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The protons and neutrons in each atom are tightly packed in a positively charged
nucleus. Negatively charged electrons move around the nucleus. The number of
protons in a nucleus defines the type of atom and is the same asthe atomic number.
The number of neutrons is found by subtracting the atomic number from the mass
number. In an atom because there is no overall charge the number of electrons
equals the number of protons.


 



 


Geiger and Marsden bombarded a thin gold foil with a beam of alpha particles.

Most of the particles passed through the foil without deflection and were detected by
a flash of light when the alpha particle struck a zinc sulphide screen, surrounding the
gold foil.

A few were deflected and some of these were deflected at angles greater than 90 0,
suggesting they had been repelled by large positive charges within the foil - nuclei of
atoms of gold.



 





From GCSE you should be familiar with the Bohr mode l of electrons arranged around
a nucleus. The electrons are in certain



 and each energy level can
hold only up to a maximum number of electrons.

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1st 2

2nd 8

3rd 18
(th 32

5th 50

A sodium atom containing 11 electrons has an electron arrangement of 2,8,1. Two

electrons filling the first shell, eight electrons filling the second shell and one electron
in the outer third shell.

However, these models of electron arrangement are simple and a more advance
done can now be used. It is possible to break these energy levels into 


Electrons are impossible to locate exactly at any one time. It is however, possible to
indicate a region or volume where the electron is most likely to be found. This region
is called an 

Each orbital is capable of holding a maximum of 2 electrons. Orbitals can be divided

into  !  and types. Each type has its own characteristic shape.

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holds a maximum of 2 electrons in one s type orbital called
1s. There are no p, d, or f orbitals available at this energy level.

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consists of one s type orbital and three p type orbitals:
2s, 2px, 2py, 2pz.

"
 there are 3 p orbitals of identical energy, one along the x axis, one along the
y-axis and one along the z-axis.

These four orbitals can hold a total of 8 electrons (i.e. 2 electrons each). There are
no 2d or 2f orbitals.

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consists of: one s type orbital, three p type orbitals and 5 d
type orbitals. These nine orbitals can hold a maximum of 18 electrons altogether
(i.e. two electrons each).

"
 there are seven f type orbitals holding a maximum of 1( electrons in total.

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$Electrons fill the lowest energy orbitals first and the other orbitals in order of
ascending energy. It is incorrect to assume that an energy level is always completely
filled before electrons enter the next energy level. The order of filling orbitals as
shown below is 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, (s, 3d, (p, 5s, (d, 5p, 6s, (f, 5d, 6p.

%Where there are several orbitals of exactly the same energy e.g. three 2p orbitals,
electrons will occupy different orbitals whenever possible.
ð

!
 nitrogen is 1s 2 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz1 and not 1s 2 2s 2 2px2 2py1.

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'The small number above the orbital refers to the number of electrons in the
orbital: 1s2 means 2 electrons in a 1s orbital.

'The electron arrangements are somet imes abbreviated.

ð

!
the electron arrangement for calcium may be written as

1s 2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 (s2 .
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$ Metallic elements from Groups I, II, III tend to lose electrons and form positive
ions that have a noble gas configuration.

% Non-metallic elements in Groups VI and VII gain electrons top form negative ions
with a noble gas configuration.

* Elements in groups IV and V do not form charged ions.

+Noble gases do not form chemical bonds. A full outer shell of electrons has extra
stability.


This involves the transfer of ele ctrons from metal atoms to a non -metal atom to
form charged ions.

The oppositely charged ions are held together by



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 , with Group I

elements forming ions most readily and Group III elements forming ions with
difficulty. Group IV elements never form ions because the ionisation energy is too
great.

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 This is the energy

change involved when a mole of uni -negative ions from a mole of gaseous atoms.
Group VII and Group VI both form negative ions. Group VII form ions more readily
due to greater electron affinity.

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A covalent bond is made when atoms share one or more electrons to form a
molecule. A single covalent bon d is made when each atom donates one electron to
the bond, It is also possible to form double and triple bonds where two and three
electrons are donated.

The two atoms come close together so that their outer orbitals overlap. Both nuclei
are attracted to the shared pair of electrons and this attraction binds the atoms
together.

  

 
  

-% . .'

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In a normal covalent bond, each atom donates one electron to the shared pair. In a
co-ordinate bond electrons come from the same atom.