Flight Performance and Planning

AIR INFORMATION PUBLICATIONS

Introduction

As part of basic preparation before any flight, pilots need to be able to brief
themselves about:

➢ Air Traffic Control procedures regarding departure, en-route, destination and

alternate airfields.

➢ Frequencies of communication and navigation aids (navaids) en-route and at

airfields.
➢ Radio navigation and approach aids.

➢ Aerodrome Flight Information Service (AFIS), Automatic Terminal Information

Service (ATIS) and in-flight weather services.

➢ Danger, Restricted and Prohibited Areas; Military training areas, Air Navigation
Obstacles and Aerial Sporting and Recreational Activities.
AIR INFORMATION PUBLICATIONS - Primary Source of Documents

Air Information Publication (AIP). A publication issued by or with the authority of a

State and containing aeronautical information of a lasting character essential to air
navigation.
AIR INFORMATION PUBLICATIONS - Primary Source of Documents

NOTAM. A notice distributed by means of telecommunications containing

information concerning the establishment, condition or change in any aeronautical
facility, service, procedure or hazard, the timely knowledge of which is essential to
personnel concerned with flight operations.
Preflight Planning

Start your planning by looking at the big picture. Select the route over which you
want to fly.

• Terrain : check the height of any obstacles within (say) 10 miles either
side of your proposed course;

• Airspace: check the route for:

different classes of airspace;

prohibited areas, restricted areas or warning areas;
other airports.

(Use current charts, and check for terrain and airspace.)

Note:
Use current charts, and check for terrain and airspace
It is not necessary to list every checkpoint on your flight log.
Consider highlighting suitable en route alternate airports.
Preflight Planning - Altitude

Select a suitable cruise altitude for each leg and enter it in the flight log.
Considerations should include:

1. terrain;
2. airspace restrictions;
3. the cloud base; and
4. VFR cruise altitudes.
Preflight Planning - Courses and Distances
Preflight Planning - Fuel Calculations

Fuel Calculations

The fuel consumption for various power settings is published in the Pilot’s Operating
Handbook. These figures assume correct leaning of the fuel/air mixture when cruising
at 75% maximum continuous power or less. Leaning the mixture can decrease fuel
consumption by up to 20%. From the estimated time interval for the whole flight and
the published fuel consumption rate, calculate the expected flight fuel.

Reserve fuel should also be carried to allow for in-flight contingencies such as
diversions, fuel consumption poorer than that published and unexpected headwinds
en route.

A fixed reserve fuel of 45 minutes by night and 30 minutes by day is required. This
fixed reserve is only intended to be used in an emergency.

Any fuel over and above the minimum fuel required is known as margin fuel. Insert
the fuel calculations onto the flight log.
Preflight Planning - Weight and Balance

For a flight to be legal, the airplane must not exceed any weight limitation, and must
be loaded so that the center of gravity (CG) lies within the approved range
throughout the flight. Complete a load sheet (if necessary) to verify that the
requirements are met.
Preflight Planning - Takeoff and Landing Performance
Preflight Planning - Airplane Documentation and Preparation for Flight

You should check that the required documents are carried:


• “AROW”—for the airplane
• pilot certificate and medical certificate (and log book with endorsements if you are
a student pilot)—for yourself as pilot in command.
Preflight Planning - Flight Notification

INTRODUCTION
What is an ATC Flight Plan?
It is simply advance notice of a pilot’s intentions for a flight in terms of route
(including departure and destination), cruising level and speed and information
about the crew and passengers. It is in a set format (form CA48) to ensure
completeness of information and compatibility with electronic data transfer
between ATS and other units.

DEFINITIONS

Flight Plan: Specified information provided to air traffic service units , relative to an
intended flight or portion of a flight of an aircraft.

Repetitive Flight Plan (RPL): A flight plan related to a series of frequently recurring,
regularly operated individual flights with identical basic features, submitted by an
operator for retention and repetitive use by ATS units. These flights must be operated
on the same day(s) of consecutive weeks and on at least 10 occasions, or every day
over a period of at least 10 consecutive days. The elements of each flight shall have
a high degree of stability.
Preflight Planning - Flight Notification

Filed flight plan: The flight plan as filed with an ATS unit by the pilot or a designated
representative, without any subsequent changes.
Current Flight Plan: The flight plan, including changes, if any, brought about by
subsequent clearances.

Estimated elapsed time: The estimated time required to proceed from one significant
point to another.

Estimated off-block time: The estimated time at which the aircraft will commence
movement associated with departure.

Estimated time of arrival: For IFR flights, the time at which it is estimated that the
aircraft will arrive over that designated point, defined by reference to navigational
aids, from which it is intended that an instrument approach will be commenced, or, if
no navigational aid is associated with the aerodrome, the time at which the aircraft
will arrive over the aerodrome. For VFR flights, the time at which it is estimated the
aircraft will arrive over the aerodrome.
Preflight Planning - Flight Notification
Preflight Planning - Flight Notification
Preflight Planning - Flight Notification
Weight and Balance

An airplane must only be flown within certificated limits of

weight and balance to ensure that it remains controllable,
performs adequately and is not overstressed.

Correct weight and balance means:

! maximum allowable weight is not exceeded; and

! center of gravity (CG) is within a specified range.

Weight and Balance

The main force created to counteract the weight and allow the airplane to be
maneuvered is lift. In straight-and-level flight the lift will be approximately equal to
the weight.

The heavier an airplane is, the poorer its performance will be. In particular, it will
have:
• a higher stall speed;
• a higher takeoff speed and a longer takeoff run;
• poorer climb performance (poorer climb angle and climb rate);
• a lower cruising level;
• less maneuverability;
• higher fuel consumption, and less range and endurance;
• reduced cruise speed for a given power setting;
• a higher landing speed and a longer landing distance; and
• greater braking requirements when stopping.
Weight and Balance

Empty Weight
The empty weight of an airplane is a precise, measured weight for that particular
airplane. It is included in its weight-and-balance documents as the licensed empty
weight.


The empty weight includes:

1. the airframe and the powerplant
2. all permanently installed operating equipment (such as radios)
3. all non-drainable fluids (including unusable fuel, hydraulic fluid).

Items that the empty weight does not include are:

1. pilot(s) and their equipment and baggage;

2. passenger(s);
3. baggage, cargo and temporary ballast added for balance; and
4. full oil (unless specifically included).
Weight and Balance

Gross Weight (GW)

The gross weight is the actual total weight of the airplane and its contents at any
particular time.

In other words, gross weight is the empty weight plus pilot(s), payload (passengers
and cargo), added ballast and fuel load.

The gross weight should not exceed the maximum weight permissible for any
particular maneuver.

On takeoff, it must not exceed the structural maximum takeoff weight or the
performance-limited takeoff weight;

On landing, gross weight must not exceed the structural maximum landing weight or
the performance-limited landing weight
Weight and Balance

The Weight of Fuel and Oil

Note the following:

• one gallon of AVGAS weighs 6 pounds (lb)

• one liter of AVGAS weighs 1.56 lb (0.71 kg)

• one gallon of oil weighs 7.5 pounds

(so 8 quarts or 2 gallons weighs 15 pounds).
Balance

The Moment of a Force

The moment of a force is its turning effect, and it depends on two things:

• the size (magnitude) of the force; and

• itsmomentarm,whichisthedistancefromthepointatwhichtheforceisapplied to the pivot point (or
fulcrum).


If the force being applied (weight) is measured in pounds (lb) and the arm is in inches
(in.), then the moment is expressed in pound-inches (lb-in), or inch-pounds (in-lb).
Weight and Balance

To calculate the position of the CG (rather than just estimate it), we need to
calculate the total moment the sum of the turning effects of the individual weights.

Then we find the position (CG arm) where a single weight (equal to the sum of the
individual weights) will have the same total moment. The CG arm can be found
using the equation:

The CG position remains the same regardless of datum position.

Weight and Balance

Airplane Datums
In the case of airplanes, the manufacturer specifies a datum point in the weight-
and-balance data supplied.

Some manufacturers choose the nose of the airplane as the datum; others choose
the firewall behind the engine; and others choose an external point along the
extended longitudinal axis, ahead of the nose.

The datum point for your particular airplane will be stated in its weight-and-balance
documents.

The position of the datum is often referred to as “station zero” (or STA 0). Other
positions may be specified relative to the station zero datum—for instance, a point
40 inches aft of the datum is called “STA 40.”

If the datum is behind the nose, then all weights forward of this datum will have a
negative arm and a negative moment.

The advantage of having a datum at or forward of the nose is that all moments are
positive, making the calculations easier.
Weight and Balance
Weight and Balance
Weight and Balance
Weight and Balance
Weight and Balance
Weight and Balance

Effect of CG Position on Airplane Handling

If loaded with the CG well forward:

the horizontal stabilizer has a long moment arm, the airplane will be very stable longitudinally,
and resist any pitching moment.

The forward position of the CG is limited to ensure that the elevator has sufficient turning moment
to overcome the nose-heaviness and excessive longitudinal stability, ensuring that you are able
to rotate the airplane for takeoff and flare it for landing at relatively low airspeeds.

If the CG is well aft

the airplane will be tail-heavy and less stable longitudinally, because of the shorter moment arm
from the CG to the CP.
The aft position of the CG is limited to ensure that the airplane remains sufficiently stable so that
a reasonably steady nose position can be held with- out excessive and frequent control
movements being necessary, and so that the elevator-feel experienced through the control
column remains satisfactory.

With a CG that is too far aft, the airplane will be very tail-heavy, will be difficult to control, and
tend to stall and/ or spin more easily—a situation from which it may be more difficult (or even
impossible) to recover.
Weight and Balance

Finding the CG for a Loaded Airplane

Using a tabulated layout, like that suggested above, will make all airplane weight-and- balance
problems easy to do, and easy to check.

Example
Given the following information regarding a loaded airplane, calculate total moment and CG position:

• maximum gross weight 2,400 pounds;

• CG limits are 35 inches forward limit and 47.3 inches aft limit;
• empty weight 1,200 pounds acting at position 40 inches aft of the datum;
• pilot and passenger in front seat (arm 36 inches) 300 pounds;
• passengers in rear seat (arm 72 inches) 400 pounds;
• baggage in baggage compartment (arm 100 inches) 35 pounds;
• fuel 30 gallons (arm 50 inches); and
• oil 8 quarts (arm – 10 inches).

Note the following:

oil is obviously in front of the datum, since it has a negative arm (it may be that
the datum on this airplane is the firewall behind the engine);
a calculator will help you in these weight-and-balance problems;
using the tabular form provided in most POHs will keep things neat; and
a diagram of the airplane is not necessary, but we show one here to help you
visualize the situation.
Weight and Balance
Weight and Balance

Weight and/or CG Outside Limits

If the airplane was shown to be loaded incorrectly, then you would have to reorganize the
loading so that it is within the weight and CG limits:


• iftheairplaneistooheavy,thenyoumustremovesomeoftheload,whichisbag-
gage, passenger(s) or fuel (make your choice!); and
• iftheairplaneisoutofbalance,withtheCGoutsidethespecifiedlimits,thenyou
must move the CG position. There are three ways in which this can be done:


1. shift the load — for example, move the CG forward by moving baggage forward from the
baggage compartment to an empty seat (where you would need to
restrain it);

2. remove some of the load—for example, move the CG forward by removing some
baggage from the baggage compartment, or by leaving one of the rear passengers
behind; or

3. add ballast—for example, move the CG aft by adding ballast to the baggage
compartment.

Later in this chapter we will show how to ensure that the CG position is within the allowable CG
range, and that it remains between the forward and aft limits throughout the flight as fuel is used.
Weight and Balance

Graphical Presentation of Weight-and-Balance Data

To eliminate the need to calculate moments or index units, some airplane manufacturers provide
a small loading graph that you can use to find the moment in index units.
Weight and Balance

Graphical Presentation of Weight-and-Balance Data

To eliminate the need to calculate moments or index units, some airplane manufacturers provide
a small loading graph that you can use to find the moment in index units.
Weight and Balance

Having found the total weight and moment, we can check either of the next two graphs to
ensure that:
the weight is within limits; and
the airplane is balanced correctly.
Weight and Balance

The two graphs (figure 11-19) tell us the same thing, albeit in a slightly different manner. You need
refer to only one of them.
Weight and Balance

Weight-Shift and Weight-Change by Formula

Weight-shift and weight-change problems may be easily solved using our standard
tabulated layout, without the need to remember any formulas.

Some pilots, however, prefer to use a formula for these problems, and so we now
include this method, which is based on:

Any change in individual moments = the change in total moments.

Weight and Balance

Weight Shift
Suppose weight “w” is shifted from the aft baggage compartment to the forward bag- gage
compartment (figure 11-27).This will have the effect of shifting the CG forward. Since weight is
shifted (not changed), airplane gross weight remains the same.
Weight and Balance

Example
Your loaded airplane weighs 4,000 lb with CG at station 91.0. How much baggage
must be shifted from the rear baggage area (station 150) to the forward baggage
area (station 30) in order to move the CG to station 89.0?
Weight and Balance

Weight-Change

If weight “w” is added to the forward bag-gage compartment (figure 11-28)
it will have the effect of shifting the CG forward, as will removing weight from aft of
the CG.
Conversely, reducing weight ahead of the CG will shift the CG rearward, as will
adding weight aft. Weight added to shift the CG is known as ballast.

Change in individual moments = change in total moment

Weight and Balance
Weight and Balance

Mean Aerodynamic Chord

The mean aerodynamic chord (MAC) is the chord of an imaginary rectangular wing
that has the same aerodynamic characteristics as the actual wing.

In effect, this replaces the actual wing (which may have a quite different and more
complicated plan form) for calculation purposes with a theoretical simplified,
rectangular average wing.The

MAC is the chord of this theoretical rectangular wing and its main use is as a
reference for longitudinal stability characteristics (such as balance).

This concept of MAC is used by designers when they determine stability


characteristics of the airplane, bearing in mind that any turning moments

generated by the lift–weight and thrust–drag couples will have to be balanced
by a force (usually downward) from the horizontal stabilizer.
Weight and Balance
Weight and Balance

Calculating CG Position as a “Percentage MAC”

The greatest forces acting on an airplane are weight and lift. It is important that the distance
between them is not too great to ensure that their turning moment is kept within limits. Since the
lift force will act somewhere along the mean aerodynamic chord, it is common for the CG to be
specified as a position on the MAC, usually as a percentage aft of the MAC leading edge.
Aircraft Performance


Definitions terms and speeds

AIR DENSITY

• The critical element is air density, which decreases as pressure falls and
temperature rises.

• On a hot day, the air is less dense and the performance capabilities of the
airplane will be reduced.

• The power delivered by the engine depends on the weight of the fuel/air charge
— the less dense the air, the lower the power-producing capability of the engine.

• The aerodynamic qualities of the airframe depend on air density. If air density
decreases, then aerodynamic qualities decrease, and the airplane will have to
move faster through the air to create the same aerodynamic forces.

• High temperatures and low pressures (at altitude) cause a decrease in air density,
as does high humidity (moisture content).

• High, Hot, Humid conditions Decrease aircraft perfromance

Factors Affecting Air Density

Altitude
• gravity compresses the molecules of air closest to the earth, the air density and
therefore the pressure decreases with altitude.
• Since both engine and aerodynamic performance depend on air density,
airplane performance is poorer at high altitudes.
• Performance reduces as altitude increases.

Temperature
• Heating of an air mass to a higher temperature causes it to expand and its
density to decrease, resulting in a reduction in both engine and aerodynamic
performance.
• Temperature generally decreases with altitude (the nominal standard rate is
approximately 2°C/1,000 feet).
• Performance reduces as air temperature increases.

Humidity
• Relative humidity is defined as the amount of water vapor present in a parcel of
air compared to the maximum amount that it can support (when saturated) at
the same temperature. High relative humidity means poorer airplane
performance.
Temperature

The higher the temperature the lower the air density and the poorer the airplane performance.
Standard (ISA) sea level temperature is +15°C and it falls at approximately 2°C per 1,000 feet
gain in altitude:
at 1,000 feet in the ISA, the temperature will have fallen to +13°C;
at 2,000 feet in the ISA, the temperature will have fallen to +11°C; and
at 3,000 feet in the ISA, the temperature will have fallen to +9°C.

To Calculate ISA (Standard) Temperature

ISA temperature in °C at any altitude = 15 – (2 × number of thousands of feet).

ISA at 9,000 feet = 15 – (2 × 9) = –3°C

ISA at 13,500 feet = 15 – (2 × 13.5) = –12°C

temperature lapse rate is approxi-mately 3.6°F/1,000 feet.

ISA in °F at 9,000 feet = 59 – (3.6 × 9)= 59 – 32.4 = –26.6°F

F = 9⁄5 C + 32 C = 5⁄9 (F – 32)

Temperature

To Calculate Deviations from ISA (Standard) Temperature

Temperature at an altitude is often expressed as an ISA deviation, which is the
difference between the standard, or ISA, temperature at that altitude and the actual
temperature at that altitude.

For instance, at 9,000 feet the ISA temperature is –3°C. If the actual temperature at
9,000 feet today happens to be –8°C, the actual temperature is 5°C colder than the
ISA temperature, which is described as ISA – 5.

Example
Express an actual temperature of +16°C at a pressure altitude of 3,000 feet as an ISA
deviation.

ISA at 3,000 feet = 15 – (2 × 3) = 15 – 6 = +9°C

16°C at 3,000 feet is 7° warmer than the ISA temperature +9°C = ISA+7
General Principles – TAKE-OFF
➢ Available Distances

➢ Take-off

➢ Forces During Take-off

➢ Effect of Variable factors on take-off Distance

The TAKE-OFF RUN AVAILABLE (TORA)

• Declared length of runway, starting from which an aeroplane can commence

the take-off and, ending at the nearest point which is unsuitable to bear the load
of the aeroplane under normal conditions.
• The pave length of runway from threshold to threshold
STOPWAYS

• Area beyond the take-off runway

• No less wide that the runway and centered upon the extended centerline
• Able to support the aeroplane during an abortive take-off without causing
structural damage
• Designated by the airport authorities for use in decelerating the aeroplane during
an abortive take-off
• Identified by large yellow chevrons on either end of the main runway
CLEARWAYS

• An area of defined width and length which are free from obstacles.
• Clearways are area beyond the runway, not less than 152m (500ft).
• Centrally located about the extended centerline of the runway.
• Under the control of airport authorities
• The lesser length of 50% of the TORA or the distance of the first significant
obstacle of 0.9m or more.
Accelerate-Stop Distance (ASDA) or 

Emergency Distance Available (EMDA)

• Distance of the point of the runway which the aeroplane can commence its
take-off run to the nearest point at the direction of take-off after which the
aeroplane cannot be brought to rest in an emergency without the risk of
accident.
• Length of take-off run available plus any stopway
• ASDA = TORA + STOPWAY
Take-off Distance Available (TODA)

• Is the distance from the point at which an aeroplane can commence its take-off
run, to the nearest obstacle in the direction of take-off projecting above the
surface of the aerodrome and capable of affecting the safety of the aeroplane
• TORA + CLEARWAY
Landing Distance Available (LDA)

• This is the length of runway commencing from the point on the surface of the
aerodrome to the nearest point incapable of bearing the weight of the
aeroplane under normal operating conditions.
• Stretches from threshold to threshold
Summary
TAKE-OFF

• The distance from Brake Release Point (BRP) to the point at which the aircraft
reaches a defined height “screen height”.
• Screen Height varies from 35ft for class A aeroplanes to 50ft for class B aeroplanes.
Factors Affecting Takeoff Performance - MASS

MASS
The mass of the aeroplane affects:

• The acceleration for a given accelerating force. This is the effect of inertia. An aeroplane with
higher mass will have more inertia. Therefore as mass increases, acceleration will decrease
which will increase the take-off distance.

• The wheel drag. Increased mass increases the load placed on the wheels and therefore
increases the wheel friction. Because of the increased wheel friction, wheel drag will
increase. Therefore, acceleration is reduced and the take-off distance will increase.

• The take off safety speed. An aeroplane with a higher mass will have a greater force of
weight. This must be overcome by greater lift. To gain this extra lift the aeroplane must be
accelerated to a higher speed, this will of course increase the take-off distance.

• The angle of initial climb to the screen height. A higher mass reduces the angle of the initial
climb. This means that the aeroplane will use a greater horizontal distance to get to the
screen height.

In summary then, increasing mass has four detrimental effects to the take-off distance.
Factors Affecting Takeoff Performance - DENSITY

DENSITY
Density is determined by pressure, temperature and humidity

• The power or thrust of the engine. Reduced density will reduce combustion inside
the engine and therefore reduce the thrust and or power that the engine can
generate. Therefore acceleration will be less and the take-off distance will
increase.

• The TAS for a given IAS. Reduced density will increase the true airspeed for a given
indicated airspeed. For example, if the take-off safety speed was an indicated
airspeed of 120 knots, then in low density this may represent a true airspeed of 130
knots. Getting to a true speed of 130 knots will require more distance. Therefore,
low density will increase the take-off distance.

• The angle of the initial climb. Since there is less thrust and or power in low density,
the angle of climb will reduce. Therefore, getting to the screen height will require
a longer horizontal distance.
Factors Affecting Takeoff Performance -DENSITY

• A lower air pressure will decrease the density and this can occur as a result of a different
ground-level ambient pressure or as a result of a higher airport elevation. This effect is
covered by pressure altitude, which relates the actual pressure experienced by the airplane
to a level in the standard atmosphere that has an identical pressure. High-elevation airports
lead to longer takeoff distances.
• A higher air temperature will also decrease the air density, reducing airplane and engine
performance.
Factors Affecting Takeoff Performance - Headwinds and Tailwinds

• A headwind reduces the ground roll and takeoff distance to clear a 50-foot
obstacle. For flight, the airplane requires a certain speed relative to the air in
which it is flying.

• In a headwind takeoff the airplane therefore reaches liftoff indicated airspeed at

a lower groundspeed, and so less ground run is required.

• In a tailwind, the effect is to lengthen the ground run and to flatten the climb-out.

• A headwind reduces the takeoff distance.

• takeoff into the wind

Factors Affecting Takeoff Performance - Crosswinds

• The airplane must not be taken off in a crosswind that exceeds the maximum crosswind limit
for the airplane.
• because the crosswind will generally try to lift the into the upwind wing, which then has to be
held down with aileron.
Factors Affecting Takeoff Performance -Crosswinds
Factors Affecting Takeoff Performance - Runway Surface

• The length of the ground roll,at any given weight, will vary in response to the
friction caused by the runway surface during the takeoff roll.
• A dry hard-paved runway causes the least amount of friction.
• A runway with a short dry-grass surface has only a marginally higher retarding
effect.
• Pools of water on any type of runway surface can significantly retard the
acceleration, and takeoff under such conditions requires very careful
consideration.
Factors Affecting Takeoff Performance - FLAPS

• The use of small flap settings decreases the length of the ground run.
• Flaps have the effect of lowering the stall speed, which reduces the liftoff speed.
• Provided that the flap setting used for takeoff is small (so that the drag is not
greatly increased)
• The slower liftoff speed after a shorter ground run may enable a shorter runway to
be used.
Factors Affecting Takeoff Performance - RUNWAY SLOPE

• A downslope of 2-in-100 or 2% down will allow the airplane to accelerate faster

and so will decrease the ground roll.
• An upslope of 2-in-100 or 2% up will make it more difficult for the airplane to
accelerate and so the ground roll will be greater.
The Takeoff Distance Graph
Aircraft Performance

! En Route Performance
Cruise Altitude and Power Setting

Choice of cruise altitude depends on:

• distance to destination;
• terrain;
• airplane gross weight;
• weather (visibility and cloud base);
• wind at various altitudes; and
• ATC and airspace requirements.

To level off at cruise altitude leave climb power set until the airplane has accelerated
to the desired cruise speed in level flight.

The power is then reduced to cruise power, and the mixture is leaned as
recommended in the Pilot’s Operating Handbook.

The cruise speed maintained is determined by the power set.

Usually you would lean for best power, so that there is a slight excess of fuel
compared with the chemically correct mixture. This will give the best speed at that
power setting, and the small amount of excess fuel will help cool the cylinders.
Correct leaning procedure is important for long engine life.
Presentation of Performance Data – Cessna 172
Climb Perfomance

• the maximum angle of climb at speedVX allows you to gain the maximum
altitude in the shortest distance.
• maximum rate of climb at speedVY allows you to gain the maximum altitude in
the shortest time.
• normal climb at the specified climb speed is somewhat faster than the maximum
rate climb speed, and is sometimes called a cruise climb.
Cruise Performance

Fuel Reserves
• Reserve fuel is designed not to be used. It is a safety reserve, available for unplanned situations, such
as unexpected closure of your destination airport due to a runway obstruction, or unforecast poor
weather.
VFR day reserve: 30 minutes at normal cruising speed; and
VFR night reserve: 45 minutes at normal cruising speed.

Specific Range
• Specific range is the distance traveled per unit of fuel burned. It may be expressed in various units,
such as NM/pound or NM/gallon for specific range.

Flying for Range

• sometimes you will want to keep fuel used over a given flight distance as low as possible, which
reduces fuel costs. This is achieved by flying at the correct speed for maximum range and keeping
fuel burn to a minimum.

Flying for Endurance

• Occasionally you might want to remain in flight for the longest time possible without any
consideration of the distance covered
Aircraft Performance

! Landing Performance
JAR Performance Classification

• The total landing distance is the distance established from a point where the
airplane is 50 feet over the runway threshold (assumed to be a paved, level dry
runway) to the point where the airplane reaches a full stop, assuming a steady,
full flaps approach, with power off at 50 feet and maximum braking once the
wheels are on the ground.
Factors Affecting Landing Performance - 

Weight

Class A

Class B Unclassified
A heavier airplane will need a greater ground roll and total landing distance.A heavier weight
has a number of effects:
• the stall speed is increased, so the approach speed must be greater
• the higher approach speed results in the airplane possessing greater kinetic energy
(1⁄2 mV2) which has to be absorbed by the brakes, increasing the length of the land- ing run.
Factors Affecting Landing Performance – 

Density

An increased density altitude results in a longer landing distance. Low ambient pres-
sure, high elevation and high ambient temperatures decrease the air density (ρ),
giving a higher density altitude.
Factors Affecting Landing Performance – 

The Effect of Wind

The Effect of Wind

A headwind reduces the landing distance because the groundspeed is reduced by
the headwind for the same true airspeed (V).A tailwind means that the
groundspeed will exceed the true airspeed, and so the touchdown speed relative to
the ground is higher and a longer landing distance will be required.
Factors Affecting Landing Performance – 

Runway Surface

• Smooth, wet, or loose runway surfaces will not allow good braking to occur and
so the landing distance required will be longer.

• Hydroplaning is the phenomenon of a tire skating along on a thin film of water

and not rotating, even though it is free to do so. Wheel braking therefore has no
effect. Friction forces are practically zero.
Factors Affecting Landing Performance – 

Runway Slope

• A downslope will result in a longer total landing distance.

• airplane braking while going downhill will not be as effective as on a level or
upward sloping runway.
Factors Affecting Landing Performance – 

Flaps

• Higher flap settings reduce the stall speed and therefore the approach speed,
• High flap settings also give addi- tional aerodynamic drag that helps to slow the
airplane down,
Factors Affecting Landing Performance – 

Fast Approach Speeds

Fast Approach Speeds

The landing performance charts are based on specified approach speeds. If you approach for
a landing at a speed higher than that specified, the landing distance will exceed that predicted
by the chart. This is because of the greater kinetic energy of the airplane and the tendency of
the airplane to float at the round-out because of ground effect
Factors Affecting Landing Performance – 

The Landing Distance Graph
Factors Affecting Landing Performance – 

The Landing Distance Table
Factors Affecting Landing Performance – 

Wake Turbulence

Wake Turbulence
• As a wing produces lift, the higher static pressure area beneath the wing causes an airflow
around the wingtip to the lower pressure area above. The greater the difference in pressure,
the greater the flow around the wingtips.
• This hazardous trail of wingtip vortices behind an airplane is known as wake turbulence.
• Delay the operation of light airplanes on run-ways behind heavy jets for up to five minutes to
allow the vortices to drift away and dissipate.
Factors Affecting Landing Performance – 

Avoiding Wake Turbulence Takeoff

The main aim of wake-turbulence avoidance is to avoid passing through it at all .This
is accomplished by flying above and upwind of the flight path of the aircraft
producing wake turbulence.
• become airborne in an area well before where the heavy airplane rotated
maneuver to avoid the vortices in flight by turning away.
• Or delay your take off
Factors Affecting Landing Performance – 

Avoiding Wake Turbulence Takeoff

When taking off after a heavy airplane has landed, plan to become airborne well
past the point where it flared and landed.
Factors Affecting Landing Performance – 

Avoiding Wake Turbulence In the Traffic Pattern

Avoid flying below and behind large airplanes. Fly a few hundred feet above them,
a thousand feet below them or upwind of them. Calm days, where there is no
turbulence to break up the vortices, are potentially the most dangerous.
Factors Affecting Landing Performance – 

Avoiding Wake Turbulence Approach to Land

When following a preceding landing airplane, fly above the approach path of the
heavy airplane and land well beyond his touchdown point.
Factors Affecting Landing Performance – 

Avoiding Wake Turbulence Approach to Land

If a preceding heavy airplane has discontinued its approach and gone around, its
turbulent wake will be a hazard to a following airplane.
Factors Affecting Landing Performance – 

Jet Blast

Do not confuse wake turbulence with jet blast, which is the high velocity air
exhausted from a jet engine.
Factors Affecting Landing Performance – 

Ground Effect

• This increased performance of an airplane flying just above a surface is known as ground
effect.
• Ground effect limits the size of wingtip vortices which reduces induced drag.
• Ground effect is greatest when the aircraft is just airborne and least when the aircraft is at an
altitude above the ground approximately one wingspan’s distance.
• On an approach to land, as the airplane enters ground effect the pilot will experience a
floating sensation—a result of the extra lift (from the increased lifting ability of the wing) and
the slower deceleration (because of less drag).
• As the airplane climbs out of ground effect on takeoff the lifting ability of the wing will
decrease for the same airplane pitch attitude.