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Stratigraphy, palaeontology and palaeogeography of the Carboniferous of

Southeast Asia

Article · January 1984

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 of the Carboniferous of Southeast Asra
by hN METCALFE *

older continental part of Southeast Asia is a composite of four tectonic blocks (Sibumasu, Manabor, Indochina and
- The
Abstract.
South China Blocks) which have had independent pre-Triassic histories.
Carboniferous sediments on these blocks are predominantly shallow marine with subordinate epicontinental and continental deposits.
The Carboniferous of the Sibumasu Block consists of continental margin deposits including extensive glacial-marine diamictites. Shallow marine
clastics (with reefal limestones) and abundant volcanics are the main Carboniferous deposits on the Manabor Block which is interpreted as a
possible Island Arc during the Carboniferous. The central part of the Indochina Block was emergent throughout the Carboniferous and was
bordered by epicontinental and shallow marine deposits.
Carboniferous faunas of Southeast Asia are predominantly of Eurasian aspect but genera typical of Australian and North American
provinces also occur indicating connections between these and Southeast Asia at cerlain times.
Stratigraphical and palaeomagnetic evidence suggests that the Sibumasu Block was adjacent to Gondwana throughout the Carboniferous.
The relative positions of the Manabor and Indochina Blocks are however uncertain.

Stratigraphie, pal6ontologie et pal6og6ographie du Carbonifdre du Sud-Est asiatique

Rdsumi. La partie continentale ancienne du Sud-Est asialique se compose de quatre blocs tectoniques (Sibumasu, Manabor, Indochine
et Chine du Sud),-qui ont eu des histoires ind6pendantes avant le Trias.
Les s6diments carbonifdres, sur ces blocs, sont principalement des d6pdts d'eau peu profonde associ6s d des couches 6picontinentales
et continentales. Le Carbonifdre du bloc Sibumasu se compose de d6p6ts de marge continentale comprenant d'importantes diamictites glacio-
marines. Des d6pdts clastiques d'eau peu profonde (avec des calcaires r6cifaux) et d'abondantes formations volcaniques constituent I'essentiel des
couches carbonifdres du bloc Manabor, qui est interpr6t6 comme un possible arc insulaire pendant le Carbonifdre. La partie centrale du bloc indo-
chinois fut 6merg6e pendant tout le Carbonifere, et 6tait bordde par des d6p6ts Spicontinentaux et de mer peu profonde.
Les faunes carbonifdres du Sud-Est asiatique sont principalement d'aspect eurasiatique, mais des genres typiques des provinces austra-
lienne et nord-am6ricaine sont aussi pr6sents, ce qui indique des connexions entre ces regions et l'Asie du Sud-Est ir certaines 6poques.
Les donn6es straligraphiques et pal6omagn6tiques suggdrent que le bloc Sibumasu fut adjacent au Gondwana pendant tout le Carbonifdre.
Toutefois, les positions relatives du bloc Manabor et du bloc indochinois sont incertaines.

INrnooucrloN.
The older continental part of Southeast Asia is a com-
posite of four crustal blocks (fig. 1), the Sibumasu, Manabor,
Indochina and South China Blocks [Stauffer, 1974,1983 ;
Mitchell, 1977, 1981 ; Cameron et al., 1980; Ridd, 19801.
These four tectonic blocks are bounded by sutures which
are marked by tectonic lineaments, contrasting geology
and belts of basic and ultrabasic rocks which have been
referred to as ophiolites by some authors [e. g. Hutchison,
1975]. The blocks appear to have had independent pre-
Triassic histories and probably accreted to one another
during the Triassic [Stauffer, 1974 ; Buffetaut, 1981, 1982 ;
Ridd, 1980]. In attempting a reconstruction of the Carbo-
niferous palaeogeography of Southeast Asia it is necessary
to evaluate these tectonic blocks independently. The rela-
tive positions of these blocks during the Carboniferous
is poorly known but recent stratigraphical and palaeon-
tological work has given us some preliminary indications.
Palaeomagnetic data for the Palaeozoic of Southeast Asia
is very limited and there is an urgent need for reliable
late Palaeozoic data for the region. Recent studies by
Bunopas [982] have made a start on this difficult task
and give interesting results (see below).
CansoNlrrRous sTRATIGRAPHY.
Sibumasu Block.
The Sibumasu Block includes the Shan States of Burma,
Northwest Thailand, Peninsular Burma and Thailand,
western Malaya and Sumatra and possibly extends north-
wards into western China and Tibet (fig. 1). An elongate
belt of Lower Palaeozoic to Lower Mesozoic rocks com-
prise this tectonic unit and it has long been believed that
a former craton was attached to its present west during
the Palaeozoic (Jones, 1968 ; Stauffer, 1974, 1983 ; Stauffer
and Mantajit, 1981). The Carboniferous sediments of the
Sibumasu Block (flg. 2) include an extensive belt of dia-
mictites or pebbly mudstones (with dropstones) interpreted
to be of glacial-marine origin [Stauffer and Mantajit, 1981 ;
Stauffer and Lee, 1984 ; see fig. 31. These diamictites extend
from Sumatra in the South (Bohorok Formation), through
northwest Malaya (Singa Formation), Peninsular Thailand
(Kaeng Krachan Group), Peninsular Burma (Mergui Group)
to northeast Burma (Martaban < Series ) and < Lebyin
Group >). Diamictites or pebbly mudstones of Carboniferous
or early Permian age arc unknown on the South China,
Indochina and Manabor Blocks.
In Sumatra, the pebbly mudstones are represented by
the Bohorok Formation which together with the equivalent
Alas and Kluet Formations comprise the Tapanuli Group
of Carboniferous to early Permian age [Cameron et al.,
1980; Metcalfe, 1983 al. The Bohorok Formation com-
prises unbedded medium to coarse grained diamictites
with angular to sub-rounded clasts of generally 1-5 cm
but occasionally up to 70 cm, set in a matrix of silt and
* Dept. of geology, Univ. kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor,
Malaysia.
Note pr6sent6e ir la s6ance du 17 octobre 1983, d6pos6e le 25 octo-
bre 1983 ; manuscrit d6finitif reEu le 9 mai 1984.
 S.
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Fra. l. Map showing the distribution of Carboniferous rocks in Southeast Asia. In set shows the tectonic blocks which constitute continental
- Southeast Asia lafter Metcalfe 19830].
 TIORTH SUIIATRA XITITA VALLEY KEDAH / LANGI(AWI S. THAILAI{D BURTA I{. THAILANO EURMA
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Frc. 2. Correlalion of representative sections of the Carboniferous of the Sibumasu Block [from Metcalfe, 19836]. For location of sections
- see figure l.

flne sand grade. Compositionally the clasts include vein
qvartz, arenites, argillites and rare limestone, micaschist
and granite. Subordinate interbedded mudstones, siltstones,
quartzarenites and rare Iimestones occur with these pebbly
mudstones.
In northwest Malaya the Singa Formation is equivalent
to the Bohorok Formation and consists of black mudstones
with megaclasts (some of which are dropstones), sandstones
(occasionally showing ripples) and silty shales. The for-
mation is dated by bracketing as predominantly Carbo-
niferous to early Permian. Clasts in the pebbly mudstones
of the Singa Formation are typically 5-10 cm and consist
mainly of sandstone and quartz with rarer limestone and
granite. One boulder of trondhjemite has yielded a Pre-
Cambrian radiometric date [Stauffer and Snelling, 19771.
Trace fossils of typical shallow water type occur in the
mudstones of the Singa Formation and are seen to tran-
sect slump folds.
The pebbly mudstone unit of Peninsular and West-
Central Thailand has been variously referred to as the
< Phuket Group > [Mitchell et a1.,1970), the Kaeng Krachan
Group [Piyasin, 1975] and the < Andaman Group > [Man-
tajit, 19791. The sediments comprise interbedded shales,
mudstones and structureless diamictites with dropstones.
Clasts are generally 5-10 cm but occasionally reach boulder
size. Compositionally clasts are predominantly qvartz
arenites with subordinate limestone, vein q\attz and gra-
nite. Bryozoa and brachiopods are recorded from this
unit in peninsular Thailand which indicate a Lower Per-
mian age for its upper part. It is likely that much of the
Kaeng Krachan Group is of Carboniferous age.
The Carboniferous pebbly mudstone facies is also repre-
sented in Peninsular Burma by the Mergui Group and in
North Burma by part of the Martaban < Series > [Oldham,
1856]. Details of these units are not known. Similar rocks
extend in a narrow belt along the western edge of the Shan
Plateau to a point 50 km South of Mandalay where they
have been referred to as the < Lebyin Group >.
In addition to this extensive belt of pebbly mudstones/
diamictites, normal marine sediments also occur on the
Sibumasu Block. In Sumatra the Alas and Kluet Formations
are together regarded as equivalent to the Bohorok For-
mation. The Alas Formation comprises predominantly bed-
ded limestones with subordinate mudstones and quartzose
arenites. The limestones are in places cross-bedded and
oolitic and have yielded fossils indicating a Visean age
[Metcalfe, 1983 a]. The overlying Kluet Formation is a
thick sequence of quartzose arenites, siltstones and mud-
stones with rares tuffs and calcarenite. Cameron et al.
[1980] interpreted the sediments of the Kluet Formation
to be turbiditic in origin. Carboniferous marine sediments
also occur in Peninsular Malaysia. In the South Kinta
Valley carbonaceous shaley limestones (oolitic in part)
and dolomites of early Carboniferous age are overlain
by shales and sandstones of probable Carboniferous age.
In the North Kinta Valley the Carboniferous is represented
by part of the Kanthan Limestone but most of the Tour-
naisian is absent, there being a non-sequence between late
Devonian and late Tournaisian [see Metcalfe, 1983 b].
In Kedah and Perlis a sequence of shallow marine sand-
stones and mudstones known as the Kubang Pasu Formation
is broadly equivalent to the Singa Formation and mostly

Lole
tilloid-beoring
units
+ + + lnternoiionol
boundory
rT
O 100 200
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THAILAND
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FIc. 3.
- Distribution of Carboniferous-Early Permian diamictite-
bearing units on the Sibumasu Block. After Stauffer [1983].
Carboniferous in age. In Peninsular Thailand siliceous shales
and cherts of Carboniferous age occur on the Island of
Ko Yo, Songkla. These sediments have yielded a late
Tournaisian conodont fauna [Igo, 1913)-ln North Thailand,
sediments underlying the Permian Rat Buri Group, consi-
dered to be equivalent to the Kaeng Krachan Group and
hence predominantly Carboniferous in age, include shallow
marine and continental deposits which in places contain
abundant tuffs and agglornerates. Shallow marine sediments
dated as Carboniferous include the upper part of the Mae
Hong Son Formation, the upper part of the Thon Pha
Phum Group, the Phrae Group and possibly the Mae
Plung Shale. The continental Carboniferous is represented
by the Doi Kong }lu Formation, the Fang Red Beds
and possibly by part of the Mae Tha Group [see Bunopas,
19831.
A volcanic arc of middle Carboniferous age also extends
through central North Thailand and may represent a pre-
Barr, 19781.
Poleozoic
Manabor Block.
This Block includes the eastern part of Malaya, Natuna
Island and west Borneo and is characterised by abundant
upper Palaeozoic rocks, volcanics, slope deposited clastics
and scattered shallow water (sometimes reefal) limestones
t------1
(flg. a). The oldest dated sediments on this Block are Devo-
30Okm
nian shales and sandstones of the Bentong Group [Alexander,
19591 and limestones in Kalimantan with Deyonian corals
L
!l [Rutten, 1940]. The oldest known Carboniferous rocks
are Visean and it appears that the Tournaisian may be
absent. << Early Carboniferous > rocks are widespread
in central and eastern Malaya. In central Malaya tuffs,
lavas and limestones (with fossils) of the Raub Group
.
are in part of Carboniferous age. In eastern Malaya, dated
Carboniferous rocks.are found extensively in Pahang,
Trengganu and Kelantan. In the Kuantan - Sungei Lem-
bing area, the Charu, Panching and Sagor Formations
comprise the Kuantan Group [Metcalfe et al., 1980f. Shallow
marine sandstones and shales of the Charu Formation
have yielded rich Visean brachiopod faunas (Muir-Wood,
1948 ; Fitch, l95l ;. Yanagida, 19711 associated with other
marine invertebrates and plants (Asama, 1973]. The highly
fossiliferous and reefal Panching Limestone has yielded
abundant brachiopods, corals, foraminifera, conodonts,
bryozoa, molluscs and trilobites which indicate an early
Namurian age lOzawa, 1975 ; Mamet and Saurin, 1970 ;
Metcalfe et al., 1980 ; Metcalfe, 19801. The overlying
Sagor Formation is predominantly of Carboniferous age
but does contain Permian fossils in its upper part [Aw, 1978].
Sediments equivalent to the Kuantan Group extend
northwards over wide areas of Trengganu and Kelantan
where they comprise tuffaceous shales and sandstones
with rare limestone lenses. Corals, brachiopods, bivalves,
cephalopods and plants'indicate a Carboniferous age. The
Aring Formation of Kelantan [Aw, 1978] consists of tuffs
and flows of andesitic to rhyolitic composition with minor
interbeds of argillite and dolomite which have yielded
marine fossils of Middle Carboniferous to Early Triassic
age. Similar sediments crop out along the Trengganu and
Kelantan coast and are dated at a few localities as Carbo-
niferous by plants. These coastal outcrops are highly defor-
med, and exhibit three phases of deformation. Equivalent
sediments in land, although tightly folded in places, do
not appear to show the same degree of deformation. Simi-
lar highly deformed rocks occur further South near Mer-
sing, Johore and these are also of Carbo-Permian age.
On the Borneo part of the Manabor Block, the only
Carboniferous sediments known are those of the Terbat
Formation which ranges from Middle Carboniferous (Mos-
covian) to Early Permian (Wolfcampian) in age [Cummings,
1962; Wilford, 1965 ; Sanderson, 19661. The Formation-
comprises massive limestone and chert with thin shale
beds. These sediments are relatively little deformed and
contain fairly well preserved fusulines.
 W. PAHANG S. KELANTAN TRENGGANU E. PAHANG JOHORE W. SARAWAK
Roub/Bentong SungeiAring Ponching Mersing, Terbol
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Fro. 4. Correlation of representative sections of the Carboniferous of the Manabor Block. Legend as for figure 2. For location of sections,
- see figure 1.

Indochina Block. Lower to Middle Carboniferous marine sediments. These

This is the long stable micro continent which includes
the Indosinia of Fromaget [941] and is bordered by ophio-
lite belts. It comprises East Thailand, Laos, Vietnam (except
North East Vietnam) and Kampuchea.
The boundary between the Devonian and Carboniferous
on the Indochina Block is generally marked by a strati-
graphic gap representing widespread marine regression and
emergence (fig. 5). In the basinal areas of Song Da Song
Ma and Song Ca Valleys, Vietnam and Nam Ca Dinh,
eastern Laos, the Carboniferous reaches a thickness of
one to two thousand metres. A complete succession through
the Middle Carboniferous in Indochina is now known
and the orogenic phase formerly believed to have occurred
in the Moscovian seems unlikely.
Continental Carboniferous rocks occur on areas that
were emergent during the Carboniferous, the Kontum
Massif being the largest. Fossil plant bearing continental
rocks are known in three places, all in Laos, the Sop Pong
area and the coal basins of Saravane and Vientiane. These
Carboniferous coal measures are overlain by Permian
marine strata. Other sub-continental and continental sedi-
ments of probable Westphalian and Stephanian age occur
Northeast of Saigon in South Vietnam where they overly
arein turn again overlain by transgressive Permian fusu-
linid limestones.
The marine Carboniferous of the Indochina Block is
separated into two parts, north and south, by the emergent
Kontum Massif (fig. l). In the southearn part the Carbo-
niferous is poorly developed. In Western Kampuchea shales
and sandstones with lower Carboniferous foraminifera are
known [Fontaine and Workman, 1978] and Northeast of
Saigon in South Vietnam Upper Carboniferous continental
deposits overly early Carboniferous radiolarian cherts and
shales and Moscovian fusulinid limestones.
Carboniferous marine sediments are more widespread
North of the Kontum Massif. In the Loei area of Northeast
Thailand, a sequence of shales, sandstones, arenaceous and
conglomeratic limestones and fusuline-coraline limestones
probably represents the whole of the Carboniferous [for de-
tails see Metcalfe, 1983 bl. Carboniferous shelf sediments
similar to those of the Loei area continue into northern Laos
and are widely distributed, especially in the Plain of Jars
arca and around Ban Phit to the Southeast.
In Northwest and Central Vietnam, sediments of late
Tournaisian (or early Visean) to Late Carboniferous age
rest unconformably on Devonian limestones [Phan, l98l].

N.E.of Sorovone Qui Dol So
Bon
Ngoo
5OO m
o @ = Coot
Frc. 5. Correlation of representative sections of the Carboniferous of the Indochina Block and the North East Vietnam part of the South China
- Block. I-egend as for flgure 2. For locations of sections, see figure 1.
South China Block.
This block includes South China and Northeast Vietnam
and is separated from the Indochina Block by the Red
River Line suture. The Carboniferous of this block is
relatively thin. In Northeast Vietnam red-purple griotte
limestones with foraminifera and brachiopods of probable
early Carboniferous age are overlain by siliceous shales
with late Tournaisian conodonts, Yisean cherty and argil-
laceous limestones and then thick bedded limestones of
Middle Carboniferous to Permian age. To the North and
East in South China, the Carboniferous is represented by
shallow marine limestones, coal and bauxites.
C.q.nrowrrBnous pALAEoNToLocy AND BrocEocRAprry.
Carboniferous biostratigraphy in the region is based
mainly on foraminifera, conodonts, brachiopods, and corals
and to a lesser extent on bryozoa, plants and ammonoids.
Biogeographical studies of Carboniferous fossils from
Southeast Asia are very few. A preliminary attempt is
made here to recognise the biogeographic affinities of the
Carboniferous fossils of Southeast Asia.
Foraminifera.
Lower Carboniferous foraminifera in Southeast Asia
represent the Eurasian-Arctic province and contain typical
Eurasian-Arctic genera such as Eostafella, Mediocris,
Pseudoendothyra and Howchinia. Middle and Upper Car-
boniferous Fusulinacea also represent the Eurasian-Arctic
N. LAOS VIETNAIT N.E.VIETNAIil
N. W.
Loei, Vienlione Sop Pong Ploin of Bon Coi, Troh Linh,
Wong Sophlung Tors, Song Mo Toc Tol
Song Do
.- U,CARB
7 '-rf
t;--12
:J-ffi
Eh+ fl.c488.
::ons El cl.,r
province with typical genera recorded from the region
including Mediouis, Hemifusulina, Parafusulina, Fusulinq
and Protriticites. Fontaine and Yachard [1981] described
a Visean (Vr,) fauna from Central Sumatra which they
described as showing close affinities with similar faunas
from the Bonaparte Gulf Basin of N.W. Australia.
Conodonts.
Carboniferous conodont faunas have been shown to
represent two biogeographic provinces, the Eurasian and
North American Midcontinent provinces [Higgins, 1981].
Carboniferous conodonts are known from a number of
localities in Southeast Asia and in general represent typical
Eurasian faunas.
Sibumasu Block. Late Tournaisian conodonts from Ko Yo,
Peninsular Thailand [Igo, 1973] comprise the cosmopolitan
genera Dollymae, Gnathodus, Polygnathus and Pseudopo-
lygnathus. Visean conodonts from the Alas Formation of
Sumatra [Metcalfe, 1983 a) also represent cosmopolitan
genera. The Kanthan Limestone in the North Kinta Valley
of Peninsular Malaysia [see Metcalfe, 1983 D] has yielded
numerous Carboniferous conodonts which fepresent a typi-
cal Eurasian province fauna. The fauna includes Mesto-
gnathus and Gnat ho dus homopunct atus, both typical Eurasian
forms. Mestognathus is unknown in North America (except
Nova Scotia) but is known from England, Wales, Belgium,
Spain, Germany, North Africa, Ausffalia and Malaysia.
Gnathodus homopunctatus, a comtrton European form, is
only known outside Europe from Japan [Igo, 1973], from
the St. Genevieve Formation of the Illinois Basin and Malay-

East Malaya Block. The only Carboniferous conodonts
known from the East Malaya Block are those of the Namu-
rian Panching Limestone [Metcalfe, 1980]. The fauna appears
to be typically Eurasian in aspect except that two species
of Rhachistognathus, R. muricatus and R. primus are present
indicating some connection with the North American Mid-
continent faunas at this time.
Indochina Block. Carboniferous conodonts from this
block are poorly known and their affinities uncertain.
South China Block. Late Tournaisian and early Visean
conodonts are known from northeast Vietnam where the
cosmopolitan genera Dollymae, Pseudopolygnathus and
Gnathodus are recorded.
Brachiopods.
Sibumasu Block. Carboniferous brachiopods are very
poorly known on the West Malaya Block. A fauna of
questionable Namurian age was reported by Reed [920]
from Phattalung, south Thailand but the age and affinities
of this fauna remain in doubt. A Carboniferous fauna
was reported from the south Thai island of Ko Muk by
Hamada [960] but this was later shown to be early Permian
[Waterhouse, 1982]. This early Permian fauna is of special
interest as it comes from the upper part of the Kaeng Kra-
chan Group (pebbly mudstones) and indicates cool water
conditions since most of the species belong to genera found
in temperate to high Permian palaeolatitudes.
Manqbor Block. Lower Carboniferous (Visean-Namurian)
brachiopods are found abundantly in the Kuantan Group
of Pahang, Peninsular Malaysia [Muir-Wood, 1948 ; Yana-
gida, l97l ; Metcalfe et al., 1980) and are closely compa-
rable with brachiopods faunas of the Visean and Namurian
of Europe, northwestern and eastern Australia and of
the upper Mississippian of North America. Middle Carbo-
niferous faunas from the Aring Formation of South Kelan-
tan show close affinities with Bashkirian and Moscovian
brachiopods of China, Russia and Northwest Spain and
to those of the marine bands in the Westphalian of North-
west Europe [Yanagida and Aw, 1979]. The presence of
Reticulatia in the fauna also suggests a connection with
North America at this time. There are no typical Australian
forms in this fauna.
Indochina Block. Middle Carboniferous (Moscovian) bra-
chiopods are-well known from the Loei/Wang Saphung
area of North Thailand [Yanagida, 1974, 1975, 1976].
The faunas are characterised by abundant Brachythyrina
strangwaysi (Vrnxaurl) showing close affinity to brachiopod
faunas of the Carboniferous Penchi Series of North China.
Other elements of the fauna show close relationships with
Moscovian faunas of Northwest Spain and the Pennsylva-
nian of North America. There are no typical Australian
forms reported and the faunas are not related to those of
Australia.
Carboniferous corals are poorly known in Southeast
Asia and are reported in only a few papers [Mansuy, l9l3 ;
Muir-Wood, 1948 ; Hamada, 1960 ; Fontaine, 1955, 1961,
1964 ; Jones et al., 1966; Metcalfe et al., 1980; Fontaine
et al., 1982). Conditions appear not to have been optimal
for corals in Southeast Asia during the Carboniferous and
the coral fauna is generally impoverished. Tabulata, Rug,:sa
and Heterocorallia are represented but it is interesting to
note that no massive Rugosa are known from South;lst
Asia but are common in China [Fontaine et al., D82].
Hill [1973] recognised three coral zoogeographic regions
in the Visean, North America, Eurasia (including Nova
Scotia, northwest Africa and northwest Australia) and
eastern Australia. The Southeast Asian faunas belong to
the Chinese province of the Eurasia region accordi-rg to
Hill [1973]. Kueichouphyllum, a diagnostic genus of this
province is interestingly found in abundance in the Bonaparte
Gulf Basin of western Australia. The coral faunas of easter.l
Australia are however unrelated. The typical Kueichouphyl-
lum fatna of the chinese province is known from the Indo-
china and South China Blocks of Southeast Asia. Carbo-
niferous corals recorded from the Sibumasu Block include
only Syringopora, Siphonophyllia and Zaphrentites. These
genera are typical of Eurasian region faunas but are not
diagnostic of any particular province. Carboniferous corals
from the Manabor Block comprise Caninia, Lithostrotion,
Amygdalophyllum, Koninckophyllum, Hexaphyllia and Palaeo-
smilia. The presence of Amydgalophyllum, a genus dia-
gnostic of the Australian and Japanese Carboniferous,
implies some close connection of the Manabor Block
with these regions during the Carboniferous.
Bryozoa.
About thirty species of Carboniferous bryozoa are krown
from the Thai-Malayan district of the Sibumzsu Block
and these generally constitute a unique assemblage b;rt do
however include both European and Asian elements [Saka-
gami, 19781. Permian bryozoa of the Sibumasu Slock
show affinities with those of Timor, New Guinea and western
Australia according to Sakagami U9781.
Plants.
One of the potentially most facinating fossil assembhges
of Southeast Asia are the Carbo-Permian floras of tire
region and their affinities.
Sibumasu Block. There are as yet no records of identi-
fiable Carboniferous plants from the Sibumasu Block.
The flora of the Djambi region, Sumatra, originally consi-
dered to be Late Carboniferous by Jongmans and Gothan
[1925] has now been shown to be Lower Permian in age
[Thompson, 1936 ; Asama et al., 1975]. This Lower Per-
mian flora consisted of 33 new species, 26 Euramerican
species and 9 Cathaysian species. The presence of two
new species of Gigantopteris and abundant species of Tat-
niopteris was an indication that the flora was of tyiric,rl
Cathaysian aspect. However, the two species included in
Gothanopteris bosschana and according to Asama [1959]
these species have no phylogenetic relations to the fused-
leaf plants (Gigantopteris) of North Cathaysia and are
decendents from different ancestors. There are however no
Gondwana elements in the Djambi flora. Two other Lower
Permian floras are known from the Sibumasu Block. Baum
et al. ll97ol described Walchia pinifurmis from North
Thailand and Bunopas [1982] recorded Walchia cf. pini-
formis associated with Taenippteris from the upper part
of the Phuket Group in Peninsular Thailand. Walchia is
a typical Euramerican genus and is unknown in Cathaysian
floral assemblages.
Manabor Block. Carboniferous plants are known from
several localities in eastern Malaya. In Pahang, Visean
sediments of the Kuantan Group have yielded the genera
Lepido dendron, Stigmaria, Lepidodendropsis, Rhodea, Ber ge-
ria, Adianites ? Neuropteris ? and Carpolithus. Further
North in Trenggant, Rhodea, Sphenopteridium, Neurop-
teris, Cyclopteris ? ar,d Sphenophyllum ? of lower or middle
Carboniferous age were recorded by Franks lin lones et al.,
19661. In Kelantan, plants of probable late Carboniferous
age were described by Edwards 119261. These include
Pecopteris and Cordaites.
The presence of Lepido dendr on, Lepidodendr op s is, S tigma-
ria and Sphenopteridium in the Lower Carboniferous floras
show them to be typical Edramerican Lepidodendropsis
floras. The Late Carboniferous Pecoptens and Cordaites
from Kelantan are also characteristic of the Euramerican
area floras.
The occurrence of a single leaf tentatively identified as
Gangamopteris by Azhar (Unpublished B. Sc. Hons thesis,
University of Malaya, 1978) in Carbo-Permian sediments
in Pahang, if corroborated, would indicate that the East
Malaya Block was in the sphere of influence of the Gondwana
Glossopteris floras duringthe Late Palaeozoic.
Two Upper Permian floras are also known from the
Manabor Block which may have a bearing on the Late
Palaeozoic palaeogeography of this unit. Kon'no, Asama
and Rajah [970] and Kon'no and Asama [970] described
Permian floras from the Gunong Blumut Area, Johore
and from Jengka Pass, Pahang respectively. These floras
both belong to the Cathaysian Gigantopteris flora and contain
the characteristic geaera Gigantopteris, Lobatannuloria and
Tingia. There is however, one species in the Johore flora
(Trizygia speciosa Royle) which has Gondwanan affinities.
Indochina Block. Carboniferous plants from the coal
basins of Saravane and Vientane and the Sop Pong area
of Laos are of typical Euramerican type and include the
characteristic Euramerican genera Stigmaria, Pecopteris,
Sigillaria and Calamites.
Permian floras are also known from Phetchabun and
Loei, Northeast Thailand [Kon'no, 1963 ; Asama et al.,
19681. The Loei flora is typical of the Cathaysian Gigan-
topteris type. The Phetchabun flora however is of particular
interest in that it contains characteristic Cathaysian species
(e. g. Protoblechnum wongii) but does not contain any of
South China Block. Carboniferous floras of the South
China Block are of typical Euramerican type and Permian
floras represent the Cathaysian Gigantopteris floral realm.
There are no Gondwana elements on the South China Block.
Discussion and biogeographic conclusions.
In general the Carboniferous faunas of Southeast Asia
represent the Eurasian province. However, faunal elements
of the North American Mid Continent province also occur
in the Lower Carboniferous brachiopod and conodont
faunas of the Manabor Block indicating a connection
with the North American Mid Continent region. These
faunas also contain brachiopods and corals with Australian
affinities. Middle Carboniferous faunas on the Manabor
Block show no relationship with Australia but do contain
the Mid Continent brachiopod genus Reticulatia.
On the Indochina Block, Middle Carboniferous faunas
show fairly strong Chinese affinities and also show rela-
tionships to European and North American faunas. They
are not related to Australian Middle Carboniferous faunas.
Carboniferous faunas of the Sibumasu Block are poorly
known and their affinities uncertain.
Carboniferous and Permian floras of Southeast Asia
in general show Euramerican and Cathaysian affinities in
the Carboniferous and Permian respectively. However,
Gondwana floral elements do occur in the Permian floras
of the Manabor and Indochina Blocks (see above). There
is only one good late Palaeozoic flora described from the
Sibumasu Block (Djambi Flora). This is of Permian age
and was said to be of Cathaysian type but Asama et al.
[975] indicated that there was no phylogenetic link between
the < fused leaf > type plants found in that flora and those
of the true Cathaysian Gigantopteris type. The occurrence
of the typical Euramerican gerus Walchia in the Lower
Permian of the Sibumasu Block indicates that the Lower
Permian floras of this block are not of the typical Cathay-
sian type.
P,tr,q.Bor\,r,{cNETrc DATA.
Palaeomagnetic data from Southeast Asia is limited,
particularly in the Palaeozoic where it is contradictory
[Haile and Briden, 1982]. Data from the Triassic and Jurassic
[Bunopas et al., 1978 ; Barr et al., 1978 ; Achache and
Courtillot, in press] indicates that the Sibumasu and Indo-
china Blocks were united at that time and continued to
act as a single unit in the Upper Cretaceous [Achache
et al., 19831. The position of < SE Malaya > at 20' N in
the Upper Cretaceous suggested by Achache et al. ll983l
seems difficult to reconcile with the pre-Cretaceous geology
which would indicate that their < SE Malaya > and ( NW
Malaya )> were joined in the Triassic.
Pre-Triassic palaeomagnetic data for Southeast Asia is
extremly sparse and contradictory. McElhinny et al.. ll974l
presented data from the Malay Peninsular indicating that
it lay at 15' North during the late Palaeozoic and hence
could not have formed part of Gondwanaland. Their
and the Singa Formation which is surprisingly lumped
together in their data table with the Bentong Group which
occurs on a different tectonic block.
Haile [980] reported data from Ordovician/Silurian lime-
stones in Northwest Malaya and suggested a palaeolatitude
of 43" N. This was discussed by Stauffer [1983] who suggests
that it is more likely that the palaeolatitude was 43' S since
that would allow for attachment to a craton (as required by
the geology). This craton would then have to be Gondwana.
Recent data from the Carboniferous and Permian of
Thailand [Bunopas, 1982] is of great interest. The mean
of sixteen Carboniferous samples (al[ located on the Sibu-
masu Block) indicate an overall palaeolatitude of 13o South
for Thailand.
Permian data takea as a whole gave a palacolatitude
of l9o South for Thailand. If however one takes Bunopas'
North Thailand and Peninsular Thailand data separately
paleolatitudes of 19'S for Mae Sot and 10" S for Peninsular
Thailand during the Permian are indicated. The one sam-
ple from the Permian of the Khorat Plateau (on the Indo-
china Block) was referred to as being a ( very divergent
sample > by Bunopas and it is suggested that data from
Frc. 6. Early Carboniferous reconstruction suggested by
Bunopas-[932] showing the Shan-Thai region adjacent to
Northwest Australia.
Flc. 7. Palaeogeographyofthecomponent blocks
- Asia in late Lower Carboniferous times.
of Southeast
The relative posilions of the blocks are for drafting
convenience and have no meaning.
The overall indication according to Bunopas [982] is
that the Thai part of the Sibumrsu Block lay in the southern
hemisphere, rotated approximztely 180 degrees from its
present position and at around 13' S in the Carboniferous
and 19'S in the Permian. Bunopas, [1982] further suggested
that the Shan-Thai portion of the Sibumasu Block was
adjacent to Northwest Australia in the Carboniferous
(fig. 6). He did not include the Malay Peninsula in his
palaeogeographic reccnstruction since the palaeomagnetic
data was inconsistent. The palaeolatitude for the Singa
Formation (Northwest Peninsular Malaysia) using McElhin-
ry et al.ll974l data comes to about 8o North. If the magnetic
field was normal at that time rather than reversed ther a
palaeolatitude of 8o South is indicated which is consistent
with the other results from the late Palaeozoic given above.
C.q,nsoNrrnnous pALAEocEoGRApHy.
Since continental Southeast Asia is a composite of four
tectonic blocks which accreted to one another by the Trias-
sic, any pre-Triassic palaeogeographic reconstruction should
assess each block independently. Figure 7 shows the distri-
 Sibumasu Block.
The presence of a 2 000 km belt of Carboniferous to
Early Permian glacial-marine diamictites [Stauffer and
Mantajit, 1981 ; Stauffer, 19831 implies that this tectonic
unit was within the sphere of influence of a Carboniferous-
Permian glacial zone. The only glacial region of this age
is found on Gondwana and it therefore appears most
probable that the Sibumasu Block lay somewhere on the
margin of Gondwana in the late Palaeozoic. Palaeocurrent
data from Palaeozoic sediments in Northwest Malaya
indicate the former attachment of a craton to the present
West of the Sibumasu Block. Palaeomagnetic evidence
suggests that the Sibumasu Block (rotated 180") lay in
southern latitudes between about 8o S and 19' S in the
Carboniferous and Permian. This is consistent with the
Sibumasu Block being placed adjacent to Northwest Austra-
lia (fig. 8). Carboniferous faunas and floras of the Sibumasu
Block are poorly known and their affinities uncertain.
Permian faunas are however better known and late Lower
Permian brachiopod faunas of the Sibumasu Block (Rat
Buri Group, Thailand) have close affinities with those of
Irian Jaya, Timor and Western Australia [Archhold et a/.,
19821 and support a palaeoposition adjacent to Northwest
Australia at that time. The presence of a cool water Lower
Permian brachiopod fauna from Peninsular Thailand
[Waterhouse, 1982] is also supportive of such a position.
Lower Permian limestones of the Chuping Formatign
(Northwest Peninsular Malaysia) are also believed to be
cool water limestones (depositional temperatures of 6-9"'C)
based on petrographic and oxygen and carbon isotope
studies [Rao, 1984]. The isotope studies also indicate signi-
ficant dilution of the sea, probably due to mixing of mblt-
waters from rafted ice.
Recent studies of Lower Palaeozoic faunas of the Sibu-
masu Block [Burrett and Stait, 1984] show strong affinities
Frc. 8. Suggcsied approximate posilion of the Sibumasu Block in Carbonifcrous - Permian times. Other continental positions after
-
South Chinq Block.
The presence of coals and bauxites in the Carboniferous
of South China and of warmer climate Cathaysian floras
in the Permian suggests that this block lay in low palaeo-
latitudes during the Carboniferous and Permian. This is
supported by the very limited palaeomagnetic data [Haile
and Briden, 1982 ; Fuller and Jin-Lu Lin, 19841.
Indochina Block.
The Carboniferous faunas of the Indochina Block show
close affinities with those of China (see above) and no
Australian forms are recorded. The Permian floras are
mixed Cathaysian/Gondwanan indicating some connection
with Gondwana. It is probable that this block lay somewhere
near to the South China Block in the Carbo-Permian
but still within the influence of a Glossopteris flora, perhaps
between China and New Guinea (which also has a mixed
Cathaysian/Gondwana flora). Palaeomagnetic data is requi-
red in order to put some constraints on its possible position.
Manabor Block.
The Lower Carboniferous faunas of this block show
some Australian affinities whereas Middle Carboniferous
brachiopods show close similarities to those of China,
Russia and Europe. The Permian floras contain the Gond-
wana species Trizygia speciosa and the occurrence of a
possible Gangamopteris leaf in the Carbo-Permian of
Pahang also lends support to the position of the Manabor
Block being somewhere between China and the northwest
Australian portion of Gondwana. However, further work
on the faunas, floras and paleomagnetism of the late Palaeo-
zoic are required in order to resolve this. The sediments
of this block, comprising volcanics, slop: deposited clastics,
tuffs and shallow marine limestones suggest this unit repre-
sents an island arc during the Late Palaeozoic.
Tarling [1980].
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