Ugc Net Research General Paper On Teaching PDF

UGC / NTA
NET/SET/JRF
Research Aptitudes
Unit - 02 General Paper on Teaching
Summary Notes of C R Kothari (Research Methodology)
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Module 01
Module 02
Module 03
150 MCQ`S
ByMore
: Chandan
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Gupta
Contents
Module 01
UNIT 01 Research: Meaning,
Characteristics and Types
Module 02
Unit - 01.) Research Problem
Unit - 02.) HYPOTHESIS
Unit - 03.) CONCEPTS
Unit - 04.) Research Design
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Unit – 05 ) SURVEY RESEARCH
Module 03
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Unit - 01.) SAMPLING
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Unit – 02 ) REPORT WRITING

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Unit – 03 ) DATA COLLECTION,

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DATA PROCESSING AND

DATA ANALYSIS
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Unit – 05 ) THE ROLE OF COMPUTER

IN RESEARCH
Module – 04
150 Expected MCQ`S
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Contents
Module 01
UNIT 01 Research:
Meaning, Characteristics
and Types
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Research: Meaning, Characteristics and Types
Meaning
 Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical
sense. According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining
problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organising and
evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully
testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
 D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences define
research as “the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of
generalising to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in
construction of theory or in the practice of an art.”
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 Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making
for its advancement. It is the persuit of truth with the help of study, observation,
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comparison and experiment.
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 In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding
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solution to a problem is research. The systematic approach concerning generalisation

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and the formulation of a theory is also research. As such the term ‘research’ refers to
the systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis,
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collecting the facts or data, analysing the facts and reaching certain conclusions either
in the form of solutions(s) towards the concerned problem or in certain generalisations
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for some theoretical formulation

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CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
1. It is a scientific investigation. Research (re-search) means to “search again.’ It connotes
patient study and scientific investigation.
2. It develops concepts and the theories. One reason for conducting research is to develop
and evaluate concepts and the theories.
3. It is solution oriented and directed towards the solution of a problem.
4. It determines the relation between two or more variables.
5. Research emphasizes to the development of theories, concept, principles and generalization
that are helpful in predicting future occurrences.
6. Research is replicable. The design, procedures and result of scientific research should be
replicable so that any person other than researcher may assess the validity of research.
7. Research requires that researchers have full knowledge of the problem under the study.
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AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

To discover answers to questions through the application of scientific procedures, it’s main aim
is
to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet. Though each
research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of research objectives as falling
into
a number of following broad groupings:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it. (Exploratory or
formulative research studies).
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a
group.(Descriptive research studies).
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated
with something else. (Diagnostic research studies).
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4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (hypothesis-testing
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MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH
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The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
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1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;

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2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical
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problems initiates research;

3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
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4. Desire to be of service to society;

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5. Desire to get respectability.

However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research
studies.
Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about
new
things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the like
may as
well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform research operations.
Types of Research
Types of research are as follows:
a) Fundamental Research/Pure Research/Basic Research:

It is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any intension to apply it in practice.
This research helps in developing theories by discovering broad generalisation and principles.
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It is organised through different procedures of research like sampling, hypothesizing facts, etc.
It can be experimented in a psychological laboratory.
Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics, research
studies concerning human behavior carried on with a view to make generalizations about
human behaviour are examples of fundamental research.
b) Applied
Aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business
organization.
Solve practical problem of the modern world, rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge
sake.
Marketing research is an example of applied research.
c) Exploratory Research
It is a preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem about which researcher has little or no
knowledge.
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The objective of exploratory research is the development of hypothesis rather than their
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testing.
d) Action Research
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Its aim is immediate application but not any development of theory.
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It is research either initiated to solve the immediate problem or if the researcher finds any
problem during the course of his field investigation and observation he applies it.
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(e) Descriptive study

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Includes surveys and fact findings enquiries of different kinds.

The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs, as it exists at
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present.
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In social science and business research the term often used is ex-post fact research.
The researcher has no control over the variables, he can only report what has happened or
what is happening.
(f) Evaluation Study
It is a type of applied research.
It is made for assessing and taking stock of effectiveness of social or economic programmes.
For example : Family planning scheme, Irrigation project.
(g) Diagnostic Study
Similar to descriptive study but with a different focus, which is directed towards discovering
what is happening? Why is it happening and what can be done about it?
It aims at identifying the causes of problems and possible solutions for it.
Research Approaches
The above description of the types of research brings to light the fact that there are two basic
approaches to research, viz., quantitative approach and the qualitative approach.
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Quantitative Approach
 This involves the generation of data in quantitative form which can be subjected to
rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid fashion. This approach can be further
sub-classified into inferential, experimental and simulation approaches to research. The
purpose of inferential approach to research is to form a data base from which to infer
characteristics or relationships of population.
 This usually means survey research where a sample of population is studied
(questioned or observed) to determine its characteristics, and it is then inferred that the
population has the same characteristics.
 Experimental approach is characterised by much greater control over the research
environment and in this case some variables are manipulated to observe their effect on
other variables.
 Simulation approach involves the construction of an artificial environment within which
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relevant information and data can be generated. This permits an observation of the
dynamic behaviour of a system (or its sub-system) under controlled conditions.
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 The term ‘simulation’ in the context of business and social sciences applications refers
to “the operation of a numerical model that represents the structure of a dynamic
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process. Given the values of initial conditions, parameters and exogenous variables, a
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simulation is run to represent the behaviour of the process over time.” Simulation
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approach can also be useful in building models for understanding future conditions.
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Qualitative approach
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 Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes,

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opinions and behaviour.

 Research in such a situation is a function of researcher’s insights and impressions.
 Such an approach to research generates results either in non-quantitative form or in the
form which are not subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis.
 Generally, the techniques of focus group interviews, projective techniques and depth
interviews are used.
Significance of Research
 Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning
problems of business and industry. Operations research and market research, along with
motivational research, are considered crucial and their results assist, in more than one
way, in taking business decisions.
 Market research is the investigation of the structure and development of a market for
the purpose of formulating efficient policies for purchasing, production and sales.
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 Operations research refers to the application of mathematical, logical and analytical

techniques to the solution of business problems of cost minimisation or of profit
maximisation or what can be termed as optimisation problems. Motivational research of
determining why people behave as they do is mainly concerned with market
characteristics.
 In other words, it is concerned with the determination of motivations underlying the
consumer (market) behaviour.
 All these are of great help to people in business and industry who are responsible for
taking business decisions.
 Research with regard to demand and market factors has great utility in business.
 Given knowledge of future demand, it is generally not difficult for a firm, or for an
industry to adjust its supply schedule within the limits of its projected capacity. Market
analysis has become an integral tool of business policy these days. Business budgeting,
which ultimately results in a projected profit and loss account, is based mainly on sales
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estimates which in turn depends on business research.
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 Once sales forecasting is done, efficient production and investment programmes can be
set up around which are grouped the purchasing and financing plans.
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 Research, thus, replaces intuitive business decisions by more logical and scientific
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decisions.
 Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in
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seeking answers to various social problems.

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 It provides the intellectual satisfaction of knowing a few things just for the sake of
knowledge and also has practical utility for the social scientist to know for the sake of
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being able to do something better or in a more efficient manner.

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 Research in social sciences is concerned both with knowledge for its own sake and
with knowledge for what it can contribute to practical concerns. “This double emphasis
is perhaps especially appropriate in the case of social science.
 On the one hand, its responsibility as a science is to develop a body of principles that
make possible the understanding and prediction of the whole range of human
interactions.
 On the other hand, because of its social orientation, it is increasingly being looked to
for practical guidance in solving immediate problems of human relations.”
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In addition to what has been stated above, the significance of research can also be
understood keeping in view the following points:
 (a)To those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D. thesis, research may mean a
careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social structure;
 (b) To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of
livelihood;
 (c) To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and
insights;
 (d) To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new styles and
creative work;
 (e) To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalisations of new
theories.
Thus, research is the fountain of knowledge for the sake of knowledge and an important
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source of providing guidelines for solving different business, governmental and social
problems. It is a sort of formal training which enables one to understand the new
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developments in one’s field in a better way.
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Research Methods versus Methodology

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All those methods which are used by the researcher during the course of studying his
research problem are termed as research methods.
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Since the object of research, particularly the applied research, it to arrive at a solution for a
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given problem, the available data and the unknown aspects of the problem have to be related
to each other to make a solution possible.
Keeping this in view, research methods can be put into the following three groups:
1. In the first group we include those methods which are concerned with the collection of
data. These methods will be used where the data already available are not sufficient to
arrive at the required solution;
2. The second group consists of those statistical techniques which are used for establishing
relationships between the data and the unknowns;
3. The third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the
results obtained.
Research methodology
 Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be
understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically.
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 In it we study the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying
his research problem along with the logic behind them.
 It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the research methods/techniques but
also the methodology.
 Researchers not only need to know how to develop certain indices or tests, how to
calculate the mean, the mode, the median or the standard deviation or chi-square, how
to apply particular research techniques, but they also need to know which of these
methods or techniques, are relevant and which are not, and what would they mean and
indicate and why.
 Researchers also need to understand the assumptions underlying various techniques
and they need to know the criteria by which they can decide that certain techniques
and procedures will be applicable to certain problems and others will not.
 All this means that it is necessary for the researcher to design his methodology for his
problem as the same may differ from problem to problem.
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 For example, an architect, who designs a building, has to consciously evaluate the
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basis of his decisions.
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Research and Scientific Method

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 Scientific method is the pursuit of truth as determined by logical considerations. The

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ideal of science is to achieve a systematic interrelation of facts.

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 Scientific method attempts to achieve “this ideal by experimentation, observation, logical

arguments from accepted postulates and a combination of these three in varying
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proportions.”
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 In scientific method, logic aids in formulating propositions explicitly and accurately so

that their possible alternatives become clear.
The scientific method is, thus, based on certain basic postulates which can be stated as
under:
1. It relies on empirical evidence;
2. It utilizes relevant concepts;
3. It is committed to only objective considerations;
4. It presupposes ethical neutrality, i.e., it aims at nothing but making only adequate and
correct statements about population objects;
5. It results into probabilistic predictions;
6. Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny are for use in testing
the conclusions through replication;
7. It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be termed as scientific theories.
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Importance of Knowing How Research is Done

 Knowledge of how to do research will inculcate the ability to evaluate and use research
results with reasonable confidence.
 In other words, we can state that the knowledge of research methodology is helpful in
various fields such as government or business administration, community development
and social work where persons are increasingly called upon to evaluate and use
research results for action.
 The knowledge of methodology helps the consumer of research results to evaluate them
and enables him to take rational decisions.
 The knowledge of methodology provides good training specially to the new research
worker and enables him to do better research.
 It helps him to develop disciplined thinking or a ‘bent of mind’ to observe the field
objectively.
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Problems Encountered by Researchers in India
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Researchers in India, particularly those engaged in empirical research, are facing several
problems.
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Some of the important problems are as follows:

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1. The lack of a scientific training in the methodology of research is a great impediment

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for researchers in our country. There is paucity of competent researchers. Many researchers
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take a leap in the dark without knowing research methods. Most of the work, which goes
in the name of research is not methodologically sound. Research to many researchers and
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even to their guides, is mostly a scissor and paste job without any insight shed on the
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collated materials. As such, efforts should be made to provide short duration intensive
courses for meeting this requirement.
2. There is insufficient interaction between the university research departments on one side
and business establishments, government departments and research institutions on the other
side. A great deal of primary data of non-confidential nature remain untouched/untreated by
the researchers for want of proper contacts. Efforts should be made to develop satisfactory
liaison among all concerned for better and realistic researches. There is need for developing
some mechanisms of a university—industry interaction programme so that academics can get
ideas from practitioners on what needs to be researched and practitioners can apply the
research done by the academics.
3. Most of the business units in our country do not have the confidence that the material
supplied by them to researchers will not be misused and as such they are often reluctant in
supplying the needed information to researchers. The concept of secrecy seems to be
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sacrosanct to business organisations in the country so much so that it proves an impermeable

barrier to researchers. Thus, there is the need for generating the confidence that the
information/data obtained from a business unit will not be misused.
4. Research studies overlapping one another are undertaken quite often for want of adequate
information. This results in duplication and fritters away resources. This problem can be solved
by proper compilation and revision, at regular intervals, of a list of subjects on which and the
places where the research is going on. Due attention should be given toward identification of
research problems in various disciplines of applied science which are of immediate concern to
the industries.
5. There does not exist a code of conduct for researchers and inter-university and
interdepartmental rivalries are also quite common. Hence, there is need for developing a code
of conduct for researchers which, if adhered sincerely, can win over this problem.
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6. Many researchers in our country also face the difficulty of adequate and timely secretarial
assistance, including computerial assistance. This causes unnecessary delays in the completion
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of research studies. All possible efforts be made in this direction so that efficient secretarial
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assistance is made available to researchers and that too well in time. University Grants
Commission must play a dynamic role in solving this difficulty.
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7. Library management and functioning is not satisfactory at many places and much of the
time and energy of researchers are spent in tracing out the books, journals, reports, etc.,
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rather than in tracing out relevant material from them.

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8. There is also the problem that many of our libraries are not able to get copies of old and
new Acts/Rules, reports and other government publications in time. This problem is felt more
in libraries which are away in places from Delhi and/or the state capitals. Thus, efforts should
be made for the regular and speedy supply of all governmental publications to reach our
libraries.
9. There is also the difficulty of timely availability of published data from various
government and other agencies doing this job in our country. Researcher also faces the
problem on account of the fact that the published data vary quite significantly because of
differences in coverage by the concerning agencies.
10. There may, at times, take place the problem of conceptualization and also problems
relating to the process of data collection and related things.
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Criteria of Good Research
1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to
be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules. Systematic
characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject
the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical
reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying
out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas
deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows
from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the
context of decision making.
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3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more
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aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external
validity to research results.
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4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by

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replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.
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Research Process
Research Process In Flowchart by CR Kothari
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C.R. Kothari in his book, “Research Methodology: Methods & Techniques” presents am brief
overview of a research process. He has given the following order concerning the Research
Process.
1. Formulation the Research problem
2. Extensive Literature survey
3. Developing the hypothesis
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4. Preparing the research design
5. Determining sample design
6. Collection of Data
7. Execution of the Project
8. Analysis of Data
9. Hypothesis testing
10. Generalisation & Interpretation
11. Preparation of the report.
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7004579780 (w) By : Chandan Gupta 1
Contents
Module 02
Unit - 01.) Research Problem
Unit - 02.) HYPOTHESIS
Unit - 04.) Research Design
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Unit – 05 ) SURVEY RESEARCH AL
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Unit – 01 RESEARCH PROBLEM

WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROBLEM?
A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty which a researcher
experiences in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to
obtain a solution for the same.
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We can, thus, state the components of a research problem as under:
 (i) There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the
problem.
 (ii) There must be some objective(s) to be attained at. If one wants nothing, one
cannot have a problem.
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 (iii) There must be alternative means (or the courses of action) for obtaining the
objective(s) one wishes to attain. This means that there must be at least two
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means available to a researcher for if he has no choice of means, he cannot
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have a problem.
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 (iv) There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to
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the selection of alternatives. This means that research must answer the question
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concerning the relative efficiency of the possible alternatives.

 (v) There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty pertains.
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Note :
 A research problem is one which requires a researcher to find out the best
solution for the given problem, i.e., to find out by which course of action the
objective can be attained optimally in the context of a given environment.
 There are several factors which may result in making the problem complicated.
 For instance, the environment may change affecting the efficiencies of the
courses of action or the values of the outcomes; the number of alternative
courses of action may be very large; persons not involved in making the
decision may be affected by it and react to it favourably or unfavourably, and
similar other factors.
 All such elements (or at least the important ones) may be thought of in context
of a research problem.
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Unit - 02 HYPOTHESIS
When a researcher observes known facts and takes up a problem for analysis, he first
has to start somewhere and this point of starting is Hypothesis. In other words, one
has to proceed to formulate tentative solution. This purposed solutions constitute the
Hypothesis.
The collection of facts (data) will be fruitful if they are either for or against this
proposed solution. The tentative explanation or solutions are the very basis for
research process.
When to make a Hypothesis?

 Hypotheses are not given to us readymade. This is so specially in social
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sciences. Because there is not a system of highly developed theoretical order in
many social sciences.
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 As a result in many social science researchers a considerable portion of
research is developed for hypothesis making. So it should be remembered that
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research can begin only with a well-formulated Hypothesis.

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Definition
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1. In the words of George A. Lund Burg “ a hypothesis is a tentative generalization

the validity of which remains to be tested……. In its most elementary stage the
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hypothesis may be very bunch, guess, imaginative data, which becomes the basis for
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action or investigation”.
2. Goode and Hatt defined it as “ a proposition which can be put to test to
determined validity”.
3. Rummel “ a hypothesis is a statement capable of being tested and there by varified
or rejected”.
Need (importance) of Hypothesis

 In all analytical and experimental studies hypothesis should be set up in order to
give a proper direction to them. Hypothesis are useful and the guide Research
Process in proper directions. In addition to put in the theory to test, a
hypothesis has to performe certain other functions.
 In many ways it is a guiding print to research. Young says “Formulation of
hypothesis gives definite the point of enquiry aids in establishing direction in
which to proceed and help to delimit the field of enquiry”.
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 The use of hypothesis prevents a blind search and indiscriminate gathering of

data which may later prove irrelevant to the problem under study.
 In the data collection hypothesis serves as the forerunner.
 A Researcher based on hypothesis can save a lot of time and keep the
researcher from considerable amount of confusion.
 Hypothesis is helpful in directing the researcher to find out order among facts.
 Hypothesis have also certain practical values to society besides serving as a
means for seeking solution to various problems, they help in understanding the
social phenomena in the proper perspective.
Sources of Hypothesis
Hypothesis can be derived from various sources.
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1. Theory
This is one of the main sources of hypothesis. It gives direction to research by
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stating what is known. Logical deduction from theory leads to new hypothesis.
2. Observation
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Hypothesis can be derived from observation. For example, from observation of

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price behaviour in a market the relationship b/w price and demand of an article
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can be hypothesised.
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3. Analogies
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Analogies are another sources of hypothesis. Julian Hexley has pointed out that
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causal observation in nature or in the framework of another science may be a

fertile source of Hypothesis.
4. Intution and personal experiences
Intution and personal experiences may also contribute to the formulation of
hypothesis. Personal life and experience of person determine their perception and
conception these may, in term direct a person to certain hypothesis more quickly.
The story Newton and falling apple, the flash of wisdom to Sree Buddha under
Banyan tree Illustrate this accidental process
5. Findings and Studies
Hypothesis may be developed out of the findings of other studies in order to repeat
the test.
6. Culture
Another source of hypothesis is the culture in which the researcher is nurtured.
For example sociology as an academic discipline originated from western culture.
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Over the past decade a large part of the hypothesis on American society examined
by researchers were connected with violence. Indian society is caste-ridden. It is
riddled with inequalities and privileges.
Characteristics of a Good hypothesis

What is a good hypothesis? What are the criteria of for judging it. An acceptable
hypothesis should fulfill certain conditions.
1. Conceptual Clarity
A hypothesis should be conceptually clear. It should consist of clearly defined and
understandable concepts
2. Specificity
A hypothesis should be specific and explain the expected relation b/w variables and
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the conditions under which these relations will hold.
3. Testability
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A hypothesis should be testable and should not be a moral judgement. It should be
possible to collect empirical evidences to test techniques.
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4. Availability of techniques
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Hypothesis should be related to available techniques. Otherwise they will not be

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researchable therefore the research must make sure that methods are available for
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testing his proposed hypothesis.

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5. Consistency
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Hypothesis should be logically consistent. The propositions derived should not be

contradictory
6. Objectivity
Scientific hypothesis should be free from value judgment. The researcher system of
values has n o placing Research.
7. Simplicity
A hypothesis should be as simple as possible. Simplicity demands insight. The more
insight the researcher has into a problem, the simpler will be his hypothesis.
Types of Hypothesis
1. Descriptive Hypothesis
These are propositions, they described the characteristics of a variable. The variable
may be an object, person, organisation, situation or event. For ex. “The rate of
unemployment among arts graduates is higher than that of commerce graduates”.
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2. Relational Hypothesis
These are propositions which describe the relationship b/w two variables. The
relation suggested many be positive or negative for ex. ‘Families with higher income
spent more for recreation’. ‘Upper class people have more children than lower class
people’.
3. Causal Hypothesis
Causal Hypothesis states that the existence of, or a change in, one variable causes
for leads to an effect on other variable. The 1st variables is called independent
variable later the dependent variable.
4. Common Sense Hypothesis
These represent the commonsense ideas. They state the existence of empirical
uniformities received through day to day observations.
.IN
5. Analytical Hypothesis
These are concerned with the relationship of analytic variables. These hypothesis
AL
occurs and the higher level of abstraction.
6. Null Hypothesis
N
Null means ‘Zero’ When a hypothesis is stated negatively. It is called Null Hypothesis.
R
The object of this hypothesis is to avoid the personal bias of the investigator. In the
U
matter of collection of data. A null hypothesis is used to collect additional support for
JO
the known hypothesis.

7. False Hypothesis
U
A hypothesis which is bound to be unsatisfactory when verified is called a false

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hypothesis.
8. Barren Hypothesis
A hypothesis from which no consequences can be deducted is called a Barren
Hypothesis. It is a hypothesis which cannot to test. Ex. The child fell ill because a
wicked women’s eye felt upon it. This is a baseless hypothesis because it cannot be
verify.
Testing of Hypothesis
Science does not admit anything as valid knowledge until satisfactory test confirm the
validity. A hypothesis should be subjected to regrets test and. Type I and Type II
errors should be eliminated.
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 Concepts are basic elements of scientific method but by and large all concepts
are abstractions and represent only certain aspects of reality. In the words of
P.V.Young “Each new class of data, isolated from other classes on the other
basis of definite characteristics, is given name, a label in short hand concept. A
concept is in reality a definition in short hand of a class or group of facts”.
Categories of Concept
 Concepts are divided into two categories i.e. Concepts by postulation and
concept by intuition.
 The concepts following in the first category have meaning except from the
.IN
specific theory; When these concepts are used in two different theories these
communicate two different meanings, sometimes even different and opposite
AL
from each other on the other hand concept by intuition devotes something which
is immediately apprehended.
N
 The meaning of these concepts is constant whoever use it. Both the categories
R
of concepts have equal importance and significance in social science research.

U
JO
Features of Good Concept

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a) The concepts should be clear, definite and precise.

ED
b) The concept should be comprehensive and clear in formation and understanding.

c) The concept should avoid multiple meaning and as far as possible should convey
exactly what was intended when the concept was coined.
Types of Concepts
a) Concrete concepts:- Symbolize material objects which can be seen, touched and
fret. eg. book , table
b) Abstract concepts refer to properties or characteristics of objects. eg. weight, height
Characteristics of concepts
1) Concepts are symbols which we attach to the bundle of meanings we hold.
2) Concepts represent only one part of reality.
3) Different people hold different concepts of the same thing.
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4) Concepts also represent various degree of abstraction.

( A concept is thus an abstract symbol representing an object, a property of object, or
a certain phenomena.
Variable
The concrete observable events which represent the abstract concepts or constructs
are called variables.
.IN
AL
N
R
U
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ED
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Unit – 04 RESEARCH DESIGN

Meaning
“A Research Design is the logical and systematic planning in directing the research.
The design research from translating a general scientific model into varied research
problem. But in practices in most of the basis it is just a plan of study. The research
design can either be formal or informal.
Definition
1. “It constitutes the blue print for the collection, measurement and analysis of data” -
Philips Bernard S
2. It “provides a systematic plan of procedure for the researcher to follow” -Best John
N
.IN
3. “The design research from controlling general scientific model into varied research
procedure”- P.V. Young
AL
4. “A research design is “the programme that guides the investigator in the process of
N
collecting, analysis and interpreting observations”. – David and Shava
R
U
A research design addressers itself to certain key issues such as:

JO
a) What is the problem uncles study?

b) What is the major research question?
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c) What is the area of the study?

ED
d) How many people will be study?

e) How this people will be selected?
f) What methods and techniques will be used to collect data from them?
Features of Research Design

a) It is a plan that specifies the objectives of study and the hypothesis to be tested.
b) It is an outline that specifies the sources and types of information relevent to the
research question.
c) It is a blueprint specifying the methods to be adopted for gathering and analysis of
data.
d) It is a scheme defining the procedure involved in a research process.
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Features of a good Design

A good design has the following features.
1. Flexibility
2. Efficiency
3. Appropriate
4. Economical
5. Minimum error
6. Maximum reliability
7. Smallest experimental error
8. Maximum information
Why a Research Design?
.IN
1. Research Design is needed because it helps in the smooth sailing of Research
AL
operations. A Research without a pre-drawn plan is like an ocean voyage without
mariners compus.
N
2. The Research Design helps in providing direction our study.

R
3. It prevents welter in a study.

U
4. The use of Research Design prevents blind search.

JO
5. A Research Design fixes clear cut boundaries to a research.

6. It makes the research systematic
U
7. It help us to meet unexpected events.

ED
Contents of a Research Design

Usually a Research Design consist of the following details
1. What is the study about?
2. Why is the study being made?
3. Where will the study be carried out?
4. What type of data is required?
5. Where can the required data be found?
6. What period of time will the studied include?
7. What will be the sample design?
8. What technique of data collection will be used?
9. How will the data we analyse?
10. In what style the report will be prepared?
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By way of conclusion it can be said that research design must contain at least:
a) Statement of a problem
b) Procedure and techniques
c) Sampling frame
d) Processing and analysis of data
Types of Research Design

1. Exploratory Research Design (Formulative Research)
Exploratory Research studies are also termed as formulative research studies.
Exploratory Research is preliminary study of an in familiar problem about which the
researcher has little or no knowledge. It is similar to a doctor initial investigation of
patient suffering from an in familiar malady for getting some clues for identifying.
.IN
2. Descriptive Research Design
Descriptive study is fact finding investigation with adequate interpretation. It is the
AL
sample type of research. It is more specific than the exploratory study. As it has focus
on particular aspects or dimensions of the problem studied. It is design to gather
N
descriptive informations and provides information for formulating more sophisticated

R
studies. Data are collected by using of appropriate methods.

U
3. Action Research
JO
Action Research is a type of evaluation study. It is a concurrent evaluation study of an

U
action programme launched for solving a problem. Action research is otherwise called
ED
Apply Research.
The following are the different phases in action research.

1. A base lane survey of the pre-action situation.
2. A feasibility study of the proposed action programme
3. Planning and launching the programme.
4. Concurrent evaluation of the programme
5. Making modifications and changes in the programme and its methods of
implementations in the light of research finding.
6. Final Evaluation
(The Researcher can design his research depends upon the nature of the research
being conducted.)
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Unit – 05 SURVEY RESEARCH

 Survey is a fact finding study. It is a method of research involving collection of
data directly from a population or sample thereof at particular time. It must not
be confused with mere clerical routine of gathering and tabulating figures. It
requires expert and imaginative planning carefull analysis and rational
interpretation of the findings.
Definitions
1. Mark Abraham defines survey as “a social survey is a process by which
Quantitative facts are collected about the social aspects of a community
composition and activities”.
2. Herman N Morse defines It as “a method of analysis on scientific and orderly form
.IN
for defined purpose of given social situations and activities.”
AL
The Characteristics of Survey
N
1. It is a field study; It is always conducted in a natural setting.
R
2. It seeks responses directly from the respondents.

U
3. It can cover a very large population.

JO
4. A survey involves an extensive and intensive study.

5. A survey covers a definite geographical area, city, a district or a state
U
ED
Steps involved in a Survey

The sequences of the task involved in carried out a survey from the 1st stage of
planning to the Final stage of preparing the report is presented below.
a) Selection of problem and its formulation
b) Preparation of the research design.
c) Operationalisation of concepts and construction of measuring indexes and states.
d) Sampling
e) Construction of tools for collection of data and there pre-test.
f) Field work and collection of data
g) Processing of data and tabulation
h) Analysis of data
i) Reporting
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The Purpose of the Survey

1. The purpose of survey is to provide information’s do government or planners or
business enterprises.
2. Many enquiries aim to explain phenomenon
3. Surveys may be designed to make comparison of demographic groups.
4. Surveys are useful for making predictions.
Types of Survey
1. General or Specific survey
When a survey is conducted for collecting general information about population
institution or phenomenon without any particular object or hypothesis it is known as
general survey.
.IN
Specific survey are conducted for specific problems or for testing the validity of some
AL
theory or hypothesis.
2. Regular and Adhoc Survey
N
Some surveys are regular in nature and must be repeated after regular intervals. Such
R
a survey is called Regular Survey.

U
Adhoc survey is are undertaken ones for all.

JO
3. Preliminary And Final Survey

A Preliminary survey is generally known as ‘Pilot study’ and it is a fore run of the
U
Final Survey. Final survey is made after the pilot study has completed.
ED
4. Senses and Sample Survey

A survey make our all the units of a given universe then it is called a sense survey.
If the survey covers only a fraction of the universe, then it is called sample survey.
Advantages of Survey
The major advantages of the survey method are
1. The versatility of the survey method is its greatest strength. It is the only practical
way to collect many types of informations from individuals, socio-economic data,
attitudes, opinions, experience and expectations.
2. The survey method facilitates drawing generalisations about large populations on the
basis of studies of representative sample.
3. The survey method is flexible to permit the use of various methods of collection of
data.
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4. The survey help the researches to face unanticipated problems.

5. Survey is useful in verifying theories
Limitations of Survey
1. Survey method is primarily meant for collection of data from primary sources. So its
success depends upon the willingness and co-operations of the respondents.
2. The survey method depends primarily on verbal behaviour. The respondent can give
misleading answers.
3. A sample survey is subject to sampling error.
4. There is a limit of the number of items of information that can be collected in a
single
survey. There is an optimal length of time for an interview.
.IN
5. A survey is very expensive in terms of time and cost.
AL
N
R
U
JO
U
ED
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Contents
Module 03
Unit - 01.) SAMPLING
Unit – 02 ) REPORT WRITING
Unit – 03 ) DATA COLLECTION,
DATA PROCESSING AND
.IN
DATA ANALYSIS AL
Unit – 05 ) THE ROLE OF COMPUTER
N
IN RESEARCH
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U
JO
U
ED
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Unit – 01 SAMPLING
Need of sampling
 Sometimes it is not feasible to study a whole group or an extremely large

group. For example social work researcher may be interested in learning about
the mentally challenged children, mentally ill, prison inmates, street children or
some other large group of people.
 It would be difficult or rather impossible to study all members of the groups.
Here comes the process called sampling, which allows to study a manageable
number of people from the large group to device inferences that are likely to be
.IN
applicable to all the people of the large group.
AL
 Another reason why we would study a sample is that the results of obtained
from the sample are more precise and correct than the results obtained from the
N
R
study of the whole group.

U
 Cost involved in studying all units of a large group is yet another factor which
JO
suggest to study a small group of people.

 Associated with cost there are certain other factors such as time available for
U
the study.
ED
Above all, the point to be kept in mind is if we can get almost same result by
studying a carefully selected small group of people, why should we study the large
group at all.
Some Technical terms
1) Population or Universe
Population or universe is the aggregate of all units possessing certain specified

characteristics on which the sample seeks to draw inferences.
2) Frame :- The frame describes the population interms of sampling units .It may be a
geographical area. In essence a frame lists or maps elements of the universe.
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3) Census :- Census denotes a total enumeration of individuals elements for units in

defined population.
4) Sample : A Sample is composed of some fractions or part of the total number of

elements or units in a defined population.
5) Design: The Designing means the method by which sample to chosen.
6) Random: A mathematical term ‘Random’ means that every element of the total
population has a equally change of probability on being chosen for the sampling.
7) Unit: any population or universe should contain some specifications in terms of

content units, extent and time for Eg: “A farmers household in a district in Punjab in
.IN
1975” There is a unit determination in a household and time destination of the
population .
AL
8) Parameter : Parameter is the value of a variable calculation from the population
N
which is being studied.

R
U
9) Precision : Precision of is a sample is designated by the computation of slandered

JO
error.
U
10) Stratification: It makes which the segmentation of a sample. It is a number of

ED
data.
Characteristics of Good sample
a) Representativeness: A sample must be representative of the population. In

measurement terms as well as in quality.
b) Accuracy: Accuracy is defined as the degree to which has to absent which sample.
c) Precision: The sample must yield précised estimate. Standard error should be
minimized.
d)Size: A good sample must be adequate in size. It should not too small or too big.
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Advantages of sampling
1. Sampling reduces time and cost of research studies.
2. Sampling saves labour
3. The quality of study is often better with sampling.
4. Sampling provides much quicker results.
Limitations
1. In the absence of a thorough knowledge, sampling methods the result option may
be incorrect or misleading.
.IN
2. A complicated sampling may require may labour than a complete coverage.
AL
3. A pure representation is impossible in most cases Sampling Methods
N
R
Sampling methods may be classified into two types.

U
JO
a) Probability or Random sampling
b) Non Probability or Non- Random sampling

U
ED
Probability sampling is the following types:
a) Simple Random sampling
b) Stratified Random
c) Systematic Random
d) Random Sampling with probability proportional to size.
e) Cluster sampling
f) Area sampling
Non Probability sampling may be classified into:
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a) Convenient sampling
b) Purposive sampling
c) Quota sampling
d) Snow-Ball sampling Probability sampling Methods
A) Simple Random Sampling
1. Lottery Method: This is the simplest and most familiar procedure of random
sampling. If a simple of ten students is to be taken out of a list of 50 students take
50 equals size in a global container and thoroughly shuffle them. Take to steps from
.IN
the container one after another each time before drawing a stip shuffle the container.
Thus we can take the decide sample from a population using Random methods.
AL
2. Use of table of Random numbers
N
R
10 06 96 43 27 15
U
JO
37 73 44 36 91 60
08 54 72 90 74 22
U
ED
09 25 88 94 65 04
12 11 66 99 49 17
This method is developed by Fisher, Yates and Tippest (Tippet table) to select a
Random sample out of a given frame. One should simply start to read number from
the table of Random Number.
We can select from the second column from the row we get sample 77,47,44,01 and
80 one thus the decide number of sample can be taken from a table of Random
number shown as below.
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3. Use of Computer
If the population is very large and if computer facilities are available, a computer may
be used for drawing a Random sample. The computer can be programmed to printout
a series of Random member as the research decides.
B) Stratified Sample
This is an improved type of random probability sampling. In this method the population
is subdivided into homogenous groups or strata and from each strata from random
sample is drawn. For eg. University students may be divided on the basis of discipline
and each discipline group may again be divided into junior and seniors; The
employees of a business firm may be divided into managers and non managers and
.IN
each of this group may be subdivided into salary, grade wise strata.
AL
C) Systematic sampling (Fixed Interview Method)
N
This method of sampling is an alternative to random selection. It consists of every nth

R
item in the population after a random start with an item from 1 to N. Suppose it is
U
JO
decided to select a sample of 20 students from a list of 300 students, divide the
population total of 300/20. The quotation is 50 (Fraction in the division is not taken)
U
select a number at a random b/w 1 and 15 by using lottery method. Suppose the
ED
selected number is ‘9’ then the student numbered ‘9’, ‘24’ (9+15), 39 (24+15), 54
(39+15) etc. are selected as sample.
As the Interval between sample units is fixed, this method is also known as fixed
interval method.
D) Proportionate Stratified Sampling
This sampling involves drawing a sample from each strain in proportion to their share
in the total population. For example the final year MBA students of the management
faculty of a university consist of the following specialization group.
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Specialisation No. of Students Proportion
Production 40 .4
Finance 20 .2
Marketing 30 .3
Rural Development 10 1
100 1
The Researcher wants to draw an overall sample of 30. Then the strata sample size
would be
.IN
Strata Sample
AL
Production 30x.4=12
N
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Finance 30x.2=6
U
Marketing 30x.3=9
JO
Rural Development 30x.1 =3

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Total 30
ED
Thus proportionate sampling gives proper representation to each stratum and its
statistical efficiency is very high. Therefore this is very popular.
Non Probability Sampling Methods
a) Convenience Accidental Sampling
This is a non probability sampling. It means selecting sample units in a just ‘Hit and
Miss’ fashion. Example interviewing people whom will happen to meet. For example, a
teacher may select ten students in his class. This method is also known as accidental
sampling because the respondents whom the researcher meets accidently are included
in the sampling. It has some advantages.
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a) It is the cheapest and simplest method of data.
b) It does not require a list of population
c) It does not require any statistical experience. It has some limitations also
a) It may not yield the desirable
b) It is not a reliable sample method
1. Purposive or Judgment Sampling
This method is deliberate selection of sampling units. It is also known as Judgment

sampling. Here the chance depends upon the judgment of the researcher.
.IN
It has some merits AL
1. It is less costly and more convenient. It has demerit. It does not mensure proper
N
representation.
R
2. It requires prior information about people.

U
JO
2. Quota Sampling
U
This a form a convenience sampling involving selection of Quota groups such as ;

ED
sex, age, social class. Here each investigators may be given an assignment Quota
requires and sample is selected from Quota assigned to be.
3. Snow ball Sampling
4. This is a colourful name for a technique of building up a list or a sample of a

special population by using an initial set of the members as informants.
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Unit – 02 REPORT WRITING

 Report writing is the last activity of the research process. The Research report
is a means for communicating our research experiences to others and adding
them to pond of knowledge.
 Meaning and purpose of a research report: A research report is a formal
statement of the research process and its results it narrates the problem studied
methods used for studying it and findings and conclusion of the study. It is a
technical activity which requires considerable thought, effort, skill and penetration
and overall approach to the problem data analysis as well as firm control over
language and greater objectivity.
.IN
Functions of Research Reports
AL
1. It serves as means for presenting the problem studied, methods and techniques
N
used for collecting and analysing data the findings, conclusions and recommendation.
R
U
2. It serves as a basic reference material for future use

JO
3. A report serves as a means for judging the quality of the completed research book.
U
4. It is a means for evaluating the researchers ability and competence to the research.
ED
5. It provides systematic knowledge on problems and issues analysed.
Types of Report
1. Technical Report (Thesis)
This is a comprehensive full report of the research process and its outcome. It is
primarily meant for academic community. It is a formal long report covering all the
aspects of research process. It is also comprehensive and complete that the study can
be duplicated by others.
2. Popular Report
This type of Report is designed for an audience of executives and other non technical
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users. The format of this report is different from that of a technical report. The style
may be more journalistic.
3. Interim Report
When there is a long time lag b/w data collection and presentation of a result. In case
of sponsored project, the sponsor may be asked to present an Interim report. It
contains what has been done so far.
4. Summary Report
A summary Report is a report of two or three pages.
5. Research abstract
.IN
This a short summary of the research report.
AL
6. Research Article :- It is designed for publication in a professional Journal.
N
R
Format of Research Report

U
JO
A) Preliminary Section
U
a) Title Page
ED
b) Certificate
c) Declaration
d) Acknowledgement
e) Preface and forward
f) Table of contents
g) List of tables (if any)
h) List of figures (if any)
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B) Main body of the Report
a) Introduction
1. Statement of the problem
2. Significance of the study
3. Purpose
4. Definition of important terms
5. Objectives
6. Hypothesis
.IN
7. Methodology AL
8. Period of the study
N
R
9. The study area

U
10. The data

JO
11. Chapterisation
U
ED
b) Review of literature
1. Critical analysis of the previous research
2. Brief statement of the present study
c) Design of the study
1. Procedure used
2. Methods of gathering data
3. Description of data
d) Presentation and Analysis of data
1. Text
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2. Tables
3. Figures
e) Summary and conclusion
1. Brief re-statement of the study
2. Description of the procedure used
3. Main findings and conclusions
4. Recommendation for further research
f) Reference Section
.IN
1. Bibliography AL
2. Appendix
N
R
3. Index
U
JO
U
ED
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Unit – 02 DATA COLLECTION, DATA

PROCESSING AND DATA ANALYSIS
Definition
“ Data are facts, figures and other relevant materials past and present serving as
bases for study and analysis”.
Meaning of Data
The search for answers to research questions calls collection of Data. “Data are facts,
figures and other relevant materials, past and present, serving as bases for study and
.IN
analysis”. AL
Types of Data
N
R
The Data needed for social science Research may be broadly classified into:
U
a) Data pertaining to human beings

JO
b) Data relating to Organisations

U
ED
c) Data pertaining to territorial area.
A) Personal Data (relating to Human beings) are of two types.
a) Demographic and socio-economic characteristics of individuals. Like name, sex,

race, social class, relation, education, occupation, income etc.
b) Behavioural Variables: Attitudes, opinion knowledge, practice, intensions etc.
B) Organistion Data:- Consist of data relating to an organizations, origin ownership,

function, performance etc.
C) Territorial Data :- are related to geo-physical characteristic, population,

infrastructure etc of divisions like villages, cities, taluks, distinct, state etc.
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Importance of Data
The data serve as the bases or raw materials for analysis without Data no specific
inferences can be drawn on our study. The reliability of data determines the quality of
research. Data form the basis of testing hypothesis data provides the facts and figures
for constructing measuring scale. The scientific process of research can be carried out
only through accurate data.
Sources of Data
The sources of Data may be classified into a) primary sources b) Secondary sources.
.IN
a) Primary Sources.
Primary sources are original sources from which the researcher directly collects data
AL
that have not been previously collected. Primary Data are first –hand information
N
collected through various methods such as observation, interview etc.

R
U
b) Secondary Sources
JO
These are sources containing data which have been collected and compiled for
U
another purpose. The secondary sources consist of readily available and compiled
ED
statistical statements and reports. Secondary sources consist of not only published but
also unpublished records. They consist of Data over which a researcher has no
original control.
Collection of Primary Data
The important methods of Primary data are:
1. Observation
2. Interviewing
3. Schedules
4. Questionnaire
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I. Observation
 Observation means viewing or seeing.

 We observe things while we are awake.
 Observation is classical method of scientific enquiry Definition
 Observation may be defined as “a systematic viewing of a specific phenomenon
in its proper setting for the specific purpose of gathering data for a particular
study”. Observation as a method includes both seeing and hearing”
Characteristics of Observation
.IN
1. It is both physical and mental activity. The observing eyes catches many things
AL
which are sighted but attention is focused on that data are pertinent to a given study.
N
2. Observation is selective a researches does not observe anything and everything but
R
select the range of things to be observed on the basis of the nature, scope and
U
objectives of his study.

JO
3. Observation is purposive and not casual. It is made for the specific purpose of not
U
in things relevant to the study.

ED
4. Observation captures to the study. Social context in which a persons behaviour

occurs.
5. Observation is based on standarised tools.
Types of Observation
With reference to the investigators role observation is classified into:
a) Participants observation
b) Non-Participates Observation
In terms of mode of observation. Observation is classified into
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a) Direct Observation
b) Indirect Observation
With reference to the system adopted observation is classified into Controlled

observation and uncontrolled observation
Participant Observation
In this observation, the observer is a part of the phenomena on group which is

observed and he as both a observer and participants.
It has certain advantages
.IN
1. The Observer can understand the emotional reactions of the observed group.
AL
2. The observer will be able to record the context which gives meaning to the
observed behaviour
N
R
The main Disadvantages are:

U
JO
1. The Participant observer narrows his range of observation.

U
2. In this type of observation , The objectivity is lost.

ED
3. The clear demand makes in accuracy in recording.
Non Participant observation
In this method the observer stands apart and does not participate in the phenomenon
observed. Naturally there is no emotional involvement on the part of the observer. This
method calls for skill in recording observation in an unnoticed manner.
Direct Observation
This means observation of an event personally by the observer when it takes place.
This is a flexible method.
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Indirect Observation
This does not involve the physical presence of the observer and the recording is done
by mechanical autographic or electronic devices.
Controlled Observations –
Maximum control over extrinsic and intrinsic variable
Uncontrolled Observations –
No control over extrinsic and intrinsic variable
.IN
Planning of Observation AL
 The use of observation method requires proper planning; first, the researcher
N
should carefully examine the relevance of observational method.
R
 Second, he must identify the specific investigative questions. Third, he must

U
decide the observation content .

JO
 Four, observer should be selected and trained Tools of observation

U
 Systematic observation requires certain devices. They are:

ED
Schedules, diary, Cards, Cameras, tape recorder, video tape, tape, Barometers,
screen and mirrors, closed circuit television, pocket calculators etc.
Advantages of observations Observation has certain advantages
1. The main advantage is that it makes it possible to study behaviour as it occurs.
2. Data collected by observation may describe the observed phenomena as they occur
in their natural setting
3. Observation is more suitable for studying subjects who are unable to articulate eg.
Children, animals, birds etc.
4. Observation makes it possible to capture the whole events.
5. It is easier to make disguised observation

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6. Observation for mechanical devices it can be recorded correctly.
Limitations
1. Observation is of no use in studying past events.
2. It is unable to study opinion and attitudes.
3. The researcher has to wait for the events
4. Observation is very expensive.
II. Interviewing
.IN
Interview is one of the major methods of data collection. It is often superior to other
AL
data collection methods. People are usually more willing to talk than to write.
N
Definition
R
“It may be defined as a two way systematic conversation b/w an investigator and an
U
informant initiated for obtaining information relevant to a specific study”

JO
Types of Interview
U
ED
a) Structured or directive Interview
This is an Interview made with a detailed standard schedule. The same questions are
put to all the respondents and the same order. Each question is asked in the same
way in each interview. This type of Interview is used for large scale formulated
surveys.
It has certain advantages
1. Data from one Interview to the next can be easily compared
2. Recording and coding of data do not cause any problem.
It has some limitations
1. It tends to loss spontaneity of conversation

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2. The respondants view is minimized.
b) Unstructured or Non-directive Interviews
Respondent to talk freely about a given topic and a pre-planned schedule is not used.
It has some advantages
1. It is similar to natural conversation
2. It provides great opportunity to explore a problem.
It has some limitations
1. The data is not comparable
.IN
2. Time is wasted for unproductive conversationAL
c) Focused Interview
N
R
This is a semi- structural interview the investigator attempts to focus the discussion on
U
the actual effect of a given experience to which the respondents opinion, emotions or
JO
conditions on the basis of an interview guide. This required training and skilled.
U
Interview Processing
ED
The Interviewing process consist of the following stages
1. Preparation
2. Introduction
3. Developing rapport
4. Carrying the interview forward
5. Recording the Interview
6. Closing the Interview
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Interview problems
In a personal Interview there are certain problems
I. Response Problem
There are different types of response problem
a) Non-Response
Non-response refers to failure to obtain response from respondents here respondent

remains silent or refuse to answer
b) mPartial response
.IN
In partial response the respondent give an incomplete answer
AL
c) Irrelevant response
N
In irrelevant response respondent gives totally irrelevant answers.

R
U
II. Interviewers bias

JO
The Interviewer may resort to cheat by taking up data without actually interviewing he
U
may use manipulations by rephrasing the question etc.

ED
III. Non availability
Another major problem of Interviews is the non-availability of respondent. A respondent

may be a too busy or out of stations.
Features of Interview
1. Interview is not a casual conversation but a conversation with a specific purpose.
2. The participant, the Interviewer and the respondent both are strangers.
3. Interview is a mode of obtaining verbal answers to verbal questions.
4. Interview is an interaction process.
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5. Interview is not a chemical examination.
TELEPHONE INTERVIEW
Telephone Interview is a non-personal method of data collection. It may be used as a

major method or supplementary method of data collection. This method is used when
the universe is very large and the survey is will completed to a limited period of time
and the universe is widely scatted. It has some advantages.
1. It is a low cost method
2. Large No. of respondents can be covered within a small time and it does not
require field work.
.IN
It has some limitations:-
AL
1. There is a time limit to the telephone conversation.
N
R
GROUP INTERVIEW
U
JO
A Group Interview may be defined as a method of collecting primary data in which a

No. of individuals with a common interest interact with each other a group may consist
U
of six to eight individuals. The interviewer acts as the discussion leader. Information is
ED
obtained self administered questions. It is a popular method and has the following
advantages.
1. The respondents comment freely and detailed.
2. This method is highly flexible.
3. They didn’t have watch the interview as observed.
It has some limitations also
It is difficult to representative samples.
There is the possibility of one individual dominating others.
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IV. Schedules and Questionnaire
Schedules and Questionnaires are the most common instruments of data collection.
These two types of tools have much in common. Both of them contain a set of
questions logically related to a problem under study; Both aim at collecting responses
from the respondents. But both are different. A schedule is used as a tool for
interviewing, a questionnaire is used for mailing. The schedule is filled by the
interviewer in a face-to-face interview; whereas a questionnaire is filled by the
respondent himself.
V. QUESTIONNAIRE
.IN
This method of data collection is quite popular particularly in case of big enquiries. It
AL
is being adopted by private individuals, research workers and even by governments. In
this method a questionnaire is sent (usually by post) to the persons concerned with a
N
request to answer the questions and return the questionnaire.

R
U
A Questionnaire contains a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order.

JO
Then it is mailed to the respondents who are expected to read and answer to
U
questions and return by writing down the answer. The respondents have to answer the
ED
questions on their own. It has the following merits.
1. There is a low cost even when the universe is large and it is widely spread
geographically
2. It is free from the bias of the interviewer answers are in respondents own words.
3. The respondents have enough time to read and answer the questions.
4. Respondents who are not easily approachable can also be reached conveniently.
5. Large samples can be used; so the method is dependable and reliable.
Limitations
The main limitations of this system are;
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1.Low rate of return of duly filled questionnaire
2.It is possible only in case of educated respondents.
3.The control over the questions is lost once it is sent.
4.There is inflexibility of questions.
5.There is possibility of unclear answers.
6.This method is a slowest one.
SCHEDULES
.IN
 This method of data collection is very much like the collection of data through
questionnaire with little difference which likes in the fact that schedules are
AL
being filled in by enumerators who are specially appointed for this purpose.
 These enumerators along with schedules go to respondents, put to them the
N
R
questions from the performer in the order questions are listed and record the
U
replay in the space meant for the same Performa.

JO
 This method requires the selection and training of enumerators to fill up the
schedules and they should be carefully selected. Enumerators should be
U
intelligent and must be able to find out the truth.

ED
 The enumerators should be honest sincere and hard working. This method is
very useful because it yield good results.
 Population censes all over the world is conducted through this method.
Differences between Schedule and Questionnaire
1. The Questionnaire is generally sent through mail to informants. The schedule is

generally filled by the research worker.
2. To collect data through questionnaire is relatively cheap. To collect data through

schedule is relatively more expensive.
3. Non- response is high in case of questionnaire whereas in schedule response is

very high.
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4. In Questionnaire there is no personal conducts. But in a schedule there is a face-

to- face contact.
5. The questionnaire method is used only when respondents are literate.
6. Along with schedules observation methods can be also used.
Types of Questions
a) Structural Question
Questions which allow only a few alternative ways of answering are structural
questions. The simplest example of a structural question “What is your age”? there
can be only one answer to this question.
.IN
b) Dichotomous Questions (two choice questions)
AL
Dichotomous Questions result in Yes or No answers. For eg..Are you a member of
N
lions club?
R
U
c) Multiple choice questions

JO
Here the answer is selected from among several alternatives

U
d) Ranking questions
ED
Here different alternative answers are given for question and the respondent is asked
to rank them or show his preference by number income 1,2,3, etc.
Questions not to be asked
1. Vague questions should be avoided
2. Leading questions should be avoided.
3. Presuming questions should not be included.
4. Hypothetical questions should not be included.
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DATA PROCESSING AND DATA ANALYSIS
Data Processing
Data processing is an intermediately stage of work b/w data collection and data
analysis. The complete Instruments of data collection that is Interview schedule
Questionnaire, data sheet etc contain a west mess of data. They cannot straight way
provide answers to research question. They are like raw materials and they need
processing. The following are the major steps in data processing.
1. Editing
.IN
The 1st step in processing of data is editing of data. Editing is a process of checking
AL
to detect and correct errors and concessions. Editing is done at 2 stages.
N
a) Field Editing
R
During the time of Interviewing. The interviewer cannot always record response
U
JO
completely and legibly. Therefore after each Interview is over the researcher should
review the schedule to complete abbreviated responses, rewrite eligible response and
U
correct omissions.
ED
b) Office Editing
All completed schedules and questionnaire should be thoroughly checked in the office
for completeness accuracy and uniformity.
2. Classification and Coding
a) Classification
The edited data are classified and coded. The responses are classified into meaningful
category, so as to bring out there essential pattern. By this method several ended
responses are reduced into 5 or 6 appropriate categories containing critical information
needed for analysis. Suppose the responses to a question an occupation in a survey
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consist of items as business executive, share broker, electricians, Driver, farm labourer,
lawyer, college teacher, medical practitioner barber, carpenter, accountant and gold
smith.
This data are not amenable for analysis. So they can be classified as
1. Professional and managerial Business executive, college teacher, lawyer, medical

practitioner.
2. Clerical: Accountant, Assistant
3. Skilled labours: Share broker, electricians, carpenter, barber, Gold smith
4. Unskilled labourer: Farm labourer
.IN
b) Coding
AL
Coding means assigning numerals or other symbols to the category of responses for
N
each question. A coding scheme is designed on the basis of the concerned category.
R
The coding schemes with the assigned symbols together with specific coding
U
instructions may be assembled in a book. The codebook will identity a specific items
JO
of variable or observation and code number assigned to each category of that item.
U
Occupation Religion
ED
Salaried -1 Hindu -1
Profssional -2 Christian -2
Business -3 Muslim -3
Retired -4 Budhist -4
House Wife -5 Jainsist -5
3. Transcription
When only a few schedules are processed and hand tabulated, Tabulation can directly
we made from the schedules. On the other hand direct tabulation from the edited
schedule or questionnaire is difficult if the number of schedules and the number of
responses in them are large.
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Suppose an Interview schedule contain 180 responses requiry tabulation and 210
simple and cross tables are to be constructed, each schedule has to be handled at
least 210 for tabulation. This will result in mutilation of the schedule. In order to avoid
this draw able data contained in schedule or questionnaire are transferred to another
material for tabulation. This intermediately process is called transcription. There are two
methods of transcription Manual or mechanical
4. Tabulation
After the transcription of data is over data are summarised and arranged in a compact
form for further analysis. Thus tabulation is the process of summonsing raw-data and
discipline them of compact statistical tables. Tabulation can be done by hand or by
.IN
mechanical or electronic devices.
AL
5. Graphic Representation
N
In presenting the data of frequency distinction and statistical computation, It is often
R
desirable to use appropriate to forms of graphic representation. In addition to tabular

U
forms. Graphic representation involves the use of graphic charts and other pictorial
JO
devices reduced large masses of statistical data to a form that can be quickly
U
understood at a glance. The devise of graphic representation are useful for non-
ED
technical people or general public. Graphic representation must be planned with almost
care. Graphic forms used must be simple clear and accurate. The most commonly
used graphical forms are
a) Line graph or charts
b) Bar charts
c) Segmental representations
d) Pictograph
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Unit – 05 THE ROLE OF COMPUTER IN RESEARCH

Introduction
Problem solving is an age old activity. The development of electronic devices specially
the computer has given added impetus to this activity. Problems which could not be
solved earlier due to sheer amount of computations involved can now be tackled with
the aid of computer accurately and rapidly. Today people use computer in all walks of
life. To the researcher the use of computer to analyse complex data had made
complicated research design practical. Electronic computers became an indispensible
part of research students in physical and behavioural sciences as well as in
humanities.
.IN
A computer as the name indicates is nothing but a device that computes. In this
AL
sense any device, however, sophisticated, but enables one to carryout mathematical
N
manipulation becomes a computer. Today we mean computer as electronically
R
operating machine which is used to carry out computations.

U
JO
Important Characteristics of Computers
1. Speed :-Computers can perform calculations in just a few seconds that human
U
ED
beings would need weeks to do by hand. This has led to many scientific projects
which were previously impossible.
2. Diligence:- Being a machine, a computer does not suffer from the human traits of
tiredness and lack of concentration. If two million calculations have to be performed, it
will perform the two million calculations with exactly the same accuracy and speed as
the first.
3. Accuracy:- The computer’s accuracy is consistently high. Errors may occur very
rarely but it can detected very easily. The errors are due to the imprecise thinking by
the programmer or due to in accurate poorly designed systems.
4. Automation:- Once a programme is in computers memory all that is needed is the

individual institution to it which are transferred one after the other, to the control unit
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of execution. The CPU follows these instructions until it meets a last instruction which
says “ stop programme execution”.
5. Binary Digits:- Computers use only the binary number system ( a system in which
all numbers are represented by a combination of two digits- one and zero) and thus
operates to the base of two compared to the ordinary decimal arithmetic which
operates on a base of ten.
6. Storage:- Although the storage capacity of the present day computer is much more
than its earlier counterpart but even then the internal memory of the CPU is only large
enough to retain a certain amount of information just as the human brain selects and
retains what it feels to be important and regulates unimportant deatails to the back of
.IN
the mind or just forgets them. Hence it is impossible to store all types of information
inside the computer records. If need be all unimportant information/data can be stored
AL
in auxiliary storage devices and the same may be brought into the main internal
N
memory of the computer as and when required for processing.

R
U
Computers and Researchers

JO
 Performing calculations almost at the speed of light, the computer has become
U
one of the most useful research tools in modern times. Computers are ideally
ED
suited for data analysis concerning large research projects.

 Researchers are essentially concerned with huge storage of data, their faster
retrieval when required and processing of data with the aid of various
techniques.
 In all these operations, computers are of great help. Their use, apart expediting
the research work, has reduced human drudgery and added to the quality of
research activity.
 Techniques involving trial and error process are quite frequently employed in
research methodology.
 This involves lot of calculations and work of repetitive nature. Computer is best
suited for such techniques, thus reducing the drudgery of researchers on the
one hand and producing the final result rapidly on the other.
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 Thus, different scenarios are made available to researchers by computers is no

time which otherwise might have taken days or even months.
 The storage facility which the computers provide is of immense help to a
researcher for he can make use of stored up data whenever he requires to do
so.
 Thus, computers do facilitate the research work. Innumerable data can be
processed and analysed with greater ease and speed. Moreover, the results
obtained are generally correct and reliable.
 Not only this, even the design, pictorical graphing and report are being
developed with the help of computers.
 Hence, researchers should be given computer education and be trained in the
.IN
line so that they can use computers for their research work.
AL
 In spite of all this sophistication we should not forget that basically computers
are machines that only compute, they do not think.
N
 The human brain remains supreme and will continue to be so for all times.
R
U
As such, researchers should be fully aware about the following limitations of computer-
JO
based analysis:
U
1. Computerized analysis requires setting up of an elaborate system of monitoring,

ED
collection and feeding of data. All these require time, effort and money. Hence,
computer based analysis may not prove economical in case of small projects.
2. Various items of detail which are not being specifically fed to computer may get lost
sight of.
3. The computer does not think; it can only execute the instructions of a thinking
person. If poor data of faulty programs are introduced into the computer, the data
analysis would not be worthwhile. The expression “garbage in, garbage out” describes
this limitations very well.
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.IN
AL
N
R
U
JO
U
ED
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Contents
Module 04
150 expected mcq`s
.IN
AL
N
R
U
JO
U
ED

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150 expected mcq`s

1. Bibliography given in a research report
(a) helps those interested in further research and studying the problem from another angle
(b) shows the vast knowledge of the researcher
(c) makes the report authentic
(d) none of the above
Ans: a
2. Which comes first, theory or research?
a) Theory, because otherwise you are working in the dark
b) Research, because that’s the only way you can develop a theory
c) It depends on your point of view
d) The question is meaningless, because you can’t have one without the other
Ans: c
.IN
3. We review the relevant literature to know:
a) What is already known about the topic
AL
b) What concepts and theories have been applied to the topic
N
c) Who are the key contributors to the topic
d) All of the above
R
Ans: d
U
4. A deductive theory is one that:

JO
a) Allows theory to emerge out of the data

b) Involves testing an explicitly defined hypothesis
U
c) Allows for findings to feed back into the stock of knowledge

ED
d) Uses qualitative methods whenever possible

Ans: b
5. Which of the following is not a type of research question?
a) Predicting an outcome
b) Evaluating a phenomenon
c) Developing good practice
d) A hypothesis
Ans: d
6. What does ‘sampling cases’ mean?
a) Sampling using a sampling frame
b) Identifying people who are suitable for research
c) Literally, the researcher’s brief-case
d) Sampling people, newspapers, television programmes etc.
Ans: d
7. The core ingredients of a dissertation are:
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a) Introduction; Data collection; Data analysis; Conclusions and recommendations.

b) Executive summary; Literature review; Data gathered; Conclusions; Bibliography.
c) Research plan; Research data; Analysis; References.
d) Introduction; Literature review; Research methods; Results; Discussion; Conclusion
Ans: d
8. Which of the following is not a data-collection method?
a) Research questions
b) Unstructured interviewing
c) Postal survey questionnaires
d) Participant observation
Ans: a
9. The research antagonistic to ex-post facto research is
(a) experimental studies
(b) library researches
.IN
(c) normative researches
(d) all of the above AL
Ans: a
10. An example of scientific knowledge is
N
(a) social traditions and customs
R
(b) authority of the Prophet or great men

(c) religious scriptures
U
(d) laboratory and field experiments

JO
Ans: d
11. The process not needed in experimental researches is
U
(a) controlling
ED
(b) observation
(c) manipulation and replication
(d) reference collection
Ans: d
12. Below are given some probable characteristics of an ineffective teacher, which of
them is most likely to be characterized the ineffective teacher
(a) emphasis upon pupil discussion in the clarification of groups goals.
(b) emphasis upon standards.
(c) emphasis upon the control of the immediate situation
(d) None of the above.
Ans: c
13. The per capital income of India from 1950 to 1990 is four times. This study is
(a) social
(b) factorial
(c) longitudinal
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(d) horizontal
Ans: c
14. Nine years old children are taller than 7 years old ones. It is an example of
(a) vertical studies
(b) cross-sectional studies
(c) experimental studies
(d) case studies
Ans: b
15. Attributes of objects, events or things which can be measured are called
(a) data
(b) qualitative measure
(c) variables
Ans: c
.IN
16. In order to augment the accuracy of the study a researcher
(a) should be honest and unbiased AL
(b) should increase the size of the sample
(c) should keep the variance high
N
(d) all of these
R
Ans: d
17. Hypothesis cannot be stated in
U
(a) declarative terms

JO
(b) null and question form terms

(c) general terms
U
(d) directional terms

ED
Ans: c
18. All cause non sampling errors except
(a) faulty tools of measurement
(b) inadequate sample
(c) defect in data collection
(d) non response
Ans: b
19. Formulation of hypothesis may not be necessary in
(a) survey studies
(b) fact finding (historical) studies
(c) experimental studies
(d) normative studies
Ans: b
20. Who is regarded the father of scientific social surveys ?
(a) Best
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7004579780(W) 5
(b) Booth
(c) Darwin
(d) None of these
Ans: b
21. For doing external criticism (for establishing the authenticity of data) a researcher
must verify
(a) the signature and handwriting of the author
(b) the paper and ink used in that period which is under study
(c) style of prose writing of that period
(d) all of the above
Ans: d
22. Survey study aims at
(i) knowing facts about the existing situation
.IN
(ii) comparing the present status with the standard norms
(iii) criticising the existing situation AL
(iv) identifying the means of improving the existing situation
(a) (i) and (ii) only
N
(b) (i),(ii)and(iii)
R
(c) (i),(ii),(iii)and(iv)
(d) (ii) and (iii) only
U
Ans: b
JO
23. Which of the following is not the characteristic of a researcher?

(a) He is industrious and persistent on the trial of discovery
U
(b) He is a specialist rather than a generalist

ED
(c) He is objective
(d) He is not versatile in his interest and even in his native abilities
Ans: d
24. The validity and reliability of a research will be at stake when
(a) The incident was reported after a long period of time from that of its occurrence
(b) The author who is the source of information is biased, incompetent or dishonest
(c) The researcher himself is not competent enough to draw logical conclusions.
(d)All of the above.
Ans: d
25. A researcher wants to study the future of the Congress I in India. For the study
which tool is most appropriate for him ?
(a) Questionnaire
(b) Rating scale
(c) Interview
(d) Schedule
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7004579780(W) 6
Ans: a
26.Catharsis means discharge of emotions. A teacher can let off pent-up energy of his
disciples through
(a) picnics / excursions
(b) mock-parliament
(c) celebration of festivals
(d) All of the above
Ans: d
27. Seeing a very big turnout, it was reported that JD will win the election, the
conclusion was based on
(a) random sampling
(b) cluster sampling
(c) purposive sampling
(d) systematic sampling
.IN
Ans: b
28. A researcher divides his population into certain groups and fixes the size of the
AL
sample from each group. It is called
(a) stratified sample
N
(b) quota sample
R
(c) cluster sample

U
Ans: b
JO
29.Which technique is generally followed when the population is finite ?

(a) Purposive sampling technique
U
(b) Area sampling technique

ED
(c) Systematic sampling technique

(d) None of the above
Ans: c
30. Which of the following is a non-probability sample ?
(a) Quota sample
(b) Simple random sample
(c) Purposive sample
(d) (a) and (c) both
Ans: d
31. If a researcher is studying the effect of using laptops in his classroom to ascertain
their merit and worth, he is likely conducting which type of research?
(a) Basic
(b) Applied
(c ) Evaluation
(d) Experimental
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Ans : c
32. A researcher selects a probability sample of 100 out of the total population. It is
(a) a cluster sample
(b) a random sample
(c) a systematic sample
(d) a stratified sample
Ans: b
33. Service rules for college and university teachers should be in line with bureaucrats
and executives. Do you support the statement?
(a) More or less with some modifications.
(b) Definitely not
(c) Yes basically, but with major variation in many cases.
Ans: c
.IN
34. The most important task in teaching is
(a) directing students in development of experiences.AL
(b) making assignments and hearing recitations
(c) making monthly reports and maintaining records
N
R
Ans: a
35. A good hypothesis should be
U
(a) formulated in such a way that it can be tested by the data

JO
(b) precise, specific and consistent with most known facts

(c) of limited scope and should not have global significance
U
(d) all of these

ED
Ans: d
36. While writing research report a researcher
(a) must arrange it in logical, topical and chronological order
(b) must not use the numerical figures in numbers in the beginning of sentences
(c) must compare his results with those of the other studies
Ans: d
37. Which of the following is a primary source of data ?
(a) Official records – governments’ documents, information preserved by social religious
organizations etc.
(b) Personal records, letters, diaries, auto-biographies, wills, etc.
(c) Oral testimony of traditions and customs
Ans: d
38. Field study is related to
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(a) real life situations

(b) laboratory situations
(c) experimental situations
Ans: a
39. A researcher divides the populations into PG, graduates and 10+2 students and
using the random digit table he selects some of them from each. This is technically
called
(a) stratified sampling
(b) stratified random sampling
(c) representative sampling,
(d) none of these
Ans: b
40. A statistical measure based upon the entire population is called parameter while
.IN
measure based upon a sample is known as
(a) sample parameter AL
(b) inference
(c) statistic
N
(d) none of these
R
Ans: c
41. Generalized conclusion on the basis of a sample is technically known as
U
(a) statistical inference of external validity of the research

JO
(b) parameter inference

(c) data analysis and interpretation
U

ED
Ans: a
42. Validity of a research can be improved by
(a) taking the true representative sample of the population
(b) eliminating extraneous factors
(c) both of the above measures
(d) none of these
Ans: c
43. Researches are generally treated as ‘Identity symbols’ of a nation because
(a) Researches reflect the progress of a nation
(b) Researches focus on human development
(c) Researches help in acquiring international prestige
(d) All the above
Ans: d
44. In Hindi language the term Anusandhan refers to
(a) Follower of an aim
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7004579780(W) 9
(b) Preying of an aim

(c) Attain the aim
(d) Become goal-oriented
Ans: a
45. Research is based upon
(a) Scientific method
(b) Experiments
(c) Scientists
(d) General principles
Ans: a
46. The main condition which should be followed by research is
(a) Honest exploration
(b) Knowledge of facts and principles
(c) Standardized findings and conclusions
.IN
(d) All the above
Ans: d AL
47. A research should be
(a) Objective
N
(b) Valid
R
(c) Reliable
(d) All the above
U
Ans: d
JO
48. Reliability is the fundamental quality of a’ research which also reflects

(a) Validity
U
(b) Verifiability
ED
(c) Purity of data

(d) Superiority
Ans: a
49. The research is always
(a) Exploring new knowledge
(b) Verifying the old knowledge
(c) Filling the gap between the knowledge
(d) Including all the above
Ans: d
50. Generally the data of the research is
(a) Quantitative only
(b) Qualitative only
(c) Both of the above
Ans: c
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51. The meaning of generalization is

(a) To normalize a special quality
(b) To implement the research conclusion at the larger level
(c) To give advantages of research to normal person
Ans: b
52. The aims of research is/are
(a) Factual
(b) Verifiable
(c) Theoretical
(d) All the above
Ans: d
53.Factual aims of research have the quality of
(a) Descriptive nature
.IN
(b) Foundation on human values
(c) Cause-effect relatedness AL
Ans: a
N
54. The factual aims are most important in
R
(a) Historical researches

(b) Behavioural researches
U
(c) Theoretical researches

JO
(d) Philosophical researches

Ans: a
U
55. Which of the following is classified in the category of the developmental research?
ED
(a) Philosophical research

(b) Action-research
(c) Descriptive research
(d) All the above
Ans: b
56. On the basis of contributions made, all the researches can be classified as
(a) Fundamental-Applied-Action Research
(b) Experimental-Historical-Philosophical
(c) Longitudinal and Cross-sectional
Ans: a
57. Research approaches are
(a) Longitudinal and cross-sectional
(b) Oblique and horizontal
(c) Long and short section
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Ans: a
58. Generally the formulation and progress of new knowledge have been carried out
through
(a) Fundamental researches
(b) Experimental researches
(c) Historical researches
Ans: a
59. The survey research are classified under the
(a) Fundamental researches
(b) Experimental researches
.IN
Ans: c
60. The research which is exploring new facts through the study of the past is called as
AL
(a) Historical research
(b) Philosophical research
N
(c) Mythological research
R

Ans: a
U
61. The principles formulated by the Fundamental research are used in

JO
(a) Applied researches

(b) Philosophical researches
U
(c) Action researches

ED

Ans: a
62.The research is (in reference to human nature)
(a) An attitude of inquiry
(b) A method of formulating principles
(c) A systematic and intellectual work
(d) A scientific method
Ans: a
63. Action-research is
(a) An applied research
(b) A research carried out to solve immediate problems
(c) A longitudinal research
(d) All the above
Ans: b
64. ‘Ganga Action Plan’ – is an Action Research Plan because it has
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7004579780(W) 12
(a) To attain a definite goal

(b) To finish in a scheduled time
(c) A definite socio-economic order
(d) All the above
Ans: d
65. The single difference between Longitudinal and Cross-sectional researches is
(a) In Longitudinal researches, researcher works on single group of subjects for long term
duration while in cross-section, the immediate results have been derived after selecting a
sample
(b) In Longitudinal researchers the researcher should have more patience to work than in
cross-sectional researches
(c) The Longitudinal researches have been generally carried out under the specific situation
and with specific persons but it is not carried out in cross-sectional researches.
(d) All the above differences are correct.
.IN
Ans: d
66. The best quality of a researcher is AL
(a) Curiosity
(b) Active imagination
N
(c) Ability
R
(d) All the above

Ans: a
U
67. The Scientific Method is used in

JO
(a) Scientific researches

(b) Social science researches
U

ED

Ans: c
68. The source of a problem is
(a) Historical records
(b) The virgin areas of research
(c) The conclusions whose verification is still to be carried out
(d) All the above
Ans: d
69. The basis of selection of the problem is
(a) Two just opposite experiences
(b) The suggestions given after research
(c) The counseling with experts
(d) All the above
Ans: d
70. Generally at present the following tradition has been observed for doing research:
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(a) The supervisor putting the problem to student’s mind without considering his ability, interest
etc.
(b) The researchers themselves work hard to search a good problem
(c) By doing slight changes in the existing topics, variables etc., new problems have been
worked out easily
(d) Both A and C in the above
Ans: d
71. The quality of a problem is
(a) Clarity
(b) Worth for solution
(c) Hypothesis oriented
(d) All the above
Ans: d
72. Which one of the following is NOT a quality of a problem?
.IN
(a) Innate nature of the problem
(b) Practicality of the problem AL
(c) Problem according to the interests of the researcher
(d) Measurability of problem
N
Ans: a
R
73. The basic principle of problem selection is

(a) Novelty of a problem
U
(b) Practicality of a problem

JO
(c) Future-orientation of a problem

(d) All the above
U
Ans: d
ED
74. Which one of the following is treated as basis of evaluation for the proposed
problem of research?
(a) Novelty of a problem
(b) Presence of problem-solving potentiality
(c) Possibilities of data collection from the sample
(d) All the above
Ans: d
75. The background of the Historical researches is
(a) In the form of chronological sequence
(b) In the form of historical data and facts
Ans: c
76. The synopsis of research is called
(a) Blueprint
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(b) Mapping of problem

(c) Base of a problem
(d) All the above
Ans: d
77. The advantages of synopsis is/are
(a) It clearly shows the way of research
(b) It visualizes the various difficulties related with different steps of research
(c) It helps in planning various steps of the research
(d) All the above
Ans: d
78. The nature of a hypothesis can be
(a) Conceptual
(b) Declarative
(c) Action-oriented
.IN
(d) All the above
Ans: d AL
79. The type of hypothesis is
(a) Interrogative form
N
(b) Declarative form
R
(c) Directional form

(d) All the above
U
Ans: d
JO
80. The meaning of a declarative hypothesis is

(a) The declaration of the relationship among the variables
U
(b) The expression of the correlations among the variables

ED
(c) Both of the above are correct

(d) None of the above is correct
Ans: c
81. When a possible solution to the problem has been written in desired direction, this
type of hypothesis is called
(a) Directional hypothesis
(b) Non-directional hypothesis
(c) Declarative hypothesis
Ans: a
82. Which of the following precaution should be kept in mind by the researcher during
the selection of a representative sample?
(a) Deep knowledge of the target population
(b) The adequate knowledge of the sampling techniques
(c) Accurate implementation of the sampling design
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(d) All the above

Ans: d
83. The meaning of the probability sampling is
(a) Where lies the uniform probability of inclusion of all the elements of the population in a
sample
(b) Where the complete representativeness of the population is considered
(c) Where no prejudices exist with any element of the sample
(d) All the above
Ans: d
84. In Non-probability sampling the probability exists of
(a) Insufficient population
(b) Limitations of data
.IN
Ans: c
85. The meaning of Randomization is AL
(a) Each element of population has equal chances to be included in the sample
(b) The selection of an individual from population does not pose threat to the selection of
N
other individuals in the sample
R
(c) The method does not include the personal basis

(d) All the above
U
Ans: d
JO
86. The method of Randomization is

(a) Lottery or coin method
U
(b) Blind folded on dice method

ED
(c) Tippit’s table of irregular members

(d) All the above
Ans: d
87. The advantage of random sampling is
(a) It is the excellent method of sample se-lection
(b) It is an economic method in terms of money, time, and energy
(c) It produces accurate results
(d) All the above
Ans: d
88. The quality of probable sample is
(a) It represents the population in excellent manner
(b) It has normal distribution of the data gathered from the sample
(c) The data is analysed through normal statistical techniques
(d) All the above
Ans: d
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89. The limitation of the probability sample is

(a) It does not guarantee representativeness of the sample from a population
(b) The data do not fulfill the standards of the normal probability curve
(c) It has great risk of generalization of the results
(d) All the above statements are correct.
Ans: d
90. The quality of Non-probability sampling is
(a) Easy and convenient selection of the sample
(b) It has no question of probability of selection of an element
(c) It can be analysed through simple statistical method
(d) All the above are correct
Ans: d
91. In Stratified sampling the units are selected
(a) After dividing the population in different groups on the basis of specific standard and then
.IN
taking an equal proportion of units from each group
(b) After dissociating the population in different groups on the basis of specific standard and
AL
then the units are selected from these groups.
(c) After dividing the population in different ‘strata’ and then selecting any one strata out of
N
them
R

Ans: a
U
92. Suppose the population is quite comprehensive and distributed in a large

JO
geographical area. In such a situation what kind of sampling procedure would you
like to prefer?
U
(a) Multi level sampling

ED
(b) Systematic sampling

(c) Cluster sampling
Ans: c
93. The Purposive sample will be
(a) Depending on the researcher’s whims
(b) Based upon a specific objective of sampling procedure
(c) Based on the excellent method of sampling
Ans: b
94. The types of Historical method are
(a) Descriptive and Analytical
(b) Historical-Constitutional and Reporting
(c) School survey and social surveys
(d) Survey Examination – Questionnaire survey
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Ans: b
95. The position of sample in Survey method is
(a) Essential
(b) Partial
(c) Constant
Ans: a
96. Generally the external and internal validity is present in the inference which we get
from
(a) Experimental method
(b) Survey method
(c) Ex Post Facto method
Ans: c
.IN
97. Which of the following method is free from the difficulties related with sampling,
control and validity of inferences? AL
(a) Historical method
(b) Philosophical method
N
(c) Experimental method
R
(d) Survey method

Ans: a
U
98. The internal validity related with inferences is associated to

JO
(a) Ex post Facto method of research

(b) Experimental method of research
U

ED

Ans: b
99. Which one of the following research methods have the similarity in nature when
compared in relation to sample, control and validity of inferences?
(a) Experimental and Ex Post Facto method
(b) Historical and philosophical method
(c) Survey and Experimental method
Ans: b
100. Survey method is associated with
(a) Those exercises which are continued regularly
(b) Those processes which are continued regularly
(c) The experiences which have been already realised
(d) All the above
Ans: d
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101. Which one of the characteristics is not related to survey method of research ?
(a) It organises scientific principles.
(b) It is comparatively more difficult and changeable.
(c) It requires imaginary planning.
(d) It is not related with person’s qualities
Ans: a
102. The characteristic of survey method is
(a) To solve the problems at local level
(b) To enhance the body of knowledge
(c) To solve the present problems
(d) All the above
Ans: d
103. On the basis of the nature of variable, the types of survey method are
(a) Stratified survey and survey researches
.IN
(b) Sample and population related researches
(c) Surveys through Questionnaire and interviews AL
(d) All the above
Ans: a
N
104. Descriptive study is related with
R
(a) Survey research method

(b) Experimental research method
U
(c) Case study method

JO
(d) All the above

Ans: d
U
105. The objective of Descriptive Research is

ED
(a)To identify and focus on the present conditions

(b) To study the subject on phenomenon in a speedy manner
(c) To collect the facts
(d) All the above
Ans: d
106. The meaning of the Historical method of research is
(a) To employ scientific method in order to study the historical problems
(b) To establish relationship between historical facts and current events
(c) To make specific investigation of the past events
(d) All the above
Ans: d
107. The steps of the Historical method of research are given in a jumbled state.
Select them in a scientific order from the following options
1. Identification of the proble
2. Criticism of data
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3. Interpretation of data
4. Collection of data
(a) 1,4, 3 and 2
(b) 1,2, 3 and 4
(c) 1, 3, 2 and 4
(d) 4, 3, 2 and 1
Ans: a
108. The need of philosophical research method is desired in
(a) Philosophy related researches
(b) All the researches involved in exploring the aims of social sciences
(c) Explorations of Atma and Paramatma
(d) Determining the role and extension of philosophy
Ans: b
109. The experimental method is
.IN
(a) A method for verifying a hypothesis
(b) A method deriving inferences AL
(c) A variable controlling method
N
Ans: a
R
110. The wrong statement in relation to experimental method is

(a) Observation under controlled condition is experiment
U
(b) It is the method of effective control of variables

JO
(c) Careful observation of a phenomenon under controlled conditions

(d) It is a useful method in laboratories.
U
Ans: d
ED
111. Generally variables are of

(a) Two types – Independent and dependent variables
(b) Three types- Independent, dependent and intervening variables
(c) Four types – Independent, dependent,Intervening and control variables
Ans: c
112. The characteristic(s) of experimental method is/are
(a) It follows the law of single variable
(b) It is the laboratory method of research and has borrowed from pure sciences
(c) It follows the scientific method
(d) All the above statements are correct
Ans: d
113. The meaning of Ex post Facto Research is
(a) The research carried out after the incident
(b) The research carried out prior to the incident
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(c) The research carried out along with the happening of an incident
(d) The research carried out keeping in mind the possibilities of an incident
Ans: a
114. In correlation design of Ex Post Facto Research, we study
(a) The variable which has been measured in advance and will work as a causative factor for
second variable
(b) The second variable which is going to be measured and will work as a causative factor for
antecedent variable
(c) The third variable which cannot be measured but works as a causative factor for first and
second variable
(d) All the above three situations and occurrence of variables.
Ans: d
115. The contribution of case-study is
(a) In study and data collection of a case related to caste, age, sex, religion, problems,
.IN
intellectual level, socio-economic status etc.
(b) In evaluation of historical facts related with persons or case
AL
(c) In study of institutionalized groups and families
(d) In all the above studies
N
Ans: d
R
116. The objective of case-study is

(a) Remedial
U
(b) Diagnostic
JO
(c) Educational
(d) All the above
U
Ans: d
ED
117. Case-study collects the data from the following sources

(a) From individual
(b) From anecdotal records
(c) From government documents
(d) From all the above
Ans: d
118. The criteria of a good case-study is
(a) Continuity
(b) Completeness of the data
(c) Validity of the data
(d) All the above
Ans: d
119. The following steps of case-study have been jumbled with each other :
1. Focus of study
2. Identification of cause-effect symptoms
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3. Remedy for adjustment

4. Follow-up programme
5. Data collection
The correct sequence in above steps is
(a) 1,5, 2, 3, and 4
(b) 1,4,5,2 and 3
(c) 1,2,3,4 and 5
(d) 5,4, 3,2 and 1
Ans: a
120. The limitation of case-study is
(a) It has subjectivity
(b) It is difficult to formulate assumptions
(c) It is difficult to employ complex statistical methods
(d) All the above are correct
.IN
Ans: d
121. Research is a AL
(a) Value oriented process
(b) Passive process
N
(c) Self contained process
R
(d) Discovery oriented process

Ans: a
U
122. The researcher has secretly placed him or herself (as a member) in the group
JO
that is being studied. This researcher may be which of the following?

(a) A complete participant
U
(b) An observer-as-participant
ED
(c )A participant-as-observer
Ans: a
123. The research should be value oriented
(a) In the interest of mankind
(b) In the interest of all the living creature
(c) In the self-interest
(d) In the interest of religion
Ans: a
124. ‘The research is an ethical process’. Here the meaning of ethics is
(a) The external beauty of the research
(b) The quality of the research content
(c) The fulfillment of research values in a investigation
Ans: c
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125. The Ethics in research is not related to

(a) Self-interest
(b) Scientific method
(c) Reliability
(d) Humanity
Ans:a
126. Suppose a researcher has some prejudice in relation to some problem, then
the research carried out by him, is called as
(a) Value oriented research
(b) Polluted research
(c) Inadequate research
(d) Prejudiced research
Ans: b
127. What will you do to make your research value oriented?
.IN
(a) You pay the cost of its writing to a ghost writer
(b) You will charge the market rate for the work, you have conducted so far
AL
(c) You will ensure honesty and faith in the research work
(d) You will undertake a plagiarism
N
Ans: c
R
128. When a researcher is engaged in research in a subjective manner, the result

will be
U
(a) inadequate formulation of objectives

JO
(b) inadequate selection of apparatus

(c) inadequate collection of data
U

ED
Ans: d
129. ‘The research should not be carried out with blind-folded eyes’-the meaning of
this phrase is
(a) The research should be free from all personal biases
(b) The research should be free from personal limitations
(c) The research should be separated from personal ideology
Ans: d
130. The objectivity of the research can be enhanced
(a) Through its reliability
(b) Through its validity
(c) Through its impartiality
Ans: d
131. A census taker often collects data through which of the following?
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(a) Standardized tests

(b) Interviews
(c) Secondary data
(d) Observations
Ans.b
132. In order to inculcate the ethical values in the researches, it is essential that it
should be
(a) In accordance with the researcher’s abilities
(b) Providing opportunities to the researcher to work freely
(c) Inculcate maturity in the researcher
Ans: a
133. Each word of a research should be
(a) Justifiable
.IN
(b) Full of wisdom
(c) Enjoyable AL
(d) Entertaining
Ans: a
N
134. If a researcher has the quality of exploration and has the fine skills in his
R
field of research, the research will be

(a) Value oriented
U
(b) Comprehension oriented

JO
(c) Anxiety oriented

(d) Thinking oriented
U
Ans: a
ED
135. The research papers are written in order to

(a) Gain name and fame
(b) Communicate the research
(c) Get promotions
Ans: b
136. The research papers are generally prepared by
(a) The research scholars
(b) The research supervisors
(c) The scientists
Ans: d
137. The process of writing a research paper is
(a) Scientific
(b) Unscientific
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7004579780(W) 24
(c) Original
Ans: a
138. The research papers writing methodology has slight Variations in reference to
(a) The standards maintained by research journals
(b) The interests of the researchers
(c) The research traditions
(d) All of the above statements are correct with slight variations
Ans: d
139. Generally the format of research resembles with
(a) A long essay
(b) A synopsis
(c) A writing technique
(d) A report preparing method
.IN
Ans: b
140. Generally in all researches, an abstract of each article has been prepared
AL
which focuses upon
(a) The central theme of the research paper
N
(b) The research-innovation employed in research paper
R
(c) The effective conclusions of the research paper

U
Ans: d
JO
141. The background of the research paper maybe

(a) Philosophical
U
(b) Historical
ED
(c) Contemporary
Ans: d
142. Generally research papers have been given more weightage instead of
research articles because these will be
(a) Based on data
(b) Incorporated with statistics
Ans: c
143.Generally research papers are presented abundantly in
(a) Seminars
(b) Journals
(c) Symposiums
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7004579780(W) 25
Ans: d
144. Conference is a
(a) Provision to discuss on serious matters
(b) Adequate solution of research problems
(c) Wider manipulation of research inferences
Ans: d
145. The main objective of organizing a work-shop is
(a) To improve the skills of the researchers in order to solve the specific problem
(b) To impart practical training to the re-searchers
(c) To make perfect the researchers in an area of research.
Ans: d
146. Generally the objective of organizing a workshop is
.IN
(a) To develop the research attitude in the researchers.
(b) To tell about the research methodology to the neo-researchers.
AL
(c) To impart practical training of conducting research
N
Ans: c
R
147. The central role in workshop is of

(a) The Director
U
(b) The Expert

JO
(c) The Participants

U
Ans: b
ED
148. The characteristic feature of a workshop is

(a) To attain the higher cognitive and psychomotor objectives of the research
(b) To comprehend the theoretical and practical aspects of the research
(c) To explore the possibilities of applied aspects of the research
Ans: d
149. Seminar is
(a) The process of promoting the reflective level
(b) The process of nurturing the higher cognition
(c) The interactional process of thinking
(d) All of the above are true
Ans: d
150. The main cognitive objective of seminar is
(a) To develop critical and analytical capacities in a researcher
(b) To develop observational and experiential presenting capabilities in a re searcher
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7004579780(W) 26
(c) To develop synthetic and evaluation related abilities in a researcher

(d) All of the above are correct statements
Ans: d
.IN
AL
N
R
U
JO
U
ED
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Summary Notes of C R Kothari (Research Methodology)

Unit – 02 ) REPORT WRITING

Unit – 03 ) DATA COLLECTION,

DATA PROCESSING AND

Unit – 05 ) THE ROLE OF COMPUTER

Test series also available – online / offline mode

FREE PDF AVAILABLE at -

Research: Meaning, Characteristics and Types

solution to a problem is research. The systematic approach concerning generalisation

for some theoretical formulation

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;

problems initiates research;

4. Desire to be of service to society;

5. Desire to get respectability.

a) Fundamental Research/Pure Research/Basic Research:

(e) Descriptive study

Includes surveys and fact findings enquiries of different kinds.

 Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes,

opinions and behaviour.

 Operations research refers to the application of mathematical, logical and analytical

seeking answers to various social problems.

being able to do something better or in a more efficient manner.

Research Methods versus Methodology

Research and Scientific Method

 Scientific method is the pursuit of truth as determined by logical considerations. The

ideal of science is to achieve a systematic interrelation of facts.

 Scientific method attempts to achieve “this ideal by experimentation, observation, logical

 In scientific method, logic aids in formulating propositions explicitly and accurately so

Importance of Knowing How Research is Done

Some of the important problems are as follows:

1. The lack of a scientific training in the methodology of research is a great impediment

sacrosanct to business organisations in the country so much so that it proves an impermeable

rather than in tracing out relevant material from them.

Criteria of Good Research

4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by

Research Process In Flowchart by CR Kothari

1. Formulation the Research problem

2. Extensive Literature survey

3. Developing the hypothesis

4. Preparing the research design

5. Determining sample design

7. Execution of the Project

10. Generalisation & Interpretation

11. Preparation of the report.

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Unit – 01 RESEARCH PROBLEM

concerning the relative efficiency of the possible alternatives.

When to make a Hypothesis?

research can begin only with a well-formulated Hypothesis.

1. In the words of George A. Lund Burg “ a hypothesis is a tentative generalization

Need (importance) of Hypothesis

 The use of hypothesis prevents a blind search and indiscriminate gathering of

Hypothesis can be derived from observation. For example, from observation of

causal observation in nature or in the framework of another science may be a

Characteristics of a Good hypothesis

Hypothesis should be related to available techniques. Otherwise they will not be

testing his proposed hypothesis.

Hypothesis should be logically consistent. The propositions derived should not be

the known hypothesis.