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Abbas AK., Litchman AH and Pillai S. Cellular and Molecular Immunology 9th edition, 2018
Donors
Abbas AK., Litchman AH and Pillai S. Cellular and Molecular Immunology 9th edition, 2018
Recipients
Abbas AK., Litchman AH and Pillai S. Cellular and Molecular Immunology 9th edition, 2018
Adaptive Immune Responses
to Allograts
ADAPTIVE IMMUNE RESPONSES TO ALLOGRAFTS 361
Skin graft
No Yes Yes
Graft rejection
Day 3-7? Second set rejection Second set rejection
Abbas AK., Litchman AH and Pillai S. Cellular and Molecular Immunology 9th edition, 2018
FIGU RE 1 7 -2 First - and sec ond-set allograf t rejec t ion. Results of the experiments show n indicate that graft rejection displays the
Adaptive immune responses
to allografts
• The antigens that stimulate adaptive immune
responses against allografts are histocompatibility
proteins, encoded by polymorphic genes that differ
among individuals.
• Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules:
• The molecules responsible for strong (rapid) rejection
reactions.
• Human MHC molecules are called human leukocyte antigens
(HLA)
• Minor histocompatibility antigens:
• Polymorphic antigens other than MHC molecules typically
induce weak or slower (more gradual) rejection reactions
than do MHC molecules.
Abbas AK., Litchman AH and Pillai S. Cellular and Molecular Immunology 9th edition, 2018
MHC: Major histocompatibility
HLA: Human leukocyte antigen
Abbas AK., Litchman AH and Pillai S. Cellular and Molecular Immunology 9th edition, 2018
Rejection VS Graft versus host disease
Rejection
Recipient Donor
GVHD
Grafts are rejected only if they express an MHC type (represented
by green or orange) that is not expressed by the recipient mouse.
Abbas AK., Litchman AH and Pillai S. Cellular and Molecular Immunology 9th edition, 2018
Recognition of Alloantigens by T Cells
Abbas AK., Litchman AH and Pillai S. Cellular and Molecular Immunology 9th edition, 2018
Activation and effector functions of alloreactive T lymphocytes
Abbas AK., Litchman AH and Pillai S. Cellular and Molecular Immunology 9th edition, 2018
Activation of alloreactive B cells
and production and functions of alloantibodies
Abbas AK., Litchman AH and Pillai S. Cellular and Molecular Immunology 9th edition, 2018
Patterns and Mechanisms of
Allograft Rejection
Hyperacute Rejection
Abbas AK., Litchman AH and Pillai S. Cellular and Molecular Immunology 9th edition, 2018
Hyperacute Rejection
Abbas AK., Litchman AH and Pillai S. Cellular and Molecular Immunology 9th edition, 2018
Hyperacute Rejection
Abbas AK., Litchman AH and Pillai S. Cellular and Molecular Immunology 9th edition, 2018
Acute cellular rejection
A. CD4 + and CD8 + T
lymphocytes reactive with
alloantigens on endothelial
cells in blood vessels and
parenchymal cells mediate
damage to these cell types.
B. Acute cellular rejection
of a kidney with
inflammatory cells in the
connective tissue around
the tubules and between
epithelial cells of the
tubules.
C. Inflammation of a blood
vessel (vasculitis) in acute
cellular rejection, with
inflammatory cells
damaging endothelium.
Abbas AK., Litchman AH and Pillai S. Cellular and Molecular Immunology 9th edition, 2018
Acute antibody-mediated rejection
A. Alloreactive antibodies
formed after engraftment
may contribute to
parenchymal and vascular
injury.
B. Acute antibody-
mediated rejection of a
kidney allograft with
inflammatory cells in
peritubular capillaries.
C. Complement C4d
deposition in capillaries
in acute antibody-
mediated rejection,
revealed by
immunohistochemistry as
brown staining.
Abbas AK., Litchman AH and Pillai S. Cellular and Molecular Immunology 9th edition, 2018
Chronic Rejection and
Graft Vasculopathy
• The major cause of the failure of vascularized organ
allografts
• Onset: insidiously during months or years
• May or may not be preceded by clinically
recognized episodes of acute rejection
• Different transplanted organs is associated with
distinct pathologic changes.
• Kidney and heart: vascular occlusion and interstitial
fibrosis
• Lung: thickened small airways (bronchiolitis obliterans)
• Liver: fibrotic and nonfunctional bile ducts.
Abbas AK., Litchman AH and Pillai S. Cellular and Molecular Immunology 9th edition, 2018
A dominant lesion of chronic rejection in vascularized grafts is arterial
occlusion as a result of the proliferation of intimal smooth muscle cells, and
the grafts eventually fail mainly because of the resulting ischemic damage.
A. Graft arteriosclerosis
B. The vascular lumen is replaced
by an accumulation of smooth
muscle cells and connective
tissue in the vessel intima.
C. Fibrosis and loss of tubules in
a kidney
Abbas AK., Litchman AH and Pillai S. Cellular and Molecular Immunology 9th edition, 2018
Chinen and Buckley J Allergy Clin Immunol 2010;125:S324-35
Prevention and Treatment
of Allograft Rejection
Method to reduce the
immunogenicity of allograft
• Solid organs transplantation, graft survival after
transplantation varies depending on the source.
• living VS deceased donors
• The survival of grafts from deceased donors is on average
lower than from either related or unrelated living donors
because there is more ischemic damage to organs removed
after death of the donor.
• The major strategy to reduce graft immunogenicity
has been to minimize alloantigenic differences
between the donor and recipient.
• To avoid hyperacute rejection, the ABO blood group
antigens of the graft donor are selected to be
compatible with the recipient.
Abbas AK., Litchman AH and Pillai S. Cellular and Molecular Immunology 9th edition, 2018
In kidney transplantation, the larger the number of MHC
alleles that are matched between the donor and recipient,
the better the graft survival.
Abbas AK., Litchman AH and Pillai S. Cellular and Molecular Immunology 9th edition, 2018
Method to reduce the
immunogenicity of allograft
• In the case of heart and liver transplantation,
organ preservation is more difficult, and potential
recipients are often in critical condition.
• HLA typing is not considered in pairing of potential
donors and recipients,
• The choice of donor and recipient is based on ABO
blood group matching, other measures of immunologic
compatibility and anatomic compatibility.
• In hematopoietic stem cell transplantation,
• HLA matching is essential to reduce the risk of graft-
versus-host disease (GVHD).
Abbas AK., Litchman AH and Pillai S. Cellular and Molecular Immunology 9th edition, 2018
Method to reduce the
immunogenicity of allograft
• Most HLA haplotype determinations are now
performed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR).
• actual nucleotide sequence, predicted amino acid sequence
• precise molecular tissue typing
• The nomenclature of HLA alleles has changed to reflect
the identification of many alleles not distinguished by
previous serologic methods.
• For example, HLA-DRB1*1301
• sequence 01 allele
• serological HLA-DR13 family
• genes encoding the HLA-DR β1 protein
Abbas AK., Litchman AH and Pillai S. Cellular and Molecular Immunology 9th edition, 2018
Patients in need of allografts are also tested for the presence
of preformed antibodies against donor MHC molecules or
other cell surface antigens.
• Two types of tests are done to detect these antibodies.
• The panel reactive antibody (PRA) test, screened for the
presence of preformed antibodies reactive with allogeneic
HLA molecules prevalent in the population.
• The patient's serum are mixed with multiple fluorescently labeled beads
coated with defined MHC molecules.
• Each MHC allele is attached to a bead with a differently colored fluorescent
label. detect by flow cytometry
• The results are reported as PRA, which is the percentage of the MHC allele
panel with which the patient's serum reacts.
• The cross-matching test will determine when a potential
donor is identified.
• The test is performed by mixing the recipient's serum with the donor's
blood lymphocytes
• Complement is added to the mixture of cells and serum, and if preformed
antibodies, usually against donor MHC molecules, are present in the
recipient's serum, the donor cells are lysed. th
Abbas AK., Litchman AH and Pillai S. Cellular and Molecular Immunology 9 edition, 2018
Immunosuppression to Prevent or
to Treat Allograft Rejection
Inhibitors T cell signaling pathways
Costimulatory Blockade
Function-Blocking or
Anti metabolite Depleting Anti-Lymphocyte Antibodies
Abbas AK., Litchman AH and Pillai S. Cellular and Molecular Immunology 9th edition, 2018
Inhibitors T cell signaling pathways
Abbas AK., Litchman AH and Pillai S. Cellular and Molecular Immunology 9th edition, 2018
Inhibitors T cell signaling pathways
Abbas AK., Litchman AH and Pillai S. Cellular and Molecular Immunology 9th edition, 2018
Function-Blocking or
Depleting Anti-Lymphocyte Antibodies
• OKT3
• A mouse monoclonal antibody called that is specific for human CD3
• The first monoclonal antibody used as a drug in humans, but it is no
longer being produced
• Anti-thymocyte globulin
• Polyclonal rabbit or horse antibodies specific for a mixture of
human T cell surface proteins
• Deplete circulating T cells either by activating the complement
system to eliminate T cells or by opsonizing them for phagocytosis.
• Monoclonal antibodies specific for CD25 (α subunit of IL-2 receptor)
• Blocking IL-2 binding to IL-2 receptor
• Anti-CD52 (Alemtuzumab)
• Profoundly deplete most peripheral B and T cells for many weeks
after injection.
• It is administered just before and early after transplantation.
• prolonged state of graft tolerance
Abbas AK., Litchman AH and Pillai S. Cellular and Molecular Immunology 9th edition, 2018
Costimulatory Blockade
• CTLA4-Ig (Belatacept)
• recombinant protein
composed of the
extracellular portion of CTLA4
fused to an IgG Fc domain.
• binds to B7 molecules on
APCs and prevents them
from interacting with T cell
CD28
• as effective as cyclosporine in
preventing acute rejection
• Anti-CD40L antibody
• simultaneous blockade of
both B7 and CD40 appears to
be more effective
• Limitation thrombotic
complications
Abbas AK., Litchman AH and Pillai S. Cellular and Molecular Immunology 9th edition, 2018
Drugs Targeting Alloantibodies
and Alloreactive B Cells
• Plasmapheresis
• circulating antibodies can be removed
• Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) therapy
• binding of the injected IgG to the patient's Fc receptors
on various cell types, thereby reducing alloantibody
production and blocking effector functions of the
patient's own antibodies.
• enhances degradation of the patient's antibodies.
• Anti-CD20 (Rituximab)
• The proteasome inhibitor (Bortezomib)
Abbas AK., Litchman AH and Pillai S. Cellular and Molecular Immunology 9th edition, 2018
Anti inflammatory drugs
• Corticosteroids
• Block the synthesis and secretion of cytokines,
inflammatory mediators
• TNF, IL-1, prostaglandins, reactive oxygen species, and
nitric oxide
• The net result of this therapy is reduced leukocyte
recruitment, inflammation, and graft damage.
Abbas AK., Litchman AH and Pillai S. Cellular and Molecular Immunology 9th edition, 2018
Transplantation
Day 0 Day 2-3
Pre-Transplantation Post-Transplantation
Chronic rejection
• become a more common cause of allograft failure
• more insidious than acute rejection
• much less responsive to immunosuppression than is acute rejection
Abbas AK., Litchman AH and Pillai S. Cellular and Molecular Immunology 9th edition, 2018
Immunosuppressive therapy leads to increased
susceptibility to various types of infections and
virus-associated tumors.
• Abnormal defense against viruses and other
intracellular pathogens.
• Reactivation of latent herpes viruses: CMV, HSV, VZV
• prophylactic antiviral therapy for HSV
• Risk for a variety of opportunistic infections:
• PCP, Histoplasmosis, Toxoplasmosis, Cryptosporidium,
Microsporidium
• Risk for development of cancer
• skin cancer
• HPV uterine cervical carcinoma
• EBV lymphomas Post-transplantation lymphoproliferative
disorders (PTLDs)
Abbas AK., Litchman AH and Pillai S. Cellular and Molecular Immunology 9th edition, 2018
Hematopoietic Stem Cell
Transplantation
The Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine 1990
“….Thomas was successful in
transplanting bone marrow cells
from one individual to another.
Bone marrow transplantation can
cure severe inherited disorders
such as thalassemia and
disorders of the immune system
as well as leukemia and aplastic
anemia.
Murray's and Thomas'
discoveries are crucial for those
tens of thousands of severely ill
patients who either can be cured
or be given a decent life when
other treatment methods are
without success. ”
E. Donnall Thomas, MD
1920-2012
Indications, Methods and
Immune Barriers in HSCT
• Treat lethal diseases caused by intrinsic defects in
one or more hematopoietic lineages in a patient.
• HLA discovery in 1968
• Since 1955, more than 240,000 bone marrow
transplantations have been performed worldwide
at 450 centers in 47 countries for the treatment of
more than 50 different fatal diseases.
• SCID in 1968
HSCT graft
3
Conditionining 5
2 Supportive care
Patient
Diseases
(Donor)
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +14 +21 +100
GVHD prophylaxis
4
Adapted from Mohamed Monty, MD presentation
Type of stem cells graft by sources
• Bone marrow
• Multiple aspirations along the iliac crests under general anesthesia
• •500
Peripheral blood
mL- 1 L depended on the type of transplant and on the weight
of the recipient
• •HLA-identical
Umbilical cord blood
transplantation injected intravenously without
further manipulation into a central line in the recipient
• Mismatched transplantation T-cell depleted and injected
intravenously
Type of stem cells graft by sources
G-CSF
Mobilization Aphaeresis
Type of stem cells graft by sources
• Umbilical cord blood stem cells collection
Abbas AK., Litchman AH and Pillai S. Cellular and Molecular Immunology 9th edition, 2018
Chinen and Buckley J Allergy Clin Immunol 2010;125:S324-35
Donor selection and
manipulation of the graft
• HSCT from a related HLA-identical donor
• Best for rapid engraftment andimmune reconstitution
• The mature T cells contained in the graft provide a first
line of immune reconstitution after transplant
• Rapid increase circulating T lymphocytes 2 weeks after
HSCT
• HSCT from a haploidentical donor
• No such donor is available.
• Based on the ability of donor-derived stem cells to
repopulate the recipient’s vestigial thymus and give rise
to fully mature T lymphocytes
• life-saving procedure of SCID infants
Rich RR, et al. Clinical Immunology principles and practice. 3rd edition
Donor selection and
manipulation of the graft
• HSCT from matched unrelated donors
• Increasingly used to treat severe primary immunodeficiencies
• Bone Marrow Donors Worldwide (BMDW) registry
• 3–4 months to identify a MUD
• Preparative chemotherapy regimen in the recipient (even in
the case of SCID) and graft versus-host prophylaxis
• HSCT using unmanipulated cord blood
• Lower risk of GvHD than with MUD
• Based on the urgency of the transplant, the cell dose
required, and the number of HLA disparities
• Requires pre-transplant conditioning and GvHD prophylaxis,
irrespective of the underlying disease
Rich RR, et al. Clinical Immunology principles and practice. 3rd edition
Donor selection and
manipulation of the graft
• T-cell depletion
• Soybean lectin: agglutination of mature marrow cells
and removed by sedimentation
• E-rosetting (with sheep erythrocytes) and density
gradient centrifugation
• Incubation of the marrow with monoclonal antibodies to
T lymphocytes plus complement; Campath-1G, Leu 1
• Positive selection of CD34+ cells using monoclonal
antibody affinity
Rich RR, et al. Clinical Immunology principles and practice. 3rd edition
Complications of HSCT
Rich RR, et al. Clinical Immunology principles and practice. 3rd edition
Immunologic Complication of HSCT
Graft-Versus-Host-Disease
• GVHD is caused by the reaction of grafted mature T cells in
the HSC inoculum with alloantigens of the host.
• Occur when the host is immunocompromised and
therefore unable to reject the allogeneic cells in the graft.
• Most cases due to minor histocompatibility antigens of the
host
• GVHD in solid organs
• small bowel, lung, liver significant numbers of T cells are
transplanted
• GVHD is the principal limitation to the success of bone
marrow transplantation. Cyclosporine, tacrolimus, sirolimus
• Immediately after HSC transplantation, immunosuppressive
agents prophylaxis against the development of GVHD.
Abbas AK., Litchman AH and Pillai S. Cellular and Molecular Immunology 9th edition, 2018
Immunologic Complication of HSCT
Acute GVHD
• Epithelial cell death in the skin, liver (mainly the biliary
epithelium), and gastrointestinal tract.
• Manifestation: rash, jaundice, diarrhea, and gastrointestinal
hemorrhage.
• May be fatal.
Abbas AK., Litchman AH and Pillai S. Cellular and Molecular Immunology 9th edition, 2018
Immunologic Complication of HSCT
Chronic GVHD
• The relationship of chronic GVHD to acute GVHD is
not known.
• chronic GVHD to acute loss of epithelial cells
• chronic GVHD without evidence of prior acute GVHD
• An alternative explanation is that chronic GVHD
• Risk factors
• Acute GVHD
• Older age of the recipient
• Transplantation from a multiparous female donor into a
male recipient
• Minor histocompatibility incompatibility
Rich RR, et al. Clinical Immunology principles and practice. 3rd edition
Immunologic Complication of HSCT
Acute and Chronic GVHD
• Prevention
• Fully matched donor
• T-cell depleted HLA-mismatched donor
• Pharmacological GvHD prophylaxis
• Cyclosporine A daily for 6 months or
• Methotrexate (15 mg/m2 on the first day, and then 10 mg/m2
at day 3, 6 or
• combination ATG
Rich RR, et al. Clinical Immunology principles and practice. 3rd edition
Immunologic Complication of HSCT
Acute and Chronic GVHD
Abbas AK., Litchman AH and Pillai S. Cellular and Molecular Immunology 9th edition, 2018
Risk for GVHD
Highest
• Mis-matched
• includes haplo-identical from relative
• Matched Unrelated
• Unrelated Umbilical Cord Blood
• Matched 1st degree relative
• Syngeneic
Lowest
Immunodeficiency after HSCT
HSC transplantation is often accompanied by clinical immunodeficiency.
Abbas AK., Litchman AH and Pillai S. Cellular and Molecular Immunology 9th edition, 2018
Hematopoietic Stem Cell
Transplantation for the treatment of
Primary Immunodeficiency Disorders
HSCT for SCID
Rich RR, et al. Clinical Immunology principles and practice. 3rd edition
Survival following HSCT for SCID
Rich RR, et al. Clinical Immunology principles and practice. 3rd edition
Quality and kinetics of T-cell immune reconstitution
Rich RR, et al. Clinical Immunology principles and practice. 3rd edition
• Quantification of TRECs
• Assess engraftment of bona fide stem cells and to monitor the
persistence of immunity
• Decline by 10 years
• Possible that the SCID thymus is not able to sustain active
thymopoiesis for as long as a normal thymus
Rich RR, et al. Clinical Immunology principles and practice. 3rd edition
Related HLA-identical HSCT
• The unmanipulated graft contains mature T lymphocytes
• expanded in 2 weeks
• Oligoclonal, have a memory (CD45R0) phenotype
• Fully competent, and provide the recipient with functional immunity
MUD HSCT
• Present mature T cells
• Conditioning regimen partly impairs immune development
• Naive (CD45RA+ CD31+) T lymphocytes appear in 3–4 months
• Number tends to peak 1 year after HSCT
Rich RR, et al. Clinical Immunology principles and practice. 3rd edition
Reconstitution of B- and NK-cell immunity
Rich RR, et al. Clinical Immunology principles and practice. 3rd edition
The Primary Immune Deficiency Treatment Consortium (PIDTC)
a collaborative network of institutions in North America
SY Pai et al. N Engl J Med 2014;371:434-46
• Study design: retrospective, multicenter
• Participants: 240 infants with SCID who had received transplants at 25
centers during a 10-year period (2000 through 2009)
• Data collection
• Demographic data, Immunologic profile, infection history
• Transplantation: conditioning regimen, donor type, degree of HLA match, cell
source, method of T-cell depletion, GVHD prophylaxis
• Immune Reconstitution
• Data collected at 100 days, at 6 months, and at 1, 2 to 5, and 6 to 10 years after
transplantation
• CD3+ T cells, CD19+ or CD20+ B cells, and CD3−CD56+ or CD16+CD56+ NK cells
• PHA
• IgG, IgA, and IgM
• treatment with IVIG
• whole-blood and lineage-specific chimerism
Rich RR, et al. Clinical Immunology principles and practice. 3rd edition