient, required a great deal of space, and needed to be
replaced often. Computers of the 1940s and 50s had 18,000 tubes in them and housing all
these tubes and cooling the rooms from the heat produced by 18,000 tubes was not cheap. The
transistor promised to solve all of these problems and it did so. Transistors, however, had their
problems too. The main problem was that transistors, like other electronic components,
needed to be soldered together. As a result, the more complex the circuits became, the more
complicated and numerous the connections between the individual transistors and the
likelihood of faulty wiring increased.

In 1958, this problem too was solved by Jack St. Clair Kilby of Texas Instruments. He
manufactured the first integrated circuit or chip. A chip is really a collection of tiny transistors
which are connected together when the transistor is manufactured. Thus, the need for
soldering together large numbers of transistors was practically nullified; now only connections
were needed to other electronic components. In addition to saving space, the speed of the
machine was now increased since there was a diminished distance that the electrons had to
follow.

The 1960s saw large mainframe computers become much more common in large industries and
with the US military and space program. IBM became the unquestioned market leader in selling
these large, expensive, error-prone, and very hard to use machines.

A veritable explosion of personal computers occurred in the early 1970s, starting with Steve
Jobs and Steve Wozniak exhibiting the first Apple II at the First West Coast Computer Faire in
San Francisco. The Apple II boasted built-in BASIC programming language, color graphics, and a
4100 character memory for only $1298. Programs and data could be stored on an everyday
audio-cassette recorder. Before the end of the fair, Wozniak and Jobs had secured 300 orders
for the Apple II and from there Apple just took off.

Also introduced in 1977 was the TRS-80. This was a home computer manufactured by Tandy
Radio Shack. In its second incarnation, the TRS-80 Model II, came complete with a 64,000
character memory and a disk drive to store programs and data on. At this time, only Apple and
TRS had machines with disk drives. With the introduction of the disk drive, personal computer
applications took off as a floppy disk was a most convenient publishing medium for distribution
of software.

IBM, which up to this time had been producing mainframes and minicomputers for medium to
large-sized businesses, decided that it had to get into the act and started working on the Acorn,
which would later be called the IBM PC. The PC was the first computer designed for the home
market which would feature modular design so that pieces could easily be added to the
architecture. Most of the components, surprisingly, came from outside of IBM, since building it
with IBM parts would have cost too much for the home computer market. When it was
introduced, the PC came with a 16,000 character memory, keyboard from an IBM electric
typewriter, and a connection for tape cassette player for $1265.
By 1984, Apple and IBM had come out with new models. Apple released the first generation
Macintosh, which was the first computer to come with a graphical user interface(GUI) and a
mouse. The GUI made the machine much more attractive to home computer users because it
was easy to use. Sales of the Macintosh soared like nothing ever seen before. IBM was hot on
Apple's tail and released the 286-AT, which with applications like Lotus 1-2-3, a spreadsheet,
and Microsoft Word, quickly became the favourite of business concerns.

That brings us up to about ten years ago. Now people have their own personal graphics
workstations and powerful home computers. The average computer a person might have in
their home is more powerful by several orders of magnitude than a machine like ENIAC. The
computer revolution has been the fastest growing technology in man's history.
 DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTERS:
Although the development of digital computers is rooted in the abacus and early mechanical
calculating devices, Charles Babbage is credited with the design of the first modern computer,
the analytical engine, during the 1830s. Vannevar Bush built a mechanically operated device,
called a differential analyzer, in 1930; it was the first general-purpose analog computer.
John Atanasoff constructed the first electronic digital computing device in 1939; a full-scale
version of the prototype was completed in 1942 at Iowa State College (now Iowa State Univ.).
In 1943 Conrad Zuse built the Z3, a fully operational electromechanical computer.
During World War II, the Colossus was developed for British codebreakers; it was the first
programmable electronic digital computer. The Mark I, or Automatic Sequence Controlled
Calculator, completed in 1944 at Harvard by Howard Aiken, was the first machine to execute
long calculations automatically, while the first all-purpose electronic digital computer, ENIAC
(Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator), which used thousands of vacuum tubes, was
completed in 1946 at the Univ. of Pennsylvania. UNIVAC (UNIVersal Automatic Computer)
became (1951) the first computer to handle both numeric and alphabetic data with equal
facility; intended for business and government use, this was the first widely sold commercial
computer.
First-generation computers were supplanted by the transistorized computers (see transistor ) of
the late 1950s and early 60s, second-generation machines that were smaller, used less power,
and could perform a million operations per second. They, in turn, were replaced by the third-
generation integrated-circuit machines of the mid-1960s and 1970s that were even smaller and
were far more reliable. The 1970s, 80s, and 90s were characterized by the development of the
microprocessor and the evolution of increasingly smaller but powerful computers, such as the
personal computer and personal digital assistant (PDA), which ushered in a period of rapid
growth in the computer industry.
The World Wide Web was unveiled in 1990, and with the development of graphical web
browser programs in succeeding years the Web and the Internet spurred the growth of general
purpose home computing and the use of computing devices as a means of social interaction.
Smartphones, which integrate a range of computer software with a cellular telephone that now
typically has a touchscreen interface, date to 2000 when a PDA was combined with a cellphone.
Although computer tablets date to the 1990s, they only succeeded commercially in 2010 with
the introduction of Apple's iPad, which built on software developed for smartphones. The
increasing screen size on some smartphones has made them the equivalent of smaller
computer tablets, leading some to call them phablets.
 SIX GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER:

FIRST GENERATION:
The first generation of computer is introduced in 1946. Whereas, the first generation used
vacuum tubes as the CPU and magnetic drum for storing the data. The size of the computer in
this generation is larger like room size and limited to basic operation.
Examples of first generation computer are ENIAC, UNIVAC, EDSAC, and EDVAC.

SECOND GENERATION:
The Second Generation of Computer uses the transistor in the place of vacuum tubes. The
transistor was developed in Bell Labs in 1947, but introduced in computers 1950’s. Whereas, it
is more reliable, faster, cheaper and smaller in size than the first generation of computers. Well,
it uses the high-level of computer languages by taking the input such as COBOL, FORTRAN, etc.
The second generation computers use the magnetic tape and magnetic core as the primary
storage, and the secondary storage uses the magnetic disks. The Example of this generation
computer is IBM 1620, IBM 7094, CDC 1604, CDC 3600, UNIVAC 1108. In this generation of
computers, the storage capacity and the use of computer users increased.

THIRD GENERATION:
The second generation of computers uses the transistors in the place of vacuum tubes. But, the
transistor produces the big amount of heat which damages sensitive parts in the computers. To
eliminate this problem, the Third Generation of Computer introduced in 1965. Whereas, these
computers differ from first and generation of computers and it uses the IC (Integrated Circut).
The IC is the small circuit which contains the thousands of transistors, resistors to make the
computer. By inventing the IC’s in the third generation, it became possible to fit thousands of
elements in a small area to create the computer. Additionally, it reduces the size of the
computer in a small size.

Moreover, the third generation computers use the COBOL, FORTRAN-II to FORTRAN-IV, PASCAL,
ALGOL-68, BASIC by taking the input. By using these languages, it can perform the complex
operations and produce accurate results. The third generation of computers is the IBM-360
series, PDP (Personal Data Processor), Honeywell-6000 series, and IBM-370/168.

FOURTH GENERATION:
The Fourth Generation of Computers are comes with VLSI (Very Large Scale Technology) also we
can call it as microprocessors. Whereas, the Intel was the first company to introduce the
microprocessor and firstly, design the PC or personal computer in this generation by IBM. Well,
the VLSI circuits include 500 transistors on the single chip which performs the high-level of
operations and computations.

These generation computers require the limited power to run. This generation of computers
allows users to use the computer for word processing, spreadsheets, file managing and
graphics. The computer languages like C, C++, and DBase are used in this generation to
perform the accurate operations. The concept of networking and CD-ROM came into existence
in the fourth generation. Examples of this generation computer are STAR 1000, CRAY-X-MP
(Super Computer), PDP 11, DEC 10, and CRAY-1.

FIFTH GENERATION:
Now we use the Fifth Generation of Computers which were started around 1982. These
computers differ from the previous four generations. Well, these generation computers use the
high level of languages like Perl, Python, C, JAVA, etc. Moreover, the Ultra Large Scale
Integration technology was introduced in 5th generation computers which leads to the
development of a microprocessor chip with several millions of chips on it.

It introduces the laptops, notebooks, PC’s, desktops, and many more during this period.
Besides, these computers are based on Artificial Intelligence. Well, the fifth generation
computers perform the parallel processing which fast results. In this generation of the
computers, the new languages are introduced like object-oriented languages like C++, JAVA,
etc. The new operating systems are developed MS Window, Linux and Linux based components
are developed. Example of fifth generation computers are Notebook, Laptop, Desktop, Ultra
book, Chrome book, and many more.

SIXTH GENERATION:
The Sixth Generation of computers is different from, other generation computers in terms of
size, speed and tasks that perform. These computers are called intelligent computers based on
artificial intelligence or artificial brains. Whereas, it uses the semiconductors as the raw
material to its processors. Moreover, the sixth generation introduces the voice recognization
which takes dictation and recognizes the words. By using the voice recognization, you can
search and send the messages quickly and easily. Although people need to speak slowly and
clearly to work properly. With the 6th generation computers, the complex problem solving is
possible and researches are ongoing to find the ways to solve the problems more efficiently and
easily.

In the military, the AI helped soldiers for unexpected problems arises in many situations around
the world. Additionally, it helps to prevent the many of world’s spy network problems, and also
it can determine the actions occurring high volatile parts of the world. In the automobile
technology, robots are used for manufacturing, but the artificial intelligence is used in some
cars which allow to breaking and wearing the vehicle if necessary.

In Today’s Computer, we touch everything virtually. But, the future computers may be neurons
and attains the human level intelligence. We all have the image that the computer is a
rectangular box either on desk or packet. We can think that computers are in cars or
refrigerators. Whereas, you can operate the refrigerator with your phone or communicate with
a light bulb. In fact, in the coming years, your light bulb became the computer which performs
operations and projects the information instead of light. Similarly, biological computing
performs the operations using DNA or RNA and understand the biotechnology as one
computer.

However, the communication between the user and future computer in many ways. We can
think that access your computer with voice recognization. The machine can predict before you
ask what do you want with emotion sensing. The emotion-sensing technology can help to
change the things. We already use the gestures to control the computers. But with image
recognization technology to recognize the body motions even when you not in front of the
computer screen. In the coming future, the computers may have the pre-touch, brain
interface. Nowadays computers operate by using power, semiconductors and metals but, the
future computers might use the atoms, DNA and light to perform the tasks.