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What is communication?

Communication scholars find the term ‘communication’ difficult to define, and there are
hundreds of definitions. One of the reasons for this plurality of definitions is that we cannot
always readily distinguish communication from of others forms of behavior. For example ,”
Is walking through an office holding a large file folders a form of communication?” “Is
working through a lunch hour a type of communication?”

The doer of either action does not have the intent to communicate, but each behavior sends
meaningful signals to one or more people. A principle of communication holds that, “A
person cannot not communicate.”

1.1. Definition. Communication is a conscious or unconscious process in which people

transmit messages by the use of symbols and create shared meanings.
Unconscious: displaying messages unintentionally
A symbol is a word, action or object that stands for or represents a unit of meaning. A
message then refers to the “package” of symbols used to create shared meanings. For
example the words in a book are symbols that, taken together, form the message the authors
want to communicate to you.
Communication involves shared meanings. Communication occurs when thoughts,
feelings, or other experiences are expressed by the sender and interpreted as a message by he
receiver.

1.2 Importance of Communication

How much time do you spend communicating? Experts say we spend more time talking and
listening than engaging in any other activity. The average student listens the equivalent of a
book a day; talks the equivalent of a book a week; reads the equivalent of a book a month;
and writes the equivalent of a book a year.

Communication skills are essential on the job. Communication, whether effective or not,
takes place constantly and continuously in any organization. It is a process as continuous as
the circulatory system in the human body. To a large extent an organization is
communication. According to a study the major competencies needed from employees and
employers are the abilities to work on teams (to make decisions, solve problems etc), serve
customers, lead, negotiate and work well with people of diverse culture. To be successful in
all these activities effective communication is essential. In other words or the organization to
achieve its goal there should be effective communication between members of the
organization, and smooth flow of information from the management to the staff and vice versa.

Because communication is inseparable from and essential to everything that occurs in

organizational life, communication problems are major issues in any organization. People
at work often talk about communication problems: “Our basic problem around here is
communication.” Or “I just can’t seem to communicate with anyone in that department.”
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Though communication skills are essentials to those who work in organizations regardless
of the position one occupies, it is especially true for those in managerial and leadership
roles.

Research findings show that communication is a very important area of skill for employees.
Nearly every survey that asks employees to list the areas in which college graduates most
need to improve, shows communication skills to be at or very near the top of the list. The
Following is a result of different surveys:

. The Following is a result of different surveys showing the importance of communication :

.
• A survey of 224 recent business graduates ranked communication as the most
important area of knowledge both for securing employment and promotion
• Survey of 6, 000 people showed that the most annoying habit of American bosses
was poor communication.
• A survey of 1, 000 white and blue-collar workers found that the most common
causes of workplace resentment were poor communication.
• A specialist evaluating managers for their superiors often remarked that he knew
no manager ever having been fired for lack of technical competence; termination
always seemed due to communication problems, typically failure in interpersonal
relations.
• Almost 97% and 91%of the respondents respectively rated speaking and writing
either very important or important to their job.
• In a survey of 1400 professionals, respondents said they spent
44% of their professional time in some king of writing activity
• Survey of 2000 corporate vice presidents reported that they spend about three
months a year writing letters, memos, reports.

Though understanding the concepts and having the necessary skills in communications
are generally accepted as critical to personal and professional success, only a limited
number of people are competent communicators. Again survey made in America
shows:

• Twenty five percent of the nation’s people cannot adequately communicate orally.
• Sixty three percent of people cannot give clear oral direction.
• Twenty percent of children exhibit high level of communication anxiety

All these surveys show that good communication is essential to your professional and
personal success. Skills in writing and speaking are number one requirements for
employment and promotion. This is truer now than ever because we are living in an age
of information. Sophisticated communication technologies bring outside information
into organizations faster and in greater volume.
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Challenges of Communication in the 21st century.

• Organizations begin to work internationally.
• Organizations combine through mergers
-people of diverse culture begin to work internationally --a need for cross
cultural communication
• The age of information brings outside information faster and in greater volume

These situations show the advent of communication age increases the need for
communication skills.

1.3 Models in a Communication Process

Models are diagrams that show how things work (in this case how communication works.)
- Helps us understand and repair communication

Three Major Models

1.One Way Model ( suggested in Aristotle’s Rhetoric )
Communications Situations
- courtroom arguments
- legislative assemblies
- Public meeting
a) Sender: Source of the message
-image of the person making the speech; credibility of the speaker
- Appropriate delivery style (ability to arouse your audience’s emotion

b) The message – verbal and non-verbal form of the idea

•organization of material ( the order in which the sender presents the message)
•ability to provide good reasons( logos), and reliable and timely evidences
c) Audience (Receiver) – the person who interprets the message
The sender should consider the audiences characteristics
• frame of mind
• needs( heart-felt values) of the audience
• Age

1. The Interaction Model.

One way model ignores responses by the receiver and fails to consider the diverse ways
messages are sent
The interaction model adds four concepts to the one way model: channel and media,
encoding and decoding, noise, feedback
o Channel-represents the means by which senders convey messages( oral,
written non-verbal)
o Media are the various tools or vehicles of communication such as letters ‘
electronic emails, telephone and television
Choice of channel can significantly affect the outcome of communication. For instance
senders can sometimes convey meanings more effectively in writing as in the case of
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complex financial analysis while other messages are better delivered through face to face
communication. If my boss responds to my request for a special project budget with a
written memo that reads, “Your request is denied”, I will gather a meaning if he visits my
office and explains his response in person.
Multi-channel increases the message’s chance of being received
Encoding: The process of converting idea into a symbol (word, gesture, picture); clarity of
the message.
Decoding : Interpreting the symbol

Noise: any interference in the encoding and decoding process that reduce the clarity of the
message. It can be
• physical (loud sound, distracting sight)
• psychological (daydreaming about a loved one)
• semantic (uncertainty about what the other person is supposed to mean; the use of
obscure or meaningless words. Travelers frequently encounter semantic problems.
• Organizational noise- failure to present information in a structured way.
• Cultural noise- an action may be interpreted as right by one but wrong by another.

Feedback: It is a reaction the sender obtains from the receiver.

• Does the class understand the lecture or are they confused?
• Is the audience board, pleased or upset about my speech?
• Does my client agree or disagree with the advice I am giving him?
• What does the silence of the audience mean?
• The sender can use the return information to clarify the message further. It is some
aid to our understanding.

3. The Two-person Relationship( the Transaction) Model

The interaction model suggests communication proceed sequentially, one step at a time-
message then feedback, then another message then another feedback. Communication
participants do not simply alternate this way. Instead, each acts simultaneously as both
sender and receiver:
• Did I say what I said because of the way the other person looked at me or because my
cheerfulness, suspiciousness, or helpfulness was what I thought he would expect?
The distinction between sender and receiver, between stimulus and response, becomes
blurred. Perhaps we can most usually view communication as on going, mutual relationship
in which aspects of the process are at the same time causes and effects. According to this
model the communication process is reciprocal.

The second weakness of the interaction model is that it excludes how the sender and receiver
see the world and their perception of each other and of themselves. The variables that make
up the perceptual screen are emotional states, attitudes, cultural backgrounds, expectations,
cultural backgrounds biases etc
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Chapter 2
Non verbal Communication
- Non-verbal communication is communication without the use of words.
- Non-verbal communications carry the highest portion of the meanings in the social
and interpersonal communication.
Characteristics
- less precise
- continuous
- natural
- processed with less awareness
- are not separate and independent communication systems; they are inseparably linked
with the verbal language.
-
Non-verbal languages interact with verbal languages in five ways:
1. Contradicting
– a person smiling while burning inside
-a person saying yes while indicating “No” with a wink\
2. Substituting for verbal messages
-Arm waving
-Hand motion by coaches
-A person with a beaten expression leaving the office silently
• Used when speech is completely blocked and when people choose not to use verbal
language.
3. Complementing / accompany a verbal message: ( to clarify, elaborate, or reinforce a verbal
message)
-A person shaking his head up and down while saying ‘yes’
-
4. Accenting a verbal message
-Emphasizing a particular word e.g. ‘yes’
-Give illustration of a shape
-Enumerate elements
5. Repeating a message
A person saying “go out” accompanied by pointing

Types of Non-verbal Codes

1. Body Languages
1.1 . Gestures
Gestures are movements of hands, feet, or other parts of the body. Some are intended to

• communicate definite messages as pointing at something, fist clenching, scratching

the head, foot shaking, finger tapping opening one’s hand
• communicate involuntary social cues which may or may not be correctly interpreted
by others.
Some gestures are culture specific as can be seen in the following examples:
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Beckoning Gestures: Beckoning people to come with palm up is common in the United
States This same gesture in the Philippines, Korea, and parts of Latin America is considered
rude. In some countries only an animal would beckoned with palm up.

Circle with a thumb and Forefinger: In America it means Ok; in Japan it means money or
coins because the circular shape of the index finger and thump together suggest the shape of
a coin. In Argentina, Belgium, France, Portugal, Zimbabwe the sign means ‘zero’. In Latin
American culture (e.g. Brazil it is an obscene gesture.

Pointing: To point Americans use the index fingers; Japanese with entire hand. In Venezuela,
they use their lips to point at something because pointing with a finger is impolite.

Thumbs up with a close fist: used for hitch-hiking in America; rudeness in Nigeria an
obscene gesture in Australia if pumped up and down; the signal for one in Germany and
Japan.

1.2. Facial Expressions (smiles, frowns, changes in the eye color etc)
The face is the most expressive part of the body. It produces as many as 250, 000
expressions.

Regardless of culture it displays primary emotional states: happiness, sadness, fear, surprise,
disgust, contempt and interest.

It is deceptive with human because human beings can control their facial expressions.

It is very important in providing feedback

Cultural Differences

Sadness: In many cultures such as Arabs and Iranian cultures people express sadness openly
while people from Japan and China are more subdued.

Happiness: Smiling is an expression of happiness in most cultures, but it can also signify
other emotions. Some Chinese, for example, may smile when they are discussing something
bad or uncomfortable.

1.3. Eye contact: Eye contact is a direct and powerful communication. The direct stare of the
sender of the message conveys candor and openness. It elicits a feeling of trust. When there
is eye contact between two people it is heightening interpersonal emotions, usually in the
sense of greater intimacy or aggressiveness. On the contrary eye contact diminishes when
people have something to hide or when they are in a competing situation.

Europeans Americans consider direct eye contact as positive and advice children to look at
the others directly in the eyes.

Arabic cultures make prolonged eye contact. They believe that it shows interest and helps
them understand truthfulness of the other person.
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Contrary to these cultures Japan, Latin America and Caribbean cultures avoid eye contact
to show respect. Direct eye contact is considered impolite or even intimidating. For the
Japanese one way to concentration and attentiveness is to close your eyes in contemplation
and nod the head slightly up and down. In Ghana young children are taught not to look adults
in the eye because to do so would be considered as an act of defiance.

Eye Contact and Status

People of higher status look at another more while speaking than listening: looking more at
others while they are speaking bridges the gap and enables people of lower status to be more
expressive.

1.4. Head Nods:

• shows agreement and signal the other person to keep talking
• play a role in controlling the synchronization of speech
• rapid succession of nods indicates the nodder himself wants to speak (Britain)

Shaking head from side to side

- indicate “no” or negation
accept what the other person is saying but the behavior situation he has heard about is
annoying.

Bowing: Bowing is the most common nonverbal cue in China and Japan. For Japanese, a bow
signals respect and humility. Even in Ethiopia bowing is a common culture to show respect.
In contrast in the Somalia culture bowing is uncommon and forbidden

1.5. Touch/ Tactile communication: Tactile communication (handshake, tap on the

shoulder, kissing, embracing, pushing with the elbow, holding by the shoulder)- is the use
of touch in communication.
Tactile communication can communicate positive feelings like assurance, protection, love,.
This behavior helps children to grow up to be optimistic. , people who are comfortable with
touch are more likely to be satisfied with their past and current lives. They are self confident,
assertive, socially acceptable, and active in confronting problems.

Tactile communication can be unwelcome. If children receive what we call punishing tactile
communication (e.g. pushing) they grow up to be timid and distractive

Used properly, it can create a more direct message than dozens of words. Used improperly it
can build barriers and cause mistrust.

Touch is often used to indicate

(a) Affect: the expressions of positive feelings and emotions.
• Firm handshake typifies decisiveness
• Limp handshake ……………. lack of interest or vitality
• Damp handshake ….. …….. anxiety
• prolonged handshake………. degree of intimacy
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• a pat on the shoulder ………. .assurance

(b) Playfulness: Touch can be used to signal that the other’s behavior should not be taken
seriously.
(c) Means of control: Messages such as “stay here”, “move over” are communicated through
touch. Touching may also signal social dominance. High status individuals in most Western
countries, for instance, are more likely to touch than to be touched, where as lower status
individuals are likely to receive touching from their supervisors.
(d) Rituals: shaking hands, clasping shoulders, kissing the cheeks or lips are forms of greeting
rituals; a touch on the head in baptism is a religious ceremony.
(e) Task related Activities: Brief contact of hands when passing an object, or prolonged
contacts when a physician examines a patient.
Physician Bernie Segel wrote the following in a book Peace, Love and Healing : Bodymind
Communication and the Path to Self-Healing:

I’d like to see some teaching time devoted to the healing power of touch –a subject that
only 12 out of 169 medical schools in the English speaking world deal with at all…
despite the fact that touch is one of the most basic forms of communication between
people…We need to teach medical students how to touch people.

The findings related to touch with gender indicate that

 Women value touches more than men do.
 Women are touched more than men from the sixth month on.
 Women touch female children more often than they touch male children.
 Men and their sons touch each other the least.
 Female students are touched and in more places than are male students.
 Males touch others more than females touch others.
 Males use touch to indicate power or dominance.

Cultural Differences

High Contact Cultures ( Middle East Latin America, Southern Europe) touch each other
more often during social conversation; non contact cultres ( Northern Europe- Germany,
Scandinavian countries) rarely touch each other during social conversation.

A Slap on the Back: In USA and most of the European countries, it used as encouragement.
Conversely Japan view this action as highly insulting

Kissing: To express the degree of one’s own affection, people kiss each other. This trend is
normal in most parts of the world, while in India kissing a woman in public is said to be
rudeness. Similarly, in the Arab world even men kiss men on cheek to receive them warmly,
whereas in America only those who are gay greet each other that way. Europeans Americans
react negatively to the same sex touching (particularly among men)

China: Shaking hands among people of opposite sex is acceptable, but among Muslims,
touching between members of opposite sex is forbidden. They ritually cleanse themselves if
people of opposite sex happen to touch.
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A Traditional Korean (and many other Asian countries) does not touch strangers, especially
between members of the opposite sex. But the African American sees this as another
example of racial discrimination (not touching him because he is black)

Islamic and Hindu cultures do not touch with the left hand. To do is a social insult. Indians
break their bread with the right hand only, which will be difficult for you.

Where to be touched: Cultures differ in where people can be touched. In Thailand and
Malaysia, the head should not be touched whereas in America the head is more likely to be
touched.

Who touches whom? Europeans and Americans react to the same sex touching , and opposite
sex touching is acceptable But in Muslims cultures touching between members of opposite
sex is forbidden., and touching between people of opposite sex is acceptable.

Touch and Status

Higher status people feel freer to touch lower status people. People touch when
- giving information, advice
- asking for favor
- trying to persuade

Touch carries the danger of misinterpretation. For example touching a woman may be
interpreted as an act of sexual harassment

1.6. Posture (standing erect with the head tilted back and hands on hips, sitting straight,
leaning against a wall with one hand in pocket, crossing legs)
• Bodily posture signals emotional states. It shows whether the person is tense, relaxed,
impatient, doubtful, self-satisfied, shy, surprised, lazy etc.)
Standing with hands in Pocket
In Turkey and some middle East cultures this cue has a disrespectful meaning. In USA it
only shows that feels loneliness or loss of self esteem (when accompanied with head down)
Sitting with legs crossed
This cue in Ethiopia, Rwanda, and Sudan gives a meaning not more than “I am not giving
attention to the environment but in Ghana and Turkey sitting with the legs crossed is very
offensive.
Showing Soles of feet
This cue gives an offensive message in Thailand and Saudi Arabia. But in the western
culture this does not give a worse meaning than opening mouth wide.
Slouching
This cue in the Ethiopian culture gives a meaning that the person with that action is clumsy,
ill- mannered etc. Slouching is rude in most northern Europe areas.
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Sitting with index finger pointing up the cheek

Sitting with index finger pointing up the cheek while another finger is covering the mouth
and the thumb supporting the chin in USA displays that the person is saying “I don’t believe
what you are saying.”
Sitting with the eyes closed and the hand supporting the head indicates boredom or
sleepiness in North America. The same posture indicates in Japan, Thailand one’s listening
with concentration.
The male executive with his feet upon the desk. Many American businesses executives enjoy
relaxing with their feet upon their desks But to show a person from Saudi Arabia or Thailand
the sole of one’s foot is extremely insulting because the foot is considered the dirtiest part of
the body.

• Bodily posture reveals status differences. In a situation where there are lower and higher
status people, higher status people sit in a relaxed and undignified posture while lower status
people sit more rigid.
People relax more with a person of lower status and become tense with a person of higher status.

• Bodily posture reflects past or present roles e.g. a soldier

• Bodily posture signals agreement/ disagreement. Congruent postures signal agreement; no
congruent postures signal differences and disagreements.

1.7. Appearance. (Height, skin color, dress, hairstyle)

• Many aspects of personal appearance are under voluntary control. One modifies appearance
to the extent of undergoing plastic surgery.
• Although no proven connection exists between physique and behavior, people tend to expect
such connections and give decisions on the basis of it. Tall people are likely to be considered
more credible than shorter ones, and whites are perceived to be more credible than Africans
Americans.

• Dress is also a form of nonverbal communication. What clothing communicates greatly vary
with time, place and situation.

Cultural Differences
Body Size and weight
In North America especially in Canada people with huge body and overweight are
considered to be of low income section of the society or poor people. That is they have no
enough income to keep the pace of health.
In the Middle East and some part of southern Asia people with heavy weight and huge body
size are considered to be of great appearance, prosperous and well fed family.

In a single communication situation, one can see the interaction of these nonverbal cues.
Liking was often expressed by leaning forward, a direct body orientation( e.g. standing face
to face) close proximity, increased touching, relaxed posture, open arms and body, positive
facial expression, and eye contact.
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2. The Voice: Paralanguages.

Nonverbal communication does include some sounds, as long as they are not words. We call them
paralinguistic features, the non word characteristic of language, such as pitch, volume, rate and
quality.

The prefix Para means along side or parallel to. So paralinguistic means “along side the words or
language.”

Paralanguages or voice quality like other forms of nonverbal behavior often transmits more
meaning than the word we utter. They are effective in demonstrating different behavior of the
speaker. Pitch and inflection can be used to make the speech sound aesthetically pleasing, to
accomplish subtle changes in meaning, and to tell an audience whether you are asking a question or
making a statement, being sincere or sarcastic, or being doubtful or assertive. Variation in volume
can be used for emphasis or to create suspense.
Comments such as I wasn’t upset by what he said but the way he said it affirm the importance of
paralinguistic language.

Albert Mehabian emphasized the point by explaining such vocal information as, “What is lost
when speech is written down.”

Paralanguages can be divided into four:

(a) Vocal Qualifiers: It refers to factors such as pitch, range, rhythm, speaking rate. A high -pitched
voice can indicate excitement, while a low -pitched voice can show seriousness, sadness or
affection. The sentences, “I am free” can communicate happiness, sadness, and anger or can
send a sarcastic tone.
(b) Vocal Characterizers: refers to behavior such as laughing, crying, whispering, groaning,
yawning, coughing, and throat clearing. Depending on the situations these non-verbal means of
communications communicate different meanings. In Japan giggling indicates embarrassment ;
in India belch indicates satisfaction.
Vocal Segregates: refers to non fluencies such as ‘ah’, ‘un’, ‘um’ , silent pauses and other
intruding sounds are thought to mar the speaker’s presentation , but evidence also indicates that
listeners may perceive too fluent speech as slick and therefore untrustworthy . These non-verbal
means of behavior communicate delight, admiration, sympathy, satisfaction in different contexts.
One observer noted far better than these sounds is pause

Vocal cues are linked with the speaker’s

• physical characteristics. Vocal cues frequently convey information about the speaker’s
physical characteristics such as age, height, appearance and body type. For example we associate a
high- pitched voice with someone who is younger rather than older, and someone who is smaller
rather than larger. We visualize someone who uses a loud voice as being taller rather than shorter,
and larger rather than smaller.
• emotional state. Feelings such as joy and hate are associated with a loud voice, a high pitch, and a
rapid rate. Conversely, feelings such as affection, sadness are communicated with a soft voice, a low
pitch, and relatively a slow rate. People who speak quickly may be thought to be nervous rather than
calm.
• gender characteristics. Men and women demonstrate different into national patterns. For
instance, many women tend to state declarative sentences with an upward inflection to suggest a
question rather than a declaration.
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• credibility. People who tend to speak slowly and deliberately may be given credit as high- status
individuals or people who have high credibility.
Silence
The preference of talk and Silence
The importance given to words varies from one culture to another. Among African Americans and
European Americans the spoken word is seen as a reflection of the person’s inner thoughts. Other
cultures are less hesitant about the value of words.

• Asian cultures ( e.g. Japan, China) and South African cultures ( Swaziland, Zambia,
Lesotho) place more emphasis on the meaning of silence and on saying nothing or as little is
as necessary. They hate long explanation. Akira Tsujimira characterizes the Japanese
communication to be “communication without the use of language”. The less talkative
person is preferred.

• In Korea Oral communication is always is devalued and written communication is highly

regarded. “To read is the profession of scholars, to speak the act of menials… True
communication is believed to occur when one speaks without the mouth and hears without
the ears.”

• In Swaziland people who talk a lot are not welcome. Be calm but not too calm.”
• A Vietnamese student who sits quietly and listens attentively to the teacher wants to express
respect to his teacher. This behavior has often been misinterpreted by the Americans passivity
and non responsiveness.
3 Environment

In the study of communication, including organizational communication, environment includes

territory and space; buildings, rooms, and seating arrangements; artifacts and objects, and time.

2.1. Physical proximity and Territoriality (spatial communication).

Spatial communication refers to the space from the point of bodily contact to public distance.
Through space people in different cultures communicate diverse messages. For example through
distance they express their level of intimacy and trust toward a person.

Intimate Distance (0-18inches): is the space for lovers, parents, and close friends discussing a secret.
When this distance occurs otherwise such as in crowded elevators, people tend to react with defensive
devices, (such as looking at the floor)
Personal Distance (18 inches –4 feet): The range for most conversation between people.
Social Distance ( 4-12 feet): the distance for more work related interactions

Public Distance, (Exceeds 12 feet): for one- way communication between a speaker and an audience
(e.g. lecture halls, churches, mosque, courtrooms)

Space demonstrates your relationship to other people. You stand closer to your friends and farther
from enemies, strangers, authority figures, high status people, physically challenged people and
people from racial groups different from your own..

The average personal distance varies from one culture to another. Americans tend to require
more space. If you try to get too closer to an American during conversation they tend to back
away. In some Muslim cultures a woman will be alarmed if a man, a male physician, stands
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or sits too close to her. Latin Americans and People from Middle East in contrast
demonstrate greater physical closeness during conversation.

Territory: Territory is the tendency of organisms to claim to and defend space. While you are
looking for an empty classroom to discuss a problem in groups, if you see a student studying
individually, you pass by and move to another room.

They are boundaries people recognize without being told. And being aware of territoriality can help a
person to maintain the kind of interpersonal relationships that are normally accepted by the
organization.

2.2. Buildings, Rooms, Seating Arrangements. Certain buildings and rooms seem to welcome
people to come in and talk, while others seem to say “Go away.” This hurts organization’s
performance. So it is advisable to design building and offices in such a way that they facilitate
human interaction; to have offices closer to subordinate’s and supervisor’s office and design
buildings with convenient areas for staff to meet and talk.

Secondly, buildings, rooms and seating arrangements signify messages as to who that person is in the
organization or the role of communicators in a communication act. For example persons of higher
status will have more and better territory. Executive persons tend to occupy spacious, well- furnished
offices located on the top of the floors of the building. The most senior executives will hold offices at
the buildings corner, so that they will have windows on two sides. Full university professors occupy
larger offices than assistant professors.

Again the territory of higher status people is better protected than that of lower status people. It will
be more difficult for a person of lower status to arrange to visit the regional administrator than for the
administrator to visit the person in question. Having an office with a door and a secretary who
answers the phone protects staff and staff personnel. It is also true that the higher a person’s status is
the easier it is for him to invade the territory of lower status people. A superior typically feels free to
walk in on subordinates, while they in turn are more careful or ask permission or make an
appointment before visiting the supervisor.

In general people who recognize and respect the territorial rights of other individuals and groups
maintain good working relationships.

Seating arrangements affect both the amount and the kind of interactions that take place between
people. Students in the front and center row participate more. people seated across each other tend to
converse with one another more frequently than those seated by side.

Research by Robert Sommer shows that

• people prefer side-by-side meeting for cooperative transaction
• Face to face arrangements for competitive discussions.
• For discussion or conversation he usually sits in a diagonal position.
If person A is sitting at a table as shown in the figure, B can sit in several different places. If he is
told that the situation is cooperative, he will probably sit at B1; if he is told to compete, negotiate,
sell something or interview A, he will sit at B2; if he is told to have a discussion or conversation
he usually chooses B3.

A B1
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B3
B2

There is a general cultural convention that more important people should sit while others have to
stand.

When people in a group face one another in a circle, it may indicate to others (rightly or wrongly)
that they do not want to include other people

2.3 Artifacts and Objects. Objects or object language refers to the study of human use of clothing
and other artifacts (ornaments or adornments) as nonverbal codes. The Artifacts we display-
including jewelry, hairstyle, cosmetics, automobiles, canes, watches, shoes, and even the fillings in
our teeth- hold communicative potential. Our clothing and other adornments communicate our
age, gender, status, role, socioeconomic class, group memberships, personality, and relation to the
opposite sex.

The objects in an office convey clear signals about the occupant’s status. One consultant says a
wooden desk and area rug are essential for those seeking to enhance their power and authority. In
an article Sussan Trausch listed the objects that can help one to “become powerful” in an
organization. She wrote chairs with arms, and spare chairs- which suggest that you are important
enough to have visitors- and some sort of shelving to give your space “intellectual depth” will help
one go places.

2.4 Time. Time talks. The time of day, for example, can speak clearly about the importance of the
message. A phone call at midnight and a call at 10: 00 in the morning do not send the same
message. For students at Defense Engineering College a meeting called during class hours is
perceived to be more important than the one called on Friday afternoon, a time arranged for
meetings by the college.

“When should we let staff know?” is a very important question managers should ask.
Time shows the relative status of a person. The more quickly a visitor enters an office, the higher
his status is. And the longer the executive took to answer the knock, the higher his status is.

Cultures widely differ in the conception of time. Punctuality is highly valued by Americans. An
exact amount of time an American businessman schedules for a certain purpose should be used in
that way, no more no less, whereas for an Arab when an event starts it proceeds until it is finished.

In addition to these aspects of time, the value or importance the member of a culture place on the
passage of time vary from culture to culture. Some cultures are predominantly past oriented, others
are present oriented, and still others prefer a future oriented worldview.

Past oriented cultures (British, Chinese and Native Americans) regard previous experiences and
events as most important. These cultures place a primary emphasis on tradition and the wisdom
passed from the older generation. Consequently they show a great deference and respect for parents
and other elders, who are the links to these past sources of knowledge. Many aspects of the
experiences can be understood only by reference to their reverence for traditions, past family
experiences or tribal customs.

Present Oriented Cultures ( Philippines and many Central and South American countries) place
major emphasis on immediacy and experience each moment as fully as possible. Consequently
 15

people do not participate in particular events because of some potential future gains; rather they
participate because of the immediate pleasure the activity provides. Present oriented cultures
typically believe that unseen and even unknown outside forces such as fate or lack control their
lives.

Future Oriented Cultures (European Americans) believe that tomorrow—or some other moments
in the future—is most important. Current activities are not accomplished and appreciated for their
own sake but for the potential future benefits that might be obtained. People from future oriented
cultures, believe that their fate is at least partially in their own hands and that they can control the
consequences of their actions.

Cultural Differences in Non-verbal communication

Non-verbal communication differs widely between cultures. Relationships could be ruined because
of not realizing cultural differences and thereby violating local norms for things such as simple eye
contact, hand- grip. The following examples of non -verbal behavior in the Arab World, Latin
America, and the People’s Republic of China, reveal some of the cultural differences.

The Arab World. Arabs are highly expressive in their body languages. They talk with their hands
and facial expressions. Raising the eyebrows and clinking the tongue signify negative response
while side way nod of the head conveys a positive one. When talking they stand much closer
together and they look more at one another. Arabs touch much more than Westerners. They gently
tap the other person or rest a hand on the other’s knee during conversation. Male friends often hold
hands when walking together. The right hand is for public matters and the left hand, considered the
toilet hand, is to be kept private. Thus nothing should be accepted from or given to anybody with
left hand.

Being on time for appointment is unusual in the Arab World. When Arabs schedule time, they will
typically say “Insha Allah” If Allah wills; the time is in the Allah’s hand, not their own.

Latin America: Like Arabs Latin Americans have a much greater tolerance for close interaction
including touch than North Americans do. During conversation Latins focus their gaze intently on
the eyes and face of their conversation partner. Latinos think of time very differently from North
Americans. They use the expressions, “Our time or your time.” Promises are made to have things
done at a particular time, but they are usually not kept.

People’s Republic of China: Chinese do not like to be touched, even to shake hands. For business
a slight bow and a brief handshake is considered appropriate. Speaking distance is grater than it is
in the west. The Chinese are more retiring, reticent and shy than North American. So business
interaction should focus not on an individual Chinese but rather on the group of people; they are
embarrassed at being singled out.

Dealings with Chinese take much more time than Westerners are accustomed to. They devote a
good length of time to building trust. Five sessions may be required to finalize negotiations that
might take one or two meetings among Westerners. The Chinese consider a first meeting to be just
for social interaction: pleasantries, the serving of tea. The Chinese are punctual and expect others to
arrive promptly for each meeting, perhaps a little earlier. The Chinese host will indicate when it is
time for the visitor to leave.
 16

Questions for Further Thought

1. Think about a situation you have been involved in or have observed where different
nonverbal cues contradicted each other or non verbal cue contradicts a verbal one.
Describe how the contradiction occurred.

2. Assume that as an employee you feel that your supervisor does not give you
recognition. How might you use your knowledge of nonverbal communication to
improve this situation?

3. In each of the following areas describe a difference between the meaning ascribed to
a particular nonverbal cue in another culture and the cue’s meaning in your culture:
touching, eye contact, time, and space.

4. Devote some time to observing other people’s nonverbal behavior. Choose places
such as cafeteria, hallway, etc, people are interacting. Observe the gestures, facial
expressions, voice tone and volume and body movements that people use, as well as
their use of space, posture and their physical appearance. List at least ten meanings
that you see being communicated intentionally, or otherwise, and describe the ways in
which each meaning was communicated.

5. Observe the design of the buildings and visit the offices on your campus. Do they
promote social contact? Explain.

6. Describe the different meanings “silence” communicates in different cultures.

7. Identify and describe the different functions of an eye contact.

 17

Individual/ Group Assignment

Individual Assignment

1. In each of the following areas describe the difference between the meaning ascribed to a
particular nonverbal cue in your culture and the cue’s meaning in another culture:
touching (handshake, kissing, hugging stroking, pinching etc) eye contact, time, and
space.

2. Assume that as an employee you feel that your supervisor does not give you
recognition. How might you use your knowledge of nonverbal communication to
improve this situation?

3. Do you believe that emotions can be conveyed better nonverbally than verbally? Discuss.
4. Discuss smell and aesthetics as nonverbal communication.

Group Assignment

1. Discuss the importance of non- verbal communication.

2. Choose places such as cafeteria where people are interacting and devote some time to
observing people touching each other during conversation. Count the number of times
they touch and decide whether Ethiopia is a contact, low contact or non contact
culture

3. Think about five situations you have been involved in or have observed where
different nonverbal cues contradicted each other or a non verbal cue contradicts a
verbal one. Describe how the contradictions occurred.

4. Observe the design of the buildings and visit the offices on your campus. Do they
promote social contact? Explain
 18

Unit 3: Interpersonal Communication

3.1. Definition
Interpersonal communication is a form of communication that involves a few individuals that
are interacting directly with each other for a period of time, e.g. couples, families, friends,
work groups, classmates etc. Some interpersonal communications are brief and spontaneous, while
others may last for a life time.

3.2. Types of Interpersonal Relationships

Regardless of culture or circumstances surrounding the relationships formation, there is
always some sort of bond or social connection that links or ties people to one another. Two of
these binds are blood or marriage and interdependent objectives. The following are major
types of interpersonal relationships.

1.Strangers: A stranger is a person whom you don’t know and who is therefore unfamiliar to
you.
• Is a person you met for the first always a stranger?
• Is a person you meet in a restaurant but has never exchanged names a stranger?
Greek: a stranger – non Greek
Korea: a stranger is anyone whom you are not formally introduced. Strangers are nonpersons
whom the rules of politeness and social etiquette simply do not apply. The Korean may jostle
you without apologizing.

2.Acquaintances: Someone you know but only casually. Their interaction is limited to small
talks on general topics such as weather hobbies, fashions, sports etc. but never discuss
personal problems, and topics of conversations differ from one culture to another.
• It is appropriate to ask a male acquaintance to ask about his wife; in the United
Arab Emirates it would be a major breach of social etiquette.
• In New Zealand it is appropriate to talk about national and international politics; in
Pakistan such topics should be avoided.
• In Austria discussion about money and religion are typically avoided

3. Friends: Someone you know well, and someone whom you feel there is a close personal
bond. Concepts of friendships are not the same:

European American friends tend to be compartmentalized because they are based on shared
activity, event or experience. The European American study with one friend, play racquetball
with another and go to the movies with the third. European Americans classify people
according to what they do or have achieved rather than who they are. In Thailand a friend is
accepted completely or not at all. A person cannot disapprove one’s political beliefs and still
consider him/her a friend.

The languages cultures use to describe friendship reflect the meaning they attach to it.
European Americans use friends, allies, and partners. Among African Americans closeness
between friends is expressed by such terms as brothers, sisters, cousins.
 19

4. Romantic Partners: Among European Americans dating usually occurs for romance and
companionship. It is not a serious commitment that will necessarily lead to engagement. In
Argentina dating is taken more seriously. Dating a person more than twice may mean that
relationship may lead to an engagement.

In India casual dating relationships for romantic expressions are still rare. Marriages are to be
arranged by parents.

5. Family: Definition of a family is characterized by large cultural variation.

• Who is considered to be a family member?
• What is the role and behavioral expectation of a certain family member?

Among Europeans Americans family is confined to mother, father and children. The
extended family unit also includes grandparents, aunts, uncles and cousins. Members of the
extended family rarely live in the same household.

In India extended family dominates. Grandparents, aunts, uncles and many other relatives
may live together in one household, including people who have become family members
through marriage.

Among Native Americans family refers to all members of the clan family descended from a
common ancestor.

Arab families include multiple generation of the male line, whereas in Ghana families have a
matrilineal organization.

3.3. Importance of Interpersonal Relationship

1. to understand ourselves. learn about ourselves from the alternative perceptions

others hold of us through interpersonal relationship through the Johari Window, a model
indicating the proportion of information about ourselves that is known and/ or unknown to
us, to others or both. This model is divided into four areas or quadrants: the open self, the
blind self, the hidden self and the unknown self.

The Open Self represents information about you known to you and to others. Included in this
quadrant may be your name, sex, age, height, color and religion, communicative style, what
you like or don’t like

The Blind Self consists of information known to others but not known to you e.g.
- blinking frequently when you feel threatened
- interrupting others when they talk to you or
-bragging about your grade point average
-that you were adopted,
-that you nearly died in infancy
-selfishness
 20

The Hidden Self information you are aware of about yourself but you have not shared to
others.
-You once stole goods from a department store,
- had an abortion, or cheated on a test
-received a scholarship, or you were chosen for an important award.
- You had a lover other than your wife

The Unknown Self information neither you nor any one else knows.
-Many young people do not know if they will marry or will have children in the future.

Through our interpersonal relationship we increase the size of the open self and decrease
the size of other three quadrants.

2. To Understand Others. Save us from making judgments, drawing inferences and reaching
conclusions about others without really knowing very much about them. Increases the
open self of others. The quiet woman, who seemed aloof, may be a warm person who is
introverted and shy
To Understand the World. Our knowledge of the environment comes largely through the
interaction we have in our relationships
• College students who receive information about the system of education
tend to stay in colleges, where as those who are uninvolved tend to drop out.

To Fulfill Our Needs. To satisfy the three basic interpersonal needs:

a) The need for inclusion: refers to the need to associate with others; to be accepted
and accept others. Inclusion needs vary for different people:
• Under social: maintain distance between self and others
• Over social: put so much effort in interacting with and angling for
attention from others that they neglect other goal such as relating to work.
• Adaptable social: change participation level depending on situations.
b) The Need for Control: the need to exercise power and authority.
Some people have the strong urge to dominate while others avoid exerting
influence and are happiest allowing others to make their decisions for them.
People in the middle are those who control others in some situations and are
controlled by others in other situations
c) The Need for Affection: the need for close, personal positive feelings between people.
Some suppress the need for affection by being openly antagonistic or emotionally
neutral toward everybody. Others go out to please everyone. In between are those
who are close to some but remain distant if someone does not like them.
 21

In each of the three needs one wants the kind of behavior the other is expressing.

Maslow’s Needs Hierarch

Physiological Needs-
Safety needs
Belongingness need
Esteem Needs the need for respect; the need for being worthwhile and
valued
Se,lf actualization Needs- it involves people trying to be all that they can
be and living life to its fullest.

To Enrich and Increase positive Experience. to

increase and enrich positive experiences
for example
-to increase our knowledge
- get assistance with particular tasks
- use resources

3.4. Formation and Maintenance of Relationship

How do we decide which few should be our friends? How are we attracted to them?
Why do we cultivate relationship with them?.
The following factors contribute to the formation of relationship.

a) Proximity ( Location) You are most likely to find your friends where you spend most
of your time:
 People who go to the same religious services
 People who belong to the same club
 People who are in the same dormitory/ major

b) Attractiveness. A feature that takes three forms:

Task-- a person who is desirable to work with.
Social-- a person who seems to have social value, a person whom others have interest in
Physical- a person who physically looks good to us
 22

c) Responsiveness- the idea that we tend to select our friends from people who
demonstrate positive interest in us.
d) Similarity –the idea that our friends are usually people who like or dislike the same
things we do, for example the same ideology, the same position in politics etc.
e) Complementarities- is the idea that we sometimes bond with people whose strengths
are our weaknesses, for example relationship between a mathematics loving student,
but who is poor in English and a student who is good at English but poor in
mathematics.

Relational Maintenance

Relational maintenance is the process by which people attempt to keep their relationship at
an accepted level of intimacy. According to social penetration theory relational closeness
develops through self disclosure and on the basis of reward and cost.

Closeness through Self Disclosure

Self disclosure is the processes of revealing information about yourself to the person you
have formed relationship with. Altman and Taylor compare people to onions to describe
the multi- layered nature of personality.

The outer layer is the feature accessible to anyone who cares to look at the person: details
that help to describe the person such as height, age, sex, occupation, and communicative
style.

Semiprivate domain Beneath this surface are found semiprivate attitudes that can be
revealed to some people, for example his sympathy toward liberal causes, religion and
prejudices.

Unique private domain: This is invisible to the world, perhaps not even his girlfriend or
parents know about his most closely guarded secrets about himself. Altman and Taylor
believe that relational closeness develops when people become accessible to others by
allowing others to penetrate below the surface.
But for various reasons people are cautious about exposing their true feelings. Perhaps they
will fence off this part of their lives indefinitely. According to social penetration theory, a
permanent guard will limit the closeness people can achieve.

Self disclosure should be reciprocal.

. The disclosure of extremely high level of negative information early in the relationship may
doom its further development. Self disclosure is important for many reasons:
1.our story and experience in the past cannot be a cause for any misunderstanding or
disagreement. One common explanation for divorce given by women is their need to self
disclosure. Divorced women are increasingly identifying their own lack of opportunity while
married to express who they are as the cause of the break up of their marriages
2. To share the joy we feel about ourselves and give others the opportunity to learn from our
experience. When we disclose positive information about ourselves, we share the joy we feel
 23

about ourselves. When we are able to express our negative experiences—our mistakes, our
failings, and our shortcomings—to others they learn from our experience.
If self –disclosure is important to relationship why are we unwilling to self disclosure to
others?

Men avoid self disclosure in order to maintain control over their relationship. Researchers
concluded that in the competitive world to be the winner one of the techniques is exploiting
another person’s weakness, so men are unwilling to disclose in order not to expose their
vulnerability. But women avoid self disclosure in order to avoid personal hurt, for example
not to lose a given opportunity.

Another investigation showed that men disclose more to strangers and casual acquaintances,
whereas women are more willing to disclose to intimates.

Two common behavior related to unwillingness to self disclosure are defensiveness and
nonassertive ness.

1. Defensiveness: is the tendency to protect and support our idea against attack by
others. We tend to protect our idea when others
a) tend to evaluate us or use judgmental statements
b) tend to give advice instead of trying to find a good solution together
c) lack interest or concern for us.
d) believe what they have to say is better and more important, rather than
suggesting they can do better by working together; they think they have all
the perfect answers, instead of thinking there may be a number of right
answers.
e) Believe there is a gap between the real self and the idealized self. Being late
for a lunch appointment, a defensive person might say, “I had a long distance
call that held me up for ten minutes rather than say, “I am sorry I am late, I
didn’t have a great excuse.”
2. Non-assertiveness: is the inability to communicate feelings and ideas directly and honestly
because people are marginalized powerless and timid. While assertive people say, “I didn’t
like him” unassertive person says, “Well, I have heard other people say they don’t like him.”

Closeness on the Basis of Reward and Costs: According to social penetration theory close
relationship depends on the cost benefit analysis. One sorts out the pluses and minuses of
friendship with another. If the perceived mutual benefits outweigh the cost of greater
vulnerability, relationship will proceed. If the negatives outweigh, relationship will cease.

Early in a relationship we tend to see physical appearance, similar background and mutual
agreement as benefits (Birds of the same feather fly together.) Disagreements and deviance
from the norm are negatives. But as the relationship changes, so does the nature of
interaction that friends find rewarding. Deeper friendship thrives on common values and
spoken appreciation and we can even enjoy surface diversity (Opposites attract)
 24

Satisfaction: Comparison Level. A person’s comparison level( CL) is the threshold above
which the outcome seem attractive. If your CL for clerical employment is a salary of 500 birr
you would be happy to work at 600.00, but feels exploited if you received only 400.
Satisfaction Depends on expectation. Our CL for friendship is pegged by our relational
history, our past experience. If Pet had little history or close friendship in high school(+ 2),
a + 8 relationship with John would be quite attractive. On the other hand if he was
accustomed to a close group of intimate friendship (+16) Pet’s relationship with John could
be unsatisfactory by comparison.
Stability: Comparison Level of Alternatives( CLalt). Comparison level of alternatives is
the worst outcome a person will accept and still stay in a relationship. It explains the
possibility where people stay in abusive relationship.

The following techniques may help you for better communication :

 Understand the importance of perceptual differences
 Be willing to share yourself with others( disclose yourself to others)
 Listen emphatically , try to understand the feelings of others
 Be flexible; alter behavior in order to adapt yourself to the new situation.

Questions for Further Thought

1. The Romantic Truism, “To know her is to love her,” seems to contradict, “Familiarity
breeds contempt.” Given the principle of social penetration theory, can you think of a
way both statements might be true.
2. Social penetration theory is usually thought of as a theory of self -disclosure. What
are some other ways of showing vulnerability
 25

Chapter Four

The Art of Listening

People spend more time listening than talking, writing or reading. Figure 4.1 shows the
proportion of Time College students spend on communication activities.

Writing 14%

16%
Speaking

Reading 17 %

Face to face listening 21%

Listening to the mass media 32 %

Figure 4. 1 Proportion of time spent by college students in communication activities

In the business world it has been found that most employees of American corporation spend
about 60% of their day listening, and executives spend as much as 63% of their workday as
listeners.
Training officers indicate that poor listening is one of the most important problems facing
them, and that ineffective listening leads to ineffective performance or low productivity

Importance /Purpose of Listening

Listening is so important that it has been called the primary skill to

1. get information and comprehend the message: To understand the message the listener uses
both verbal and nonverbal cues. The same set of words can be taken in a variety of ways.
One should listen discriminatively to understand the message, whether the speaker is
sarcastic or straight forward, cooperative or uncooperative. The information you get will
help you to broaden your knowledge about yourself, an others, and your knowledge about
the world.
 26

2. do your job more effectively as a couch, manager, councilor etc( Therapeutic

Listening): Therapeutic listening centers on the listener’s belief that the capacity of
problem solving and growth primarily resides in the person receiving help. It requires faith
that the person can solve his or he own problem if they are given the chance to articulate
the problem, and willingness to suspend judgment. Although a friend may ask another for
advice, offering advice may not be very helpful. To be an effective therapeutic listener, one
must have empathy for the other person (the ability to understand the speaker’s problem
putting himself momentarily in his shoes and see the world as he sees it). Professional
therapeutic listeners must learn special techniques that can allow them to actively
participate, for example when to ask a question to stimulate further talk. The listener can
help the person talk through a problem and possibly reach a solution
3. evaluate messages and accept or reject them. If the purpose of the message is aimed at
persuading, an appropriate response requires that you analyze the content, the intent of
the speaker, and the context in which the transaction takes place. The critical listeners
assess the arguments and the appeals in a message and then decide whether to accept,
appreciate or reject them.
4. To enrich your relationship because the speaker feels you have an interest in him

Levels of Listening
Our level of listening varies. We may
 Ignore the other person, not really listening at all
 Pretend listening. Yeah, Uh -hu, Right
 Listen partially – hearing only certain part of the conversation
 Pay attention on the words
 Listen empathically
Empathic listening (sharing one’s feeling by imagining what it would be like to be in their
situation) means
 seeking first to understand; you get out of your own frame of reference and get
inside the their person’s frame of reference. You look the world the way they see the
world; you understand their paradigm, you understand how they feel. To truly listen
means to transcend your own autobiography, to get out of your own frame of
reference, out of your own value system, out of your own history and judging
tendencies, and to get deeply into the frame of reference or view point of another
person. This is called empathic listening.
 Understand not only the words said , but also the feeling: listen not only with your
ears , but also with your eyes, heart

Communication experts estimate

Words represent 10% of our communication
Sounds 30 %
Body Lang 60%

To solve one’s problem first get accurate information from the individual. You will get
accurate information when the person is open to you. The person becomes open to you when
he is certain you are trying to understand him- his unique situations and feelings, when you
give the person some psychological air, when you satisfy the person’s need to be affirmed, to
 27

be validated, to be appreciated. It is after you have met that vital need that you can influence
the person. It is a paradox in the sense that in order to influence others you have to be
influenced: Diagnose before you prescribe. .

The Indian Talking Stick

The five foot – tall Talking Stick, with the name Bald Eagle inscribed on it, is a powerful
communication tool among the Native Indians in the United States and Canada.

This Talking Stick represents how people with differences can come to understand one
another through mutual respect, which then enables them to solve their differences and
problems synergistically, or at the very least through compromise.

Obstacles and Aids to Effective Listening

Despite its importance, listening is a skill few people have mastered. Personal worries and
pressures make it hard to focus on someone else’s point of view. Many people at work are
used to talking and telling, not listening. Experience shows, nonetheless, that people who are
aware of such obstacles and who seriously set listening as their goal are able to be effective
listeners. Some of the principal obstacle to listening and methods for reducing these obstacles
are the following:

1. Environmental Distractions. Loud noises, physical movements, or other distractions,

can prevent a listener from attending fully to another person. The effective listener
does not simply ignore or accept such conditions, but acts to change or overcome
them as by closing the door or windows, moving to a quieter place, or asking the
speaker to speak more loudly.

2. Physical Limitation. The average person speaks at a rate of 125 to 150 words per
minute, but a listener can easily process 500 words per minute. Thus listeners tend to
tune out and let their minds wander. Listeners counteract this tendency by realizing
that skillful listening requires effort and is a continuous, active process

3. Preoccupation with words and Facts. Many listeners attend to the other person’s
words while ignoring the feelings behind them; they scrutinize the other states
disregarding the underlying meaning those facts may have for that other. A person
describing his or her lack of success on a recent project may be concerned about his
or her career, not just about the details of that project. The effective listener listens for
the emotional tone the speaker is expressing and for the possible implications of he or
she is saying.

4. Preoccupation with other thoughts. A listener may be so distracted by personal

concerns, such as worrisome work or family problem etc. To overcome such
problems the listener must be aware of his or her distractions and decide whether to
continue the listening or postpone it.
 28

5. Tendency for Evaluation. Since people have an inherent tendency to rapidly evaluate
others a listener may begin planning a rebuttal before the speaker has finished and
thus miss the main point. Overcoming this problem requires the listener to develop a
habit of listening completely before asking questions or raising issues.

6. Semantic Distractions. It is a distraction that occurs when you respond to an emotion

laden concept. Semantic distraction occurs when you stop listening because you hear
a word that slights you, your religion, your family or your ethnic group.

7. Perception of Others. Your capacity for listening can be limited by the speaker’
status, the stereotypes you use to categorize others

Status or a person’s social standing, rank, title, or value can affect listening. A private in the
army may listen to the captain, who outranks him just as a patient might listen to a physician
who is providing post operative advice. On the other hand those whom we perceive as being
below us in intelligence, social status or economic standing may be asked little and heeded
less
Stereotypes or convenient categories, affect your capacity for listening. People from other
cultures may be dismissed “because I won’t understand what they are saying any way.” How
often are women asked about how to buy a car or men about how to select draperies?

Or sometimes you simply dislike some people or always disagree with them and you begin to
twin them out . An example of this is many people’s tendency not to listen to the politician
who hold political beliefs different from their own.

. Rehearsing. People have the tendency to rehearse in their minds what they will say when the
other person is finished. One of the reasons for this barrier is the difference between speech
and the listening rates.
. Cultural Differences. The listener interprets what the sender has said through the filter of the
receiver’s culture, and then proceeds to make a judgment about the sender. For example a
Native American may answer a question from a European American without looking the
questioner in the eye (which is a sign of respect) the European American concludes that the
other person is hiding something or lying.

A Guide to Effective Listening

1. Avoid Distraction. Stop what you are doing and eliminate as many distractions as
possible.
2. Listen empathically. Match verbal with nonverbal cues to decipher both the content
and the emotion. Try to ask what you would feel if you were in the speaker’s position.
3. Ask questions. A s you try to understand the other person, you may need to ask some
questions to
a) obtain additional information
b) find out how someone feels( Are you feeling overwhelming by this assignment?)
c) have a clearer meaning about a word or phrase
d) verify your conclusion about the speaker’s meaning or feeling ( Are you saying
that you can’t complete the project without some additional staff assistance?
4. Give Feedback. I n addition to asking questions give feedback through by nodding,
shaking head, smiling, frowning or through verbalizations such as um, uh-huh
 29

5. Paraphrase Content. Restate in your own words what you think the other
person is saying. Instead of parroting back everything that person has said, from time
to time summarize the message the other person has given you so far.

A: I think this job is too much for me; I am not qualified to do it.
B: You think you lack the necessary skills?

6. Paraphrase Feelings. Ask questions to clarify how the other person is feeling.

A: I think this job is too much for me; I am not qualified to do it.
B: You think you lack the necessary skills? You are probably feeling pretty frustrated
right now, aren’t you?
C: No, I am not frustrated; I am just disappointed that the job isn’t working out.
 30

Chapter 5
Oral Forms of Communication
5.1 Oral Presentation

Most people feel less than confident about giving an oral presentation. One survey asked
2,500 Americans to pick the things they feared. The ten items chosen most often were:
Speaking before a group 40.6%
Heights 30. 00%
Insects 22.1%
Financial problems 22.00%
Deep water 21.5%
Sickness 18.8%
Death 18.7%
Flying 18.3%
Loneliness 13.6%
Dogs 11.2%

While it may not be news that a lot of people fear giving a public speech, it seems
surprising that speechmaking is more widely feared than deep water, sickness and death.

PREPARATION

Clarify the Purposes of Your Presentation

People make presentations for a variety of purposes. Sales representatives and candidates
for a public office make presentations to persuade their listeners. An instructor giving a
lecture to students or a personnel manager explaining a new benefits program to employees
are presenting for the purpose of informing their audiences. A third purpose may be to
entertain. The distinction between a persuasive speech, an informative speech and an
entertaining speech is a fine one. A speech may do all three, with the speaker’s goals
determining the mix. The personnel director wants employees to know about the benefits
program, but wants them to like it as well.

You should specify the purpose of your presentation e.g.

Topic: The Budget Impact of the Increasing School- age Population and the
Need for Less Highway Maintenance Next Year
Purpose: to persuade the city counselors to approve the budget

By stating your purpose, you establish important reference points against which you may
check all other parts of your presentation. For example you can test each item of
supporting material that you are considering by asking whether it helps to achieve the
purpose.
 31

Analyze Your Audience

Adapting your presentation to the interest, knowledge, and motives of your audience is not
only the starting point but it should also pervade the entire preparation and presentation
process. To develop a profile of your audience ask these three questions:
1. Who are the members of the audience? Include characteristics such as
 What age range does the audience represent?
 Are there males, females, or both in the audience?
 What are the ethnic groups of the audience members?
 How educated are they?
 What are their occupations?
 What are their religious or political affiliations?
 To what professional community or social groups do they belong?
 What position do they hold in the organization?
 What experience do they have with particular projects?
Analysis of the audience will also help you to infer how such an audience might respond to
a particular topic.
2. What do they need to know? Once you know about your audience’s level of
knowledge decides what they know about the topic. An audience will quickly tune
out the speaker who is telling them things they already know. Nor do the audiences
like being talked down to. Include what is relevant to them and gauge their interest in
the topic. Try to create interest by showing the audience how the subject is important
to them, by presenting it in a novel, entertaining way, and by providing new
information on the topic.
3. What do they expect? Presenters should realize that they can never predict listeners’
reactions with absolute certainty and it is helpful to be open to feedback, and to be
prepared to shift emphasis if necessary.

Research the Topic

The audience will not agree with your recommendations simply because you say them.
You will need to offer support in the form of clarification, elaboration, and proof to
convince them that your proposals are valid. Where and how to gather information
depends, of course, on the topic. For example the information for a progress report comes
from the records you keep out of your work. These records may include data from
experiments, regular site inspection, analysis of figures or a logbook of recorded activities.
But in general the following are important sources of information.

Personal Experience: evidence from firsthand experience usually sparks the audience’s
attention and enhances credibility.
Information Available in the Organization: Your presentation may include material on
specifics such as costs, products or services delivered and data from personnel records, and
computerized data base.
 32

Library Information: Books, periodicals, non-print materials such as audio recordings

and videotapes may be useful for research or, indeed, for inclusion in the presentation
itself.

Other External Sources: Numerous public and private agencies are sources of
information. These include federal and state agencies such as department of agriculture,
commerce, and labor as well as many other government sources. Private sources such as
industry and trade associations, local chambers of commerce can be useful.
Interviews: Personal interviews with experts or others who have firsthand experience with
the topic can greatly enhance your credibility.
Questionnaire: Survey research, which may provide quantifiable data that one can analyze
statistically, can be a compelling information source. However, you should not attempt
such a research without expert advice. The research hypothesis must be stated accurately,
the questionnaire designed properly, the sample representative of the total population, and
the statistical tests you apply must be appropriate to the data you acquire.

Organize the presentation

Plato wrote in the Phaerdrus, “Every discourse ought to be a living creature, having a body
of its own, and a head and feet; there should be a beginning, middle, and end connected to
another and to the whole. Plato refers to what we call now Introduction, body and
conclusion.

The Introduction is crucial. Many listeners decide very early whether to accept it or reject
it. A good introduction should gain the interest and attention of the audience. There are a
number of devices that you as a speaker may use to carry out these aims.
 Telling the listener what they can gain from the presentation
 asking rhetorical questions
 Using a brief narrative that leads into the topic
 Using humor
The Body contains the whole information you have gathered to present to the audience.
You will need to choose a plan or order of arrangement for the presentation, which means
determining the order in which you present the main points and the supporting material.
The most common patterns of arrangement are the following:
 Problem solving
 Cause effect
 Chronological
 Classification
 Order of importance
 Comparison-Contrast
Choose a pattern of organization that’s fits well with the purpose of the presentation. For the
progress report for example, where the aim is simply to inform or update the audience rather
than to persuade, chronological order is appropriate.
 33

The Conclusion may

 review the central point of the presentation
 state your intention to enact the ideas
 give a solution to the problem you raised at the beginning
 be your final opportunity to invite the audience to join you in taking actions

Outline the Presentation

Unless you are a very lucky, gifted, or experienced speaker, you will not be able to give an
effective presentation without referring to notes or an outline. Determine the sequence in
which you will present your main points and specific facts, details, or statistics That you use
in support of each major and minor points in the introduction, body and conclusion parts of
your report.

Topic: Cost of Irrigation for X’s Farm

1 Description of Farm
2 Cost of Irrigation
2.1 Materials
2.1.1 Pumps
2.1.1.1. Main pumps
2.1.1.2. Secondary pumps
2.1.13. Tertiary pumps
2.1.2 Plumbing
2.1.2.1Piping
2.1.2.2. Connections
2.1.3. Sprinklers
2.2. Installation
2.3. Operation
2.4 Maintenance

Include Visual Aids

Today’s audience, conditioned by television, has come to expect multi-sensory presentations.

Besides helping the presenter, to attract and retain the audience’s attention, visual aids serve
a number of additional functions. Good visuals can reduce confusion and misunderstanding,
increase the clarity of abstract concept, emphasize key points, provide variety and interest,
and create a professional image.

Research shows that redundant communication (communication where information is

repeated) is more effective and is preferred by audiences over communication that offers
information just once. Visuals create redundancy that is more interesting than simple
repetition.
 34

Practical guidelines for the use of such aids include the following.
1 Only use visuals that directly support the message.
2 Make visuals large enough and clear enough to be seen
easily by each audience member.
3 Keep visuals simple. Unsummarized statistical data may be
confusing to your audience; never crowd your visual aids.
4 Point to the part of the visual you are discussing
5 Visual aids should not break your contact with your
audience. Visuals should not be the focus of attention that the audience fails to listen to
you.
6 Put visuals out of use when not in use.
7 Rehearse with your visuals before the presentation. Be
comfortable with your visuals and with the audio visual equipment you will use.
Use presentation Software. Learn to use presentation software such as power point.
Presentation software permits you to create a wide range of supporting material for your
presentation. Before you get started you have to decide what kinds of visual displays you will
need and then you can generate them directly from the presentation software. Presentation
software also allows you to create printed handouts for your audience that include your
graphics and any notes you wish your audience to take with them.

Prepare Handouts

Handouts can be valuable asset for your presentation:

 They give the audience something to refer to after the presentation
 They list primary visuals for future reference
 They explain complex terminology
 They provide reading lists or bibliography references
 They summarize key points

To effectively use handouts

 Collate and bind them. Loose pages create the impression of inadequate preparation
 Have a cover page that gives the title of your presentation, your name and
organization, the meeting, the date and the location.
 Decide whether you should distribute them at the beginning or at the end of a
presentation. If the packet is needed for reference or note taking during the
presentation, then the packet should be distributed at the beginning of the session.

Manage the Environment

Choose a room with writing surfaces and good lighting that facilitates note taking. Check the
room for potential problems (e.g. whether it is cold or hot, dark or light, and correct the
situations if possible.

The arrangement of the audience in the room is an important factor. If you want to encourage
discussion and the number of attendance is relatively small, a circular seating arrangement
may promote discussions.
 35

DELIVERY

No matter how well you design and organize your presentation on paper, its success depends
on your delivery. Cicero made this point in the first century B.C. when he wrote, “Delivery, I
say, has the sole and supreme power in oratory; without it, a speaker of the highest mental
capacity can be held in no esteem, while one of moderate abilities, with this qualification,
may surpass even those of the highest talent.”

Gain the Attention of the Audience: When called upon you should walk
professionally to the place where you speak. A nervous or last minute adjusting of hair
or clothing does not make a good impression on the audience.

You can gain the attention of the audience in a number of other ways. A personal
reference and greeting to the audience can make a good beginning; especially on more
formal occasions you may use humor and questions to introduce your talk. Speaker’s
non verbal behavior can make or break his or her presentation. Eye contact is essential. It
communicates self confidence and tells the audience that the speaker’s undivided
attention is on them. Body movements, gestures, and facial expressions convey much
information about the speaker’s attitude toward the speech, and the audience. It is best to
be natural to make movements that are consistent and coordinated with the spoken
message.

Voice quality is important. You should avoid mispronunciation, mumbling, too many “uhs”
or “ahas” and speaking in a monotone, as well as speaking either too loudly or too softly, too
quickly or too slowly. Perhaps the single most important key to keeping listeners’ attention is
varying your pitch, force, and rate of speech. Variation clarifies and emphasizes content,
conveys your enthusiasm, and tends to keep the audience listening.

Think of the Image of your Personality and Character: Your professional image
depends in part on your demeanor during the presentation. Your material can be accurate and
interesting, and your voice can project to the back of the room, but if your behavior or
appearance detracts from the presentation, its effectiveness is diminished. Some people do
strange things when they are in front of a group, partly from nervousness, partly because they
do not consider how the audience will react. Avoid distracting movements such as pacing,
swaying, leaning on or clinging to the lectern, or shuffling through note cards or sheets.

Engage the Listeners. You have several options for increasing audience engagement.

Create an audience Centered Atmosphere.

 Imagine the questions that the audience will ask and incorporate responses into your
presentation.
 Build in rhetorical questions that members of the audience can answer in their minds
and relate to your presentation
 Provide the audience with a list of intriguing questions, problem oriented questions.
 36

Encourage Active involvement

 Involve everyone in an activity- solving a problem related to your topic
 Get audience volunteers to help with a demonstration
 Encourage audience members to answer specific questions you ask during the
presentation.
Make what you say easy to listen and remember
 Make some of your points with tightly crafted anecdotes
 Avoid cramming too much information into the time allotted for your presentation.
Vary the Pacing of your presentation: Schedule lengthy presentations in facilities that allow
you to use variety of activities to change the pace and encourage audience participation. Fore
example you may follow your formal presentation with a case situation.

Deal with Nervousness: Stage fright is normal for anyone giving a presentation. A
certain amount of apprehension is a positive factor rather than a negative one. Speakers are
nervous about their presentations because they care about doing them well. For speakers who
are well prepared, this initial nervousness usually subsides quickly because lack of
preparation is the causes of stage fright.

While waiting your turns to speak, it is a good idea to sit in a relaxed manner, even limply,
and take some deep breaths. Uncertainty is a major cause of nervousness. The more you
know about your audience and the setting the less anxious you are likely to be. Similarly,
being thoroughly familiar with your introduction, (including a personal greeting, humorous
note, or reference to the occasion) helps to ensure a smooth start.

To develop a good ability of oral presentation without fear; audience analysis, good
planning (good preparation) and rehearsal will help. Research has found that people with
high communication anxiety can reduce their anxiety and do a better job with their
presentation if they spend a significant portion of their time on planning and audience
analysis rather than simply on rehearsing. In rehearsing it is best to practice several times in
relatively brief sessions rather than one marathon session the day before the presentation.
Rehearsal is absolutely essential for checking and adjusting the timing of the presentation.

Handle Questions: Most presentations should allow people to exchange a great deal of
extremely valuable information. Handling questions is not a problem for speakers who are
well prepared. It is rather an opportunity for them to give information they have not included
in their talk.

During a question and answer period, a speaker is well advised to

 Repeat each question to make sure that all members of the audience have understood
it.
 Answer questions as specifically and concisely as possible.
 Direct your answers to the whole audience, not just the person who asked the
questions
 Say “, Sorry, I don’t know” if someone asks a question that you are not prepared to
answer.
 Ask if anyone in the audience knows the answer.
 37

 Not to argue, but maintain your composure, and answer the substance of the question
in a professional manner when someone asks you a hostile question
 Ask the person to repeat the question when you don’t understand it.
 Ask if other people have questions when one person monopolizes the questioning. If
no one has a question, suggest the person meet you after the presentation to continue
the discussion, and the presentation.
When a group rather than a single person is to make the presentation, continuity becomes a
special concern. Each speaker should thoroughly be familiar with each teammate’s
information in order to coordinate and avoid repetition. It is not necessary that each team
member speak, but all team members should be available during the question and answer
period.

Deal with the Unexpected: Experienced speakers learn to deal with the unexpected.
Audiovisual equipment breaks down. The bulb in the overhead projector burns out. The room
may turn out to be small if the audience ends up being larger than expected You should think
about such problems and correct situations if possible. When the unforeseen does happen the
best approach is one of calmness, good humor, and flexibility.

EVALUATION OF THE PRESENTATION

If circumstances permit, you ask members of the audience to evaluate you presentation.
Such feedbacks will tell your strengths and the area you need to improve.
Presentation Evaluation Form
Presenter: _______________________________________________________
Topic________________________________________________________

Content Not at all Neutral Very Well

Data and evidence were
Adequate 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
effectively used 1 2 3 4 5 6
7
Material adapted to the level of the aud 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Recommendations were full, convincing 1 2 3 4 5 6
7
The Presentation was logically organized 1 2 3 4 5 6
7

Presentation Style
The presentation was well organized 1 2 3 4 5 6
7
Intro was effective in attracting interest of aud 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Purpose of presentation was clear 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
 38

Presenters spoke clearly and effectively1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Visual aids were effective 1 2 3 4 5 6
7
The speaker responded to questions well 1 2 3 4 5 6
7
The speaker held the audience’s interest 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Overall the presentation was professional. 1 2 3 4 5 6
7

Comments___________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_________________________________
 39

1. 5.2 Meetings
A meeting is a face-to-face exchange among a group of people who collaborate to produce
better results than any one of the participants could have produced alone. But most people do
not like meetings. The following statements are examples to illustrate the attitudes of most
people about meetings:
 A committee meeting is a collection of the unfit chosen from the unwilling to do the
uncessary,
 “At Electronic Data System,” said Ross Perrot, “when we saw a snake we’d kill it. At
General Motors, when they saw a snake they’d form a committee.”
 If you want to get a job done give it to an individual; if you want to have it studied
give it a committee. Business meetings are important: they demonstrate how many
people the company can do without.
 Most committee meetings consist of 12 people to do the work of one.( President John
F. Kennedy)
Why meetings are held in such low esteem? Probably because most meetings are not well
managed either by the meeting leader or the meeting participants. Meetings are considered
‘sins’ because of the following problems:
 No goals or agenda
 Getting of the agenda
 Being too lengthy
 Ineffective leadership
 Starting late
 Interruptions
 aggrandizing discussions/ individuals dominate
To be effective a well run meeting needs to balance two things: structure and interaction.
Structure refers to the skill of controlling the meeting so that the group cn stay on task and
channel their energy into achieving the meeting’s goal. Whenever there is a lack of clear
structure, group meetings bounces with no clear focus.

Interaction- freedom of participation to express ideas and react to the comments of others.
A meeting is not really a meeting if only a few talk and others listen.

To structure the interaction of a meeting plan the meeting.

Planning a Meeting
Like other communication, such as writing and presentations; successful meeting requires
planning and preparation. For a meeting to be successful, it must be carefully planned.
Planning consists of determining the purpose of the meeting, deciding who should attend,
and choosing the best time and place to hold the meeting. You also need to prepare an agenda
for the meeting and determine who should take the minutes.

Determine the purpose of the Meeting: The first step in planning a meeting is to focus on
the desired outcome. What you would like to have happened as a result of the meeting. (At
 40

the end of the meeting we will have selected the top three students who will be for best
academic performance and perfect military personality.)
The following questions can help you determine the purpose of the meeting.
1. What do I want participant to know as a result of the meeting.
2. What do I want participant to believe after attending the meeting.
3. What do I want participant to do or be able to do as a result of attending the meeting.
For example, consider that you need to launch a sales campaign for one of your company's
newest products, a scanner. You call a meeting of the sales staff to get their ideas for a
successful promotional campaign. The answers to the pre-meeting questions for this
particular meeting might be as follows:
1. I want the sales force to know that this is an outstanding scanner and that our
customers want it.
2. I want the sales force believe that this is the best scanner on the market and that our
customers want it.
3. I want the sales force to offer ideas for the sales campaign.

Once you have focused your desired outcome, use the information to write a purpose
statement for the meeting that answers the questions what and why.
 The purpose of this meeting is to gather ideas from the sales force [what] to create
a successful sales campaign for our new scanner [why].

Decide who should Attend: There is really no sense in having a meeting if not enough of the
key people are present. The necessary people for the meeting about the scanner sales
campaign might include the advertising manager, sales representative who sell similar
equipment, customer service staff who might handle customers' questions, service manager
who might be involved with maintenance and repair. In the case that the meeting must be
held without some key participants, email those people prior to the meeting for their
contributions. Of course, the meeting minutes should be distributed to significant no
attendees.

Choose the Meeting Time: The time of day and how long the meeting lasts can influence the
outcome of the meeting. Consider the following when you are planning a meeting.
 People need Monday morning to focus on the week's work after the weekend.
 People need Friday afternoon to wrap up the week and take care of tasks that must
be finished before the weekend.
 During the hour following lunch, most people tend to feel sleepy or sluggish, a
condition call Postprandial letdown.
 Be sure to plan for adequate breaks during long meetings to allow participants to
check their messages, make phone calls and refresh themselves.
 A meeting held during the last fifteen minutes of the day is sure to be quick-but it
is likely that no one will remember what went on.

Choose the Meeting Location: Having a meeting on your own premises gives you an
advantage: you feel more comfortable, which along with your guests' newness to their
surroundings may help you get your way. That advantage may backfire, however, by putting
 41

people on the defensive and introducing conflict into the meeting. Holding the meeting on
another person premises, on the other hand, can signal cooperation.

For balance, especially when people are meeting for the first time or are discussing sensitive
issues, having a meeting at a neutral site may be the best solution. No one gains an advantage
in off site meetings, and attendees often feel free to participate.

Establish the Agenda: The agenda is an outline of what the meeting will address. Never
begin a meeting without an agenda, even if it is only a handwritten list of topics. Ideally, the
agenda should be distributed a day or two before the meeting, so the attendees have ample
time to prepare. For a long meeting in which participants are required to make a meeting
presentation, try to distribute the agenda a week or more in advance. If you are not able to
distribute the agenda early, be sure to distribute it at the beginning of the meeting.

Organize the agenda items. You may want to address several issues first before tackling
major ones. Or you may decide to arrange your agenda in terms of priority: discuss the most
important items first and less important ones later.John Tropman and Goshom Morningstar
suggest the” bell curve agenda”. The middle of the meetng is reserved for the most
challenging or controversial issues, opening and closing the meeting with more routine or
less vital issues.
The agenda should list the attendees, the meeting time and place, and the topics you plan
to discuss. If the meeting includes presentations, the agenda should list the time allotted for
each speaker. Finally, the agenda should indicate an approximate length for the meeting so
participants can plan the rest of their day.

If the agenda is distributed in advance of the meeting, it should be accompanied by a

memo or email informing people of the meeting. The cover memo should include the
following information :

 The purpose of the meeting

 Instruction on how to prepare
 The meeting start and stop times
 The date and place
 The names of the people invited

assignments for follow-up. Each assignment is usually given a date by which it must be
completed. To avoid misunderstandings, the minute taker must record each assignment, the
person responsible for it, and the date on which it is due.

Avoid delegating the minute taking to someone who is quite and non participative. The
task will only make harder for that person to participate in the meeting. On the other
hand, the responsibility of taking meeting notes will help a talkative or overly dominant
participant concentrate on what is going on. For a standing committee, it is best to rotate
the responsibility of taking minutes. The following is a memo to accompany the agenda.
 42

MEMO

TO: New products Advertising Manager

Equipment Sales Representatives
Customer-Service Staff
Service Managers

FROM: Susan McLaughlin

DATE: May 7,20

SUBJECT: Planning Meeting

Purpose of the Meeting

The purpose of this meeting is to get your ideas for the upcoming introduction and sales campaign for our new
scanner.
Date: May 11,2007
Time: 9:30 a.m. – 11:00 a.m.

Place: Conference Room E(go to the ground floor, take a right off the elevator, third door on the left)
Attendees
The groups listed above

Agenda
Topic Presenter Time
The scanner Bob Arhuckle Presentation 9:30 – 9:15
The campaign Maria Lope Presentation 9:15 – 10:00
The sales strategy Mary Winifred Presentation 10:00 – 10:15
Discussion Led by Dave Crimes Discussion 10:15 – 11:00

Meeting Preparation

Everyone should prepared to offer suggestions on the following items:

 Sales features of the new scanner
 Techniques for selling scanners
 Customers profile for potential scanner business
 FAQs-Questions customers may ask
 Anticipated service needs of the scanner and attachments.

Conducting the Meeting

In addition to the minute taker, assign a person to the task of writing on a flip chart or
otherwise recording information that needs to be viewed by everyone present. Alternatively,
you can use a computer to gather and display information during a meeting, even project it in
a screen.

Balance Structure and Interaction: During the meeting, keep to your agendas; however,
allow room for differing views and foster an environment in which participants listen
 43

respectfully to one another.).Without interaction meetings become monologue. But with too
much interaction meetings can become disorganized discussion with rambling, redundant and
digressive discussion that waste time. To create such an environment as a leader, adopt the
following principles:

 Encourage less talkative person to participate and limit lengthy contribution by

other members.
 Review your understanding of the group’s progress with brief comments.
 Remind members how much time they have spent on a specific agenda item.
 Consider the feelings, thoughts, ideas, and needs of others do not let your own
agenda blind you to other points of view.

 Help other participants feel valued and respected by listening to them and
responding to what they say.
 Respond positively to the comments of others as best as you can.
 Increase your willingness to accept opinions, perspectives, methods, and
ways of doing things that are different from your own, particularly those from other
cultures.

Deal with conflict. Despite your best efforts, conflict is inevitable, whether because of
personality differences, cultural differences or for other reasons. Conflict is potentially
valuable; when managed positively, it can stimulate creative thinking by challenging
complacency and showing ways to achieve goals more efficiently or economically.
Members of any group are likely to vary greatly in their personalities and attitudes, and
you may encounter people who approach meetings differently. Consider the following tactics
for the interruptive, negative, rambling, overly quiet, and territorial personality types.

 The interruptive person rarely lets anyone finish a sentence and intimidates the
group's quieter members. The best way to deal with such a person is to tell him or
her in a firm but nonhostile tone to let the others finish in the interest of getting
everyone's input. By addressing the issue directly, you signal to the group the
importance of putting common goals first.
 The negative person has difficulty accepting change and often considers a new
idea or project from a negative point of view. Such negativity, if left unchecked, can
demoralize the group as a whole and deflate all enthusiasm for new ideas. If the
negative person brings up a valid point, ask for the group's suggestions to remedy
the issue being raised. If the negative person's reactions are not valid or are outside
the agenda, state the necessity of staying focused on the agenda and perhaps
recommend a separate meeting to address those issues.
 The rambling person cannot collect his or her thoughts quickly enough to
verbalize them and generally wastes valuable meeting time. You can be of
significant help to this type of person by restating or clarifying his or her ideas. Be
careful to avoid being demeaning by prefacing your clarification with "What you
mean is..." Try to strike a balance between providing your own interpretation and
drawing out the person's intended meaning.
 The quiet person may be timid or may just be deep in thought. To draw such
people into a discussion, ask for their thoughts, being careful not to embarrass them.
 44

In some cases, you can have a quiet person jot down his or her thoughts and give
them to you later.
 The territorial person fiercely defends his or her group against real or perceived
threats and may refuse to cooperate with members of other departments, companies,
and so on. Point out that although such concerns may be valid, everyone is working
toward the same overall goal and it takes precedence.
Similarly, as a meeting participant
 Come to the meeting prepared. Decide what information you should bring.
 Organize your ideas. Rambling, disorganized contributions reduce the
effectiveness of the meeting.
 Relate your point to the preceding idea.
 Make one point at a time. Present your ideas one at a time rather than as a
string of related points
 Support your ideas with evidence. Facts, statistics and well selected
examples help the group reach effective solutions.
 Listen actively. When several people are attempting to make points and
counterarguments, you will have to gear up your power of concentration and
listening- checking your understanding by paraphrasing improves communication
and decreases misunderstanding.

.
Close the Meeting:
In closing the meeting, review all decision and assignments. Paraphrase each to help the
group focus on what they have collectively agreed to do as well as to help the minute taker
review his or her notes. This is the time to raise questions and clarify any misunderstandings.
Be sure to set a date by which every one at the meeting can expect to receive copies of the
minute. Finally, thank everyone for participating and close the meeting on positive note.

 Minutes of meetings
Organizations and committees keep official records of their meetings; such records, are
known as minutes. It you attend many business meetings, you may be asked to write and
distribute the minutes of a meeting. For continuing committees, most commonly seen in
educational and governmental organizations, the minutes of the previous meetings are
usually read aloud if they were not distributed to the members beforehand; the group then
votes to accept the minutes as prepared or to revise specific items. Although most meetings
are called to discuss a single topic and most committees are not permanent, minutes are still
issued after each meeting. The bylaws policies and procedures of an organization may
specify what must be included in the meeting minutes.
Because minutes are often used to settle disputes, they must be accurate, complete, and
clear. When approved, minutes of meetings are official and can be used as evidence in legal
proceedings.
Keep your minutes brief and to the point. Give complete information on topic, without
rambling. Except for recording motions, which must be transcribed word for word,
summarize what occurs and paraphrase discussions. Following a set format will help you
keep the minutes concise. You might, for example, use the heading "Topic" followed by the
 45

subheading "Discussion" and "action Taken," for each major point discussed. One possible
formats for minutes of meetings is shown below.
Avoid abstractions and generalities, always be specific. Use names and titles and refer to
people consistently- a lack of consistency in titles for names may reveal or unintentionally
suggest deference to one person at the expense of another. Avoid adjectives and adverbs that
suggest good or bad qualities, as in "Mr. Sturgis's capable assistant read the comprehensive
report to the subcommittee." Minutes should be as objective and impartial as possible.
If a member of the committee is to follow up on something and report back to the
committee at its next meeting, clearly state the person's name and the responsibility he or she
has accepted.
If you have been assigned to take the minutes at a meeting, come to the meeting
fully prepared. Bring more than one pen and plenty of paper. If convenient, record
your notes on a laptop computer. Take memory-jogging notes during the meeting
and expand them with the appropriate details immediately after the meetings, before
you forget.

5.3. Group Discussions

Definition: The interaction of a small group of people to achieve an interdependent goal.

Importance of groups and group discussions

 have more information to work with
 can think of more suggestions and alternatives from which to select the best
 ca correct each other’s misinformation and incorrect assumption
 are willing to implement decisions reached by the group
 develop the concepts and behavior needed for argument and become courageous
enough to advance their views with due respect to others in order to find the
better alternative

Why study about groups and group discussions

Knowing how groups function and the ability to operate effectively in them will be
highly valued skill. It cannot be left to chance. Group members need training to be a
competent communicator.
Group Problem solving and Decision Making Procedure

Problem Solving: The process of changing undesirable situation to a

better situation. For example an organization is losing its members
(undesirable situation) increasing membership (your goal).
Decision making: The act of choosing among options that already exists

Groups using systematic procedures solve problems more effectively and have higher quality
discussions than groups that do not use systematic procedures. Several models exist to help groups
engaged in problem solving. These models engage groups in critical thinking. One of these models is
the procedural methods of Problem solving (P-OPS). The five major steps in this model are:
1. Stating the problem:
 46

• What is the nature of the problem

• What are the causes of the problem
• What is the ultimate desire of the group
• What obstacles there might be to achieving the goal
Suggesting alternatives
• What should be the criteria to judge potential solutions? ( acceptability,
effectiveness, cost)
• What might be done to solve the problems? Having many ideas from which to
choose makes it more likely that good ideas will be included among the choices.
Evaluating the different alternatives
What are the possible benefits and negative consequences of each proposed solution. Every
member must be free to express opinions openly if steps are to work optimally. One
procedure that encourages group creativity is brainstorming.
a)Give the group a problem to solve
b) Encourage members to generate ideas. No evaluation is permitted at this stage
and accept even seemingly unusual, wild, and crazy ideas.
c)Display all ideas to all members: write down on a chalkboard, whiteboard, large sheets
of paper.
d) Evaluate ideas. Critically evaluate each idea. Then retain some of them,
modify, add to the list, or delete some of them
Choosing the best solution all group members can support
5. Implementing the solution. The final steps involves putting the solution into
effect. That may mean how to present the final recommendation.
Groups may use other problem solving procedures. But using no procedure will hurt the group’s
problem solving ability.

To successfully deal with the above problem discussion technique both the leader and group members
contribute a lot.

The Leader’s Role in Problem Solving

The following guidelines for leaders help promote effective problem solving discussions:

• Make sure everyone knows the purpose of the meeting, the group’s charge, and
its area of freedom. Members should have been informed of these of a meeting notice.
• Suggest procedures to follow. If P-MOPS or any other discussion procedure
• Ask a clear, measurable problem questions to focus initial discussions.
• Encourage group creativity
• Keep the discussion goal oriented. Summarize each major problem –solving
step as it is completed
• Make sure everyone has an equal opportunity to speak, with no one either
dominating or withdrawing.
• Encourage members to evaluate information completely before they are
accepted as final group decisions.
• Promote team work and cooperation finally. Establishing a climate of trust does
more than anything else to develop cooperation and team work among members
 47

Group Members’ Role in Problem Solving.

It is important for group members to know how to communicate their ideas. They must learn
to
• relate statements to the preceding remarks. Statements should not come out of the blue.
Remarks should be relevant to the point under discussion.
• speak concisely. Every member wants and deserves a turn.
• state one point at a time. During give and take discussions stating one idea at a time
makes easier for the group to discuss a topic effectively and for other members to respond
directly to each point.
• behave ethically. Refrain from saying or doing things that prevent others from speaking
freely.
• be honest and truthful: Don’t manufacture information to persuade others to change
stand.
• be open minded and unbiased when evaluating information
• behave with integrity. When you are a member of the group , you place the good of the
group ahead of your own; you have promised to benefit the group and keep your promise.

Managing Conflicts in Small Group Communication

• Conflict- struggle between people who must work together but whose goals or
values are incompatible. Conflicts are inevitable and desirable because they improve
creativity and critical thinking. The saying “If two people perceive things in exactly
the same way one of those people is unnecessary.”
Underscores the value of disagreement
-Groupthink -the failure of the group to evaluate ideas critically because they want to
avoid disagreement.

Techniques to Express Disagreement for the Good of the Group

1. Express disagreement: Not speaking up deprives the group of potentially valuable
information.
2. Deal with issues under discussion and do not bring up side issues.
3. Express disagreement with sensitivity
4. Disagree with an idea but not with the person
5. Base your disagreement on evidence, but not on rumor
6. React to disagreement with a spirit of inquiry, not defensiveness.

Managing Conflict
 48

Whether conflict helps or harms the problem-solving process depends on how it is managed. Three
general conflict management styles exist: no confrontation, control, and solution-oriented styles. Each
is appropriate under certain circumstances.

Non confrontation is a passive conflict management style in which the group member who disagrees
says nothing at all or quickly gives in to another member. This style is appropriate only when the
problem is unimportant and the risks of making a poor decision are slight, or when the relationship is
genuinely more important than the outcome.

Control is a highly aggressive conflict management style in which one person tries to win at all costs. It
can cause hard feelings in a group, but it is appropriate when you believe strongly about something and
you perceive your needs will not be acknowledged or accommodated with other approaches.

Solution orientation is a cooperative and assertive conflict management style that encourages all
conflicting parties to work together for a solution that meets everyone’s needs as fully as possible. It is
always appropriate but can take a lot of time,

Compromise Sometimes members try to negotiate solutions that fully meet everyone’s needs but are
unable to arrive at such ideal solutions. In those cases, they have to compromise, and each member
gives up something. However, compromise can be an effective outcome when members feel that what
they have given up is fair in comparison to what others have given up.
 49

Chapter 6: Managing Conflicts in Organizations

2. Definition

Conflicts are efforts that two or more parties with seemingly incompatible goals expend in trying to
gain the advantages in interaction with one another. The parties may be individuals or groups.
Organizations, because they bring together diverse people and groups, provide the potential for
conflicts of many kinds.

Sources of Conflicts

Organizations provide the potentials for conflicts of many kinds. The following are typical
sources of conflicts:
1. Win-Lose and Game Situation:
i. Two people or groups have goals that that cannot be attained simultaneously.
For example if the reward system does not participate many departments refuse another’s request
for loan, supplies, cooperation. Many people have been deeply scripted in the win-lose mentality
since childhood.
ii. Game Theory- This a situation in which the best strategy for one depends on
what the other party will do. A classic game situation is the prisoners’ dilemma. Two
prisoners are suspected of a crime. Questioned in separate rooms each is told either to confess
or remain silent
1. If only one confesses he will be released and given reward while the
other gets stiff sentences
2. If both confess they will be jailed with light sentences.
3. If both remain silent both the suspects will be released. Expressed
numerically

Remain silent Prisoner B Confess

 50

Remain silent
1 2 2 being released and getting
reward
1 -2
1 being released
Prisoner A -1 light sentence
-2 -2 stiff sentence
-1
2 -1
confess
An organizational parallel to the
prisoner’s dilemma could occur
between departments

i. Differing Subunit Goals and Perceptions: Members of the organization can

agree on the organization’s mission but disagree on specific goals, e.g. on the quality of service or
profit.

ii. Cultural Diversity within the Organization:

1.The value systems of employees coming from different cultures vary. Employees from USA,
Netherlands, Canada, New Zealand, UK value individualism- place the advancement of their
own goals above the group goal; employees from Japan, Colombia, Greece, Mexico,
Pakistan, Singapore value collectivism- see organizational goal above their own.
2.Employees from Brazil, Indonesia, Spain, France follow the leaders orders unquestioningly;
Employees from Denmark , Norway, New Zealand, USA ask whether the leaders’ request or
decision makes sense or benefits them.
3.In USA, people accept power and conflict; Japanese reject conflict.
iii. Political Nature of Organization: All organizations are political to some
degree because of
i. the completion for scarce resources
ii. the need for power- the need to influence
iii. the tendency to resist authority or counter such resistance
iv. the need to defeat rivals
v. complex decision making procedures
3. Effects of Conflict
Conflicts can have positive effects and negative effects
Positive Effects
 Stimulate creative thinking
 Inspire people to try new approaches
 Address and dealt with long standing problems
 Allow people to clarify their view points
 Heighten interests in the task at hand
 Test people’s abilities
Negative Effects

 Certain people feet defeated and embarrassed

 Contact between people is reduced
 Distrust and suspicion increases
 Parties that need to cooperate pursue self interest
 51

 People leave because of the turmoil

Effects within Groups

:
1. Members become More Cohesive: Faced with
common enemy members forget internal disputes and their loyalty to the group grows.
2. Members become more task oriented. Members
become less concerned with individual satisfaction and more concerned with getting work done.
3. Leadership becomes more autocratic. The group
becomes less democratic. Leaders tend to make unilateral rather than group decision
4. Group structure becomes more formal. Members,
duties and responsibilities become more clearly defined. And group members do things according
to rules and procedures
5. Group norms become stronger. Conformity to the
group norm, loyalty to the group and its value increase
Effects between Groups

1. Each group’s perception of the other becomes

negative. The groups see one another as enemies rather than neutral objects and they are likely to
label derogatory labels to each other.
2. Perceptual distortions occur. Members see their
own groups as being right and the opposing group as being wrong. Negative facts about one’s
own group are discounted; positive aspects of the opponent are ignored
3. Hostility increases and communication decreases.
A decrease in interaction between the two groups reduces their opportunity to correct their
perceptual distortions.

Approaches to Managing Conflict in organizations

It is impossible to imagine an organization in which conflicts never occur and it is important for
organization members to understand how to deal with conflict:
1. Avoiding: Choose not to disagree or bring up a conflicting point. Avoiding can be a useful
technique for cooling off dissenting parties or for preventing dispute about unimportant
matters cannot be a solution to serious and basic issues. It is appropriate when the issue is
not important.
2. Smoothing. Work together with matters parties can agree on and ignore others.
3. Forcing. Forcing occurs
a) Use power to defeat the opposing group
b) refer the dispute to shared superior or some other arbiters for a
Forcing important when the organization has to implement a policy, but it evokes bitterness
in the losing party
4. Compromising . It is the process of give and take. Each side moves from its original
positions one that is somewhere between. Issues are not dealt with according to their
merits; it precludes the search for better solutions to the problem. As a result the outcome is
often less than appealing to both sides.
5. Collaborating( Win- win style of conflict management) The parties in conflict work. Two
kinds of behavior are essential to this kind:
• expressing one’s point of view as clearly aw possible
• listening fully to the other sides point view.
 52

This method is effective when the parties are open- minded and desirous of solving the
problem.Moderate level of conflicts can improve individual and group performance. People
realize that their first perception was wrong and now can give better decision. On the other
hand if conflicts are left to chance level of interaction between people decreases this
shatters cooperation kills motivation for work channel energy away from goal
attainment.

To deal with conflict

• Increase between contending parties
• Develop super ordinate goals
• Develop subordinate goals which are important to both groups
• Restructure the organization
-separate conflicting parties
-redefine task responsibilities and decentralize hierarchies
 53

6.3. Group Discussions

Definition: The interaction of a small group of people to achieve an independent goal.

Small- a group consisting of members who can interact with each other; typically it contains
3 people but may have as many as 15 or more.

Interaction: communication in which each member can influence and can be influenced by
others in a face to face situation or other channel of communication, e.g. computer network.

Interdependent- relationship in which one member cannot achieve the group’s goal without
the other member achieving it also.
Importance of groups and group discussions
a) to meet needs that we cannot meet ourselves
 the need for inclusion
 the need for affection
 the need to control our environment ( One person cannot build a house.
One person cannot influence policy makers and bring about changes
b) to do our jobs more effectively and efficiently.
 have more information to work with
 can think of more suggestions and alternatives from which to select the best
 ca correct each other’s misinformation and incorrect assumption
 are willing to implement decisions reached by the group
As a result many American companies have installed groups at all levels in the design,
manufacturing and marketing of products.

c) to practice democracy and achieve our ideals as a society: to become courageous

enough to advance our views with due respect to others in order to find the better
alternative- we develop our concept of and the behaviour needed for argument

Why study about groups and group discussions

If we are not able to escape spending time or working with a group, knowing how groups
function and the ability to operate effectively in them will be highly valued skill. It
cannot be left to chance. Group members need training to be a competent communicator.

The development of Group Culture

Culture_ a system of behavior, language, values, artifacts customs by an identifiable

individuals.

Many factors contribute to the development of group cultures: the cultures from which
members come, group norms, group roles, communication networks, fantasies, group
climate.
 54

The Cultures from Which Members Come

Group culture develops from the ways in which cultures differ. Cultures differ because of
differences in world view, perception of power distance, perception of uncertainty avoidance,
level of importance of context in establishing meaning.

Worldview: In some cultures people ‘go with flow’; they believe what happens to them is
the result of fate, not their own efforts- people in other cultures emphasize change. What
happens to them depends on their efforts.

Power distance: refers to whether status differences between the leader and members are
minimized or maximized.
Australia, Israel, New Zealand- equality is emphasized
Power distance cultures( Philippines, Mexico, India) hierarchical status system is preferred.
High power distance cultures expect controlling group leader; low power distance cultures
treat the leader as an equal.

Uncertainty Avoidance: refers to how comfortable people are with ambiguity and
uncertainty. In high uncertainty avoidance culture ( e.g. Greece and Japan) ambiguity and
unpredictability make people anxious; people prefer clear( even rigid) rules that tell them
exactly how to behave. In contrast, people in low uncertainty avoidance cultures( e.g. Great
Britain) have a high tolerance for ambiguity about how to behave. Lusting and Koester
suggested that, when low and high uncertainty avoidance individuals are in the same group,
the former perceive the latter as too structured and the latter perceive the former as too
unconventional.

Importance of context in establishing meaning: In cultures with low context

communication, such as the United States, message is conveyed by the words used rather than
by the context. Direct, clear statements are valued. In high context communication such as
Japan, China and Korea, certain features of the context provide the meaning. What is not said
may be more important in determining than what is said. Ambiguity is preferred, with several
shades of meaning possible, in part because this helps people save face. To understand fully
what someone means you must be able to read subtle cues in the context.

Gender: Each culture establishes “rules” for what is appropriate behavior for males and
females. However, these gender rules have changed so much and so fast that past findings may
not apply to day.

Group Norms

Informal rules for interaction that will eventually guide the members’ behaviors. George
Homans called a norm “an idea in the minds of the members of a group, what the members …
ought to do, are expected to do under given circumstances. For example, if one comes late to a
 55

meeting and no one seems bothered, other members may get the message that coming on time
to meeting is not necessary. Or when one group member chastises another by saying, “It’s
about time you got here”), it indicates that a norm has been violated.

When group members come together for the first time, they bring with them past
experiences and. It is out of these experiences and expectations as well as its unique
interaction. . . . that a particular group formulates its rules.

Members should pay attention to group norms to ensure that they are appropriate for what the
group must accomplish

Group Roles

Roles are determined largely by the relative performance skills of the rest of the members. For
example, one who knows exactly how the group can accomplish its tasks may try to structure
the group’s work. The group members may reinforce and reward his statements and actions.
This reinforcement, in turn, encourages the member to perform more of those structuring
behaviors.

If the member’s attempts to structure the group are seen as pushiness or bossiness, they may
discourage him and may collectively support another member as the group’s organizer.) If
Toshio calls the group’s first meeting to order, the others may expect him to call all their
meetings to order. If Andrea speaks frequently, she may find others looking to her for comment
on each new issue. Quiet members may find themselves increasingly ignored.

Every member needs to have a role that makes a meaningful contribution to the group. If one
role doesn’t work, the member will usually try to find another way to participate.

A number of classification schemes describe typical group member’s behaviors. One common
scheme classifies behaviors by whether they perform task, maintenance, or self-centered
functions.

Task functions are behaviors that are directly relevant to the group’s task and that affect the
group’s output. Their purpose is to focus group members productively on their assignment.

Maintenance functions are behaviors that focus on the interpersonal relationships among
members; they are aimed at supporting cooperative and harmonious relationships. Both task
and maintenances functions are considered essential to effective group communication.

Self-Centered Functions are behaviors that serve the needs of the individual at the expense of
the group needs or wants. “I want. . . .” Self –centered functions manipulate other members for
selfish goals that compete with group goals.

The Networks of Communication

 56

communication network: the pattern of message flow (who actually speaks to whom in
discussions). The frequency and direction of communication both create the group’s network
and maintain it.
All-channel net work : Ideally, a small group of peers has an all-channel net work, in which all
participants are free to comment on a one-to-one basis with all others and with the group as a
whole.
Chain and Y networks: In both the chain and Y networks, each member speaks only to one or
two other members. For instance, the president may speak only to the vice-presidents, who
speak to the division chiefs.

Wheel network: In a wheel network, all comments are directed toward one central person
(usually the designated leader). Leaders get into the habit of commenting after each person’s
remarks.

Which is the best network? That seems to depend on the type of task and the time available to
the group. Centralized networks such as the wheel, chain, and Y are often quicker and more
accurate, especially for fairly simple problems, although members are usually less satisfied.
The decentralized all-channel network seems to take more time but may, in fact, be quicker and
more accurate for complex problems. It generally produces higher member satisfaction as well.

Group Fantasy
During certain periods of the group’s interaction, rather than sticking to the group’s immediate
business, the members tell stories, relate past events, and share anecdotes. Although the talk of
group members may seem outside the group’s real task, it may actually meet important
psychological needs of the members.

Sometimes other members pick up the story line and elaborate on it in a kind of group
storytelling. This is called a fantasy chain.

Group climate
Group climate: the atmosphere members create within the group. Three factors that contribute
heavily to group climate are trust, cohesiveness, and supportiveness.
 57

Trust
Trust means that members believe they can rely on each other. If one says he’ll have the
membership report finished in time for the meeting, other members believe him. When one
disagrees with a suggestion, other members know he is trying to improve the group’s output,
not trying to backstab another member. Members believe the other is doing with the best
interests of the group in mind and not from hidden agendas. All members are free to discuss
the group’s task instead of trying to defend them.

Cohesiveness
Cohesiveness refers to the attachment members feel toward each other and the group.
Members feel a strong sense of belonging to the group. They sit close together and conform to
the group’s norms. They respond directly to each other and say positive things to and about
each other. They have higher rates of interaction. Members are more satisfied with the group
and its products. In addition, cohesive groups exert greater control over member behaviors.

Cohesive groups cope more effectively with unusual problems and work better as a team to
meet emergencies. One study found that there is an optimum level of cohesiveness beyond
which performance decreases. When the members support an organization’s goals and are
motivated and enthused about completing the task, they are productive. However, highly
cohesive groups that are socially rather than task oriented may end up accomplishing nothing.

Supportiveness
A supportive climate, an atmosphere of openness, is created when members care about each
other and treat each other with respect. Members who are supportive foster trust and create
cohesiveness. In a defensive climate, an atmosphere of tension, members feel they must
defend themselves from verbal or psychological attack. In this case, members spend so much
energy defending themselves that little energy is available for productive and creative group
work.

5.3.4. Group Leadership and Problem Solving

4.3.4,.1.What is Leadership?

Most social scientists define Leadership as a process of using communication to influence the
behaviors and attitudes of others to meet group goals. Communication is at the heart of this
process:

Leadership, then is enacted through communication and persuasion, not through physical force
or coercion. Furthermore, only influence designed to benefit the group can truly be termed
small group leadership. One member persuading another to sabotage a group goal is not
considered leadership by this definition.

A leader is a person who influences the behavior and attitudes of others through
communication. In small groups, there are two types of leaders: designated and emergent.
 58

A designated leader is someone who has been appointed or elected to a leadership position
(e.g., chair, team leader, coordinator, or facilitator).

An emergent leader is some one who become an informal leader by exerting influence toward
achievement of a group’s goal but who does not hold the formal position or role of leader.
Emergent leaders are group members who become influential by behaving in ways that are
helpful to the group and that are valued by the other members. Thus, any member of a group
can provide leadership.

The Source of Influence

How do leaders gain their ability to influence others? A classic study by French and Raven
identified five types of interpersonal influence or power: reward, punishment, legitimate,
referent, and expert.

Reward power: giving followers things they want and need including tangible items such as
money, material goods, and personal favors or intangible items such as special attention,
acknowledgement and compliment.

Punishment power: withholding what others want and value. A leader who frowns because a
member has failed to complete an assignment is administering a form of punishment. Coercion
is a form of punishment that attempts to force compliance with hostile tactics. Genuine leaders
should not resort to coercion because it breeds resentment.

A leader has legitimate power by virtue of title or position. Legitimate leaders have the right to
do certain things in groups that other members may not have, such as calling meetings,
preparing the agenda, checking on the work of other members, and making assignments.

Referent power is power based on other’s admiration or respect. When someone likes you,
you have considerable influence over that person.

Expert power: Leaders have expert power when the other members value the leaders’
knowledge or expertise. For instance, if your group must conduct a panel discussion for class,
and you are the only one who has ever participated in a panel discussion, you have expertise
the others value and, thus, can influence them because they respect your knowledge.

All members of a group have the ability to influence other members. For instance, all
members, not just the designated leader, can reward others, withhold rewards, or have expertise
potentially valuable to the group.

The Theoretical Approaches to Leadership

Since Aristotle’s time, people have been interested in what makes a good leader, Is it
something you are born with? Can you learn to be a leader? In this section, several approaches
to understanding leadership are presented.
 59

Trait Approaches: assert that leaders are born, not made. Traits, such as intelligence,
attractiveness, and size made them leaders. Leaders have higher IQs and are taller, more
attractive, and larger than non-leaders.

More temporary trait approaches have found that more complex traits such as self monitoring
are related to leadership emergence. Self monitoring refers to individual’s abilities to monitor
or pay attention to, both social cues and their own behavior and can adjust their behaviors
according to what seems needed at any given time to suit group needs. Interestingly, female
high self-monitors may not emerge as leaders because they pick up cues that female leadership
is inappropriate and conform to other members’ expectations.

Verbal style is another characteristic associated with leadership emergence. members who
suggested procedures and helped organize the group emerged as leaders.

Style Approaches: There are three major styles of designated leaders: democratic, laissez-
fair, and autocratic.
Democratic leaders encourage members to participate in group decisions, even major ones.
Laissez-faire leaders take almost no initiative for structuring a group decisions but may
respond to questions:
Autocratic leaders maintain strict control over their groups, including making assignments
and giving orders: they make more attempts to coerce and fewer attempts to get others to
participate.

Most scholars believe that the style should match the needs of the situation.

Contingency Approaches
Contingency approaches to studying leadership assume that group situations vary, with
different situations (contingencies) requiring different leadership styles. In this section,
information about two contingency approaches is presented.

The functions Approaches assumes that groups have two main types of functions: task
functions and interpersonal functions. The balance of task and interpersonal functions needed
vary from group to group and from one time to another in the same group. For example, a
group with a crisis on its hand and little time to solve will need to concentrate on task-oriented
functions, whereas a newly formed group whose goal is celebrating cultural diversity will need
to pay careful attention to interpersonal functions such as harmony, respect, and support.

The leader’s unique function is to serve as the completer, to observe what needed functions are
not being performed and to perform them or encourage others to do so. This approach
acknowledges that group leadership behavior is a property of the group and a product of the
interaction among members and the designated leader.

Situational Models: focuses on the need to change the leadership approach over time.
Leaeadership behaviors can focus on the task, the interpersonal relationships among members,
both, or neither. For example, a relatively inexperienced or unmotivated group needs a leader
who focuses on task concerns until members understand their task and objectives. As members
 60

become familiar with the task and the group begins to mature as a team, the leader should
begin to increase relationship behavior. With even greater maturity, task behavior can be
reduced, and, at full maturity, the leader can essentially allow the group members to run the
group themselves, with little or no task or relationship activity from the leader.
This model suggests that group’s situation changes over time. Effective leaders can both assess
a group’s situation and adapt their behavior to fit the ever changing needs of the group.

The Communicative competencies Approach: focus on the communicative

behaviors of leaders as they exercise interpersonal influence to accomplish group goals.
Effective group leaders
1. encode ideas clearly and concisely; speak clearly and fluently and be able to verbalize
problems, goals, values, ideals, and solutions.
2. mediate information and ideas supplied by all members.
-are good at structuring disorganized or ambiguous information,
ask probing questions to bring out pertinent information
evaluate inferences and conclusions drawn from information.
3. express their opinions provisionally. Members do not like dogmatic leaders. Groups
produce more and better alternatives if their leaders withhold their own opinions until later in a
discussion instead of expressing them early. Groups whose leaders suspend their own
judgments and encourage members to consider multiple viewpoints fully produce better
solutions than other groups.
4. respect others when they speak. They are sensitive to non verbal signals, and they are
committed to the group’s goals in both word and deed. They confront members who are more
self-than group-centered.
5. share rewards and credit with the group, give credit to the group for accomplishments,
and work to develop the leadership competencies of all members. They communicate their
appreciation for the efforts of others.

The Distributed leadership Approach: Emphasizes equal responsibility for

effective leadership. Leadership functions, such as providing structure, setting group
norms, and keeping the group on task, are performed by various members. Each member is
expected to perform the communication behaviors needed to move the group toward its goal.
Leadership is a property of the group, not of a single individual. In fact, groups seem to be
more productive when leadership behaviors are distributed.
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Problem Solving and Decision Making

Many groups exist to solve problems. Groups are usually (but not always) better problem
solvers than individuals, because several people can provide more information than one person.
Groups also can supply more resources and collectively have a broader perspective. Group
members can spot flaws in each other’s reasoning.

However, there are trade-offs. Group problem solving takes longer, and sometimes personality,
procedural, or social problems in a group make it difficult for members to work as a team.
Group problem solving is superior under certain conditions, such as when multiple solutions
are equally appropriate, there is ample time for the group to meet and discuss. Groups are
particularly well suited for conjunctive tasks, for which no one member has all the necessary
information but each member has some information to contribute. Individuals are often better
at disjunctive tasks, which require little coordination and which can be completed by the most
skilled member working alone. Group problem solving is usually more effective when the
process is systematic and organized because a group that does not have an overall plan for
decision making is more likely to make a poor decision.

Problem solving is the process of moving from an undesirable pressing situation to a desirable
goal by overcoming obstacles to that goal. For instance, if your organization is losing
members ( an undesirable present situation), increasing membership may be your goal. You
face certain obstacle, such as lack of information about why members are quitting. The
problems-solving process is a comprehensive procedure with several steps, including assessing
the current situation, creating alternatives and evaluating them, selecting one or more, and
implementing them. Decision making refers only to the act of choosing among options that
already exist. The tow processes are related, however, because many decisions are made in the
process of problem solving.

When a group is given its charge, or assignment, there are limits placed on its ability to act.
This is the group’s area of freedom, which is usually stated or implied in the charge. The
charge specifies what a group is to do, whereas the area of freedom defines the boundaries
within which the group must work. For instance, the task force designing a new campus union
is given a financial limit it cannot exceed; the union must not cost more than $2 million. Both
the charge and the area of freedom should be clear to all group members at the beginning of a
problem-solving discussion.

If problem solving is to be effective, three major criteria must be met. First, the group must be
organized. If it isn’t, essential business that should be taken care of will not occur or may not
be fully completed. Second, the group must be creative. Members must extend their individual
thinking to come up with innovative ideas. Finally, the group must manager conflict
appropriately so that the group is helped, not hurt, by differences of opinion. Each of these will
be discussed in greater detail.

Organizing Problem-solving Discussions

Groups using systematic procedures solve problems more effectively and have higher quality
discussions than do groups that do not use systematic procedures. An effective problem-
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solving process starts with an appropriate discussion question, includes an explicit discussion
of the criteria the group will use to judge potential solutions, and follows a systematic problem
solving procedure.

Wording the Discussion Question Problem-solving groups typically handle three basic types
of discussion questions. Questions of fact deal with whether something is true or can be
verified. Questions of value ask whether something is good or bad, better or worse. cultural
and individual values and beliefs are central to questions of value. Questions of policy ask
what action should be taken. The key word should is either stated or implied in questions of
policy.

Regardless of the type of discussion question guiding a problem-solving group, the leader must
state the question appropriately. Well-stated questions are clear, are measurable, and focus on
the problem rather than on a solution. First, the language and terminology should be concrete
rather than abstract. If ambiguous terms such as effective, good, or fair are used, providing
examples helps each group member have as close to the same meaning as possible.
Second, well-stated discussion question helps group members know when the solution has
been achieved. Finally, a group should start its problem solving with a problem question rather
than a solution question. Problem questions focus on the undesirable present state and imply
that many solutions are possible. Solution questions, on the other hand , slant the group’s
discussion to ward one particular option.

Discussing Criteria. Criteria are the standards by which a group must judge potential
solutions. For example, a solution’s likely effectiveness (“will it work?”), acceptability (“will
people vote for our proposal?”), and cost (“Does this option keep us within the budget?”) are
common criteria groups use. Group members should discuss and agree on criteria before a
solution is adopted.
Two kinds of criteria are common. Absolute criteria are those that must be met; important
criteria are those that should be met, but the group has some flexibility. Group members should
give the highest priority to criteria that must be met. Ideas that do not meet absolute criteria
should be rejected and the rest ranked on how well they meet important criteria.

Several models exist to help groups engage in systematic problem solving. Many of these
models are based on the reflective thinking model of philosopher John Dewey. It is designed
to help groups engage in critical thinking by keeping problem-solving discussions orderly so
the group is less likely to omit an important step in the problem-solving discussions process.
so the group is less likely to omit an important step in the problem – solving process. In
addition, it can be modified for a number of different kinds of problems.

The five major steps in the Procedural Model of Problem Solving (P-MOPS) are described as
follows:
e) What is the nature of the problem facing us? The group makes a thorough
assessment of the problem, including what is unsatisfactory, what led to the
undesirable saturation, what members ultimately desire, and what the
obstacles to that goal might be. Having many ideas from which to choose
makes it more likely that good ideas will be included among the choices.
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f) What might be done to solve the problem? Having many ideas from which
to choose makes it more likely that good ideas will be included among the
choices
g) What are the possible benefits and possible negative consequences of each
proposed solutions. Once the problem has been thoroughly analyzed and
alternatives described, the group is ready to evaluate the alternatives
described. Every member must be free to express opinions openly if this
step is to work optimally
h) What is the best solution we can all support? If a decision seems to have
emerged during the evaluation of the alternatives, the decision leader should
ask for consensus. Sometimes members find some ways of or modifying
options to refine them during this step.
i) What will we do to put our solutions into effect? The final step involves
implementing the solution. That may mean planning how to present the final
recommendations to a parent organization

The single biggest error made by groups that reach faulty solutions is the failure to discuss
thoroughly one or more of these steps.

It does not seem to matter what problem-solving procedure a group use, but using no structural
pattern definitely seems to hurt the group’s problem-solving ability. Apparently, using a
systematic problem-solving procedure helps ensure that addressing the essential functions is
not left to chance.

To successfully deal with above problem discussion techniques both the leader and individual
members contribute a lot. One of the most important jobs a leader has is to encourage group
creativity. One procedure that encourages creativity is brainstorming, a technique that
originated in the advertising industry to help develop imaginative advertising campaigns.
Critical evaluation kills creativity, so the main rule of brainstorming is “no evaluation,” at least
during the brainstorming process. Evaluation of the ideas takes place after the group has
exhausted its options, There are four steps to brainstorming:
2. The group is given a problem to solve.
3. Members of the group are encouraged to generate as many solutions as possible. Four
guidelines are essential:
a. No evaluation is permitted- no criticism of, laughing at, or negative reactions to
any ideas.
b. The group strives for quantity-the more ideas listed, the better.
c. Innovation is encouraged-unusual, wild, and crazy ideas are sought.
d. “Hitchhiking” is encouraged-members are asked to add to or modify others’
ideas.

4. All ideas are charted so the entire group can see them. All ideas are written down on a
chalkboard, marker board, or large sheets of paper plainly visible to all members of the
brainstorming team, because looking at the posted ideas often triggers new ones. The listed
ideas can later be used to write meeting minutes.
5. All ideas are evaluated at a different session. After the brainstorming technique has been
used to generate a long list of possible solutions, critical thinking is used to evaluate each idea,
possibly to modify or improve on some of them, and to retain for consideration only those
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ideas that meet essential criteria. Sometimes a different group evaluates the ideas created by
the brainstorming group.

Secondly it is important for each group member to know how to communicate their ideas. If
each of us, as a group member, is responsible for the outcomes of the groups to which we
belong, what can we do to help achieve productive outcomes?. You will help fellow group
members understand you better by organizing your comments during small group
discussions.

2. Relate your statements to preceding remarks. Your statement should not

appear to come out of the blue. Make it clear that your remark is relevant to the topic
under discussion by linking it to the immediately preceding remark.
2. Speak concisely. Don’t be long-winded.
During a speech, the Audience expects the speaker to monopolize the floor but, during a
small group discussion, every member wants and deserves a turn
3. State one point at a time. Sometimes this rule is
violated appropriately, such as when one group member presents a report to the rest of the
group. However, during give-and-take discussion, stating one idea at a time makes easier
for the group to discuss a topic effectively and for other member to respond directly each
topic, and
4. throughout the discussion members are expected
to behave ethically. Group members must

 be willing to share their unique perspective and refrain from saying or doing things that
prevent others from speaking freely.
 be honest and truthful. In a small group, they should not intentionally deceive one
another or manufacture information or evidence to persuade other members to adopt their point
of view.
 be thorough and unbiased when they evaluate information. Group members must
consider all relevant information in an open-minded, unbiased way by using the best critical
thinking skills they can; otherwise, tragedies can result.
 behave with integrity. Members must be willing to place the good of the group ahead of
their own goals. Some individuals cannot be team player because they are unable or unwilling
to merge their personal agendas with those of the group. Groups are better off without such
individuals. If you make a commitment to join the group, be the kind of team member who will
benefit rather than harm the group. If you cannot in good conscience give a group your
support, it is better for you to leave the group than to pretend to support it while sabotaging it.

5.3.4. Managing Conflict in Small Group Problem Solving

Conflict is an expressed struggle between people who must work to gather (such as group
members) but whose goals or values are incompatible. Not only is conflict inevitable in small
groups, it is desirable. Conflict is at the heart of effective problem solving and decision making
because it can improve group creativity and critical thinking. The saying that, if two people
perceive things in exactly the same way, one of those people is unnecessary underscores the
value of disagreement. Group members who are doing their jobs well should disagree. The
failure of a group to evaluate its options thoroughly and critically because of its failure to
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express disagreement is called groupthink and can seriously damage a group’s problem-solving
process. However, conflict must be managed appropriately for the group to realize its benefits.

The following guidelines help members capitalize on conflict for the good of the group:
1. .Express disagreement. Not speaking up deprives the group of of potentiallyvaluable
information.
2. Deal with issues under discussion and do not bring up side issues.
3. Express disagreements with sensitivity. Monitor the effects of your statements on others
and adjust your communication appropriately.
4. Disagree with an idea, but do not ever criticize the person.
5. Base your disagreement on evidence and reasoning, rather than rumor, innuendo, or
emotion.
6. React to disagreement with a spirit of inquiry, not defensiveness. If someone disagrees
with you, do not react as though you have been attacked personally. Listen emphatically to
your fellow member’ remarks. Clarify any misunderstandings and work together to discover a
mutually acceptable solution. In this way, you make conflict work for, rather than against, the
group.
7. If someone persists in attacking you, stay calm. If this doesn’t work, ask for the group’s
intervention.

Managing Conflict whether conflict helps or harms the problem-solving process depends on
how it is managed. Three general conflict management styles exist: no confrontation, control,
and solution-oriented styles. Each is appropriate under certain circumstances.

Nonconfrontation is a passive conflict management style in which the group member who
disagrees says nothing at all or quickly gives in to another member. This style is appropriate
only when the problem is unimportant and the risks of making a poor decision are slight, or
when the relationship is genuinely more important than the outcome.

Control is a highly aggressive conflict management style in which one person tries to win at
all costs. It can cause hard feelings in a group, but it is appropriate when you believe strongly
about something and you perceive your needs will not be acknowledged or accommodated
with other approaches.

Solution orientation is a cooperative and assertive conflict management style that encourages
all conflicting parties to work together for a solution that meets everyone’s needs as fully as
possible. It is always appropriate but can take a lot of time, Solution-oriented outcomes often
last because all members have their most important needs met. Sometimes members try to
negotiate solutions that fully meet everyone’s needs but are unable to arrive at such ideal
solutions. In those cases, they have to compromise, and each member gives up something.
However, compromise can be an effective out come when members feel that what they have
given up is fair in comparison to what others have given up.

The Leader’s Role in Problem Solving

The following guidelines for leaders help promote effective problem solving discussions:
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1. Make sure everyone knows the purpose of the meeting, the group’s charge,., and its
area of freedom. Members should have been informed of these of a meeting notice.
2. Suggest procedures to follow. If P-MOPS or aor any other discussion procedure
3. Ask a clear, measurable problem questions to focus initial discussions.
4. Keep the discussion goal oriented. Summarize each major problem –solving step as
it is completed
5. Make sure everyone has an equal opportunity to speak, with no one either
dominating or withdrawing.
6. Encourage members to evaluate information completely before they are accepted as
final group decisions.
7. Promote team work and cooperation finally. Establishing a climate of trust does
more than anything else to develop cooperation and team work among members

2.2. Theories on Interpersonal Communication

Interpersonal communication is a kind of communication between two people or small
groups of people. When two people talk with one another many factors are involved
including differences in background emotion, perception, and motivation. It may seem
amazing to think that people can understand one another at all. For a better understanding of
the theories on interpersonal communication it is important to consider the non verbal code
systems used to supplement, reinforce or substitute for the verbal codes.
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2.3 Theories on Group and Public Communication.

Functional Perspective on Group Decision Making of Randy Horokawa. A cynic once said that
“A camel is a horse put together by a committee.” Though many share this pessimistic view the
results of research in business, education and government shows that problems solving groups often
come up with solutions that are superior to anything thought of by individual members. The recurrent
finding that the group is greater than the sum of its parts has stimulated efforts to explain the typical
process of group decision- making.

Both Hirokawa and Gouran regard talk as a social tool that helps group reach better conclusions than
they otherwise might. As the Hebrew proverb suggests, “Without counsel plans go wrong but with
many advisors they succeed) The functional perspective illustrates the wisdom of joint interaction.”

Four Functions of Effective Decision Making

Hirokawa and Gouran see the group decision-making process as needing to fulfill four task
requirement if members are to reach a high quality solution.
1.Analysis of the Problem: Is something going on that requires improvement? To answer that
question, group members must take a realistic look at current conditions. Members figure out the
nature, extent, and probable causes of the problem. Hirokawa notes that the clearest example of
faulty analysis is a failure to recognize a potential threat when one really exists.
2.Goal Setting or Establishing Criteria: Group members need to be clear on what they are trying to
accomplish. A group needs to establish criteria by which to judge proposed solutions. If the group
fails to satisfy this task requirement, it is likely that personal prejudice or organizational politics will
drive the choice rather than the reasons. A search committee for a lecturer can set the following
criteria:
A successful candidate should
 Possess an earned doctorate
 Should have taught at college level for at least five years
 Be a scholar publishing actively in a communication journal etc
Such set of standards give committee members confidence in their final decisions.
3.Identification of Alternatives: Hirokawa and Gouran stressed the importance of marshalling a
number of alternative solutions from which group members could choose. If no one calls attention to
the need for generating as many alternatives as is realistically possible, then relatively few may be
introduced, and the corresponding possibility of finding the acceptable answer will be low.
4. Evaluation of positive and Negative Characteristics: After a group has identified as alternative
solutions, participants must take care to test the relative merits of each option against the criteria they
believe are important and have already established. Hirokawa and Gouran warn that even if members
are willing to look at the pluses and minuses of each, they easily can slip into one of the four errors of
judgment: Failure to recognize positive and negative qualities; or overestimating the positive and
negative qualities. Hirokawa also recognizes that the requirement of a given task may make a specific
function less important than it normally is. For example to the extent that the task is obvious to
everyone, problem definition and goal setting will have less impact on the quality of their solution
than time spent generating and evaluating solutions.
The Role of Communication in fulfilling Functions

Talk is the medium through which information travels between participants. Verbal interaction makes
it possible for members to
a) distribute and pool information
b) catch and remedy errors
c) influence each other
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Similar to Shnnon and Weavr’s concept of channel noise causing a loss of information, group
researcher Ivan Steiner claimed that

Actual productivity= potential productivity – losses due to process.

It follows that communication is best when it doesn’t obstruct or distort the free flow of ideas.

Hirokawa believes that communication plays a more active role in crafting quality discussions. He
regarded group discussions as a tool or instrument that group members use to create the social reality
in which decisions are made , and as a force that influence the end product. How does it work in
practice? Members can easily wander off the right path and get caught up in a tangle of bushes
because of ignorance of the issue, faulty facts, misguided assumptions, sloppy evaluations, illogical
interferences, disregard of procedural norms and undue influence, by powerful members. Hirokawa
and Gouran believe that people go astray through talk but they also believe that communication has
the power to pull them back onto the goal directed path.

Consistent with convictions, Hirokawa and Gouran outline three types of communication in decision
making groups.
1. Promotive: interaction that moves the group along the goal path by calling attention to one of the
four requisite decision making function
2. Disruptive: Interaction that diverts, retards or frustrates the ability to achieve the four task
functions
1. Counteractive: interaction that members use to get the group back on track.
Effective group discussion making is an exercise of counteractive influence . Someone has to say
something to get the group back on track.
How can we use the functional perspective to facilitate better group discussion?

1. We can make sure that we don’t come to the table with the sort of closed minded attitude that
contribute to the problem rather than the solution
2. We also be wary of any intuitive hunch that we can’t back up with reasonable evidence
3. We should take proactive measures to promote clear thinking within the group.
You may be hesitant to encounter act the dubious logic of a powerful leader or a high status member
of the group, but Gouran and Hirokawa don’t advocate a direct criticism. Instead they recommend a
strategy of insisting on a careful process. By raising questions, calling for more alternatives, and
urging a thorough evaluation of evidence, a low status person can have a high power impact on the
quality of the final decision.