Study of FM Communication

Scientech 2204

Product Tutorial
Ver 1.1

Designed & Manufactured in India by-

An ISO 9001:2008 company
Scientech Technologies Pvt. Ltd.
94, Electronic Complex, Pardesipura, Indore - 452 010 India,
+ 91-731 4211100, : info@scientech.bz , : www.Scientechworld.com
Scientech 2204
Study of FM Communication
Scientech 2204
Table of Contents
Safety Instruction 3
Introduction 4
Features 5
Technical Specifications 6
Functional Block 7
Circuit Diagram 8
Theory 12
I. Frequency Components of Human Voice 12
II. Communication and Communication System 13
III. Introduction to Modulation 17
IV. Types of Modulation 19
V. Frequency Modulation 20
VI. Power and Bandwidth of an FM Signal 23
VII. Frequency Modulator 25
VIII. Frequency Demodulator 31
Experiments
• Experiment 1 36
Study and observation of Frequency Modulation
• Experiment 2 38
Study and calculation of Frequency deviation and Modulation index
• Experiment 3 42
Study of Phase Locked Loop detector
• Experiment 4 45
Study of Marker insertion to evaluate frequency deviation
• Experiment 5 57
Study of Spectrum of FM signal
Glossary 50
Frequently Asked Questions 53
Warranty 55
List of Accessories 55

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Safety Instructions
Read the following safety instructions carefully before operating the product.
To avoid any personal injury, or damage to the product, or any products connected to it;
Do not operate the instrument if you suspect any damage within.
The instrument should be serviced by qualified personnel only.
For your Safety:
Use proper Mains cord : Use only the mains cord designed for this product. Ensure
that the mains cord is suitable for your country.
Ground the Instrument : This product is grounded through the protective earth
conductor of the mains cord. To avoid electric shock the
grounding conductor must be connected to the earth
ground. Before making connections to the input terminals,
ensure that the instrument is properly grounded.

Observe Terminal Ratings : To avoid fire or shock hazards, observe all ratings and
marks on the instrument.

Use only the proper Fuse : Use the fuse type and rating specified for this product.

Use in proper Atmosphere : Please refer to operating conditions given in the manual.
• Do not operate in wet / damp conditions.
• Do not operate in an explosive atmosphere.
• Keep the product dust free, clean and dry.

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Scientech 2204
Introduction
Study of FM Communication is a comprehensive learning solution specifically designed
to provide conceptual and step by step understanding of Frequency modulation and
demodulation techniques through observation of waveforms at various test points and
measurement of parameters like Frequency deviation and Modulation index. Block wise
modular organization of functional circuit with symbolic representation makes it easy to
understand the process of FM generation, FM detection and study of FM Spectrum. The
exercises conceived to provide a practical approach to the subjects enable a deep analysis
of the subjects and will guide the students to understand each function.

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Scientech 2204
Features
• A self contained platform
• Functional blocks with symbols indicated on mimic
• Onboard adjustable controls for various functional blocks
• Built in DC Power Supply
• Online Product Tutorial
• Compact size
• 2 Year Warranty

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Scientech 2204
Technical Specifications
Function Generator:
Waveform : Sine wave
Amplitude : Adjustable from 0 - 4Vpp
Frequency : 0.1 to 10 KHz
VCO 1:
Waveform : Sine wave
Frequency : 400 KHz to 1500 KHz
Amplitude : Adjustable from 0-2Vpp
VCO 2:
Waveform : Sine wave
Frequency : 400 KHz to 1500 KHz
Amplitude : Adjustable from 0- 2Vpp
Sweep Depth : Frequency 7 Hz (Adjustable-Depth)
RF Detector : Input level adjustable
Balanced Modulator : Adjustable amplitude & carrier null
Ceramic Band Pass Filter : Center frequency 455 KHz
Bandwidth : 3 ±1 KHz
FM Detectors : Phase Locked Loop detector
Interconnections : 2mm banana sockets
Test Points : 8 nos.
Weight : 2.5 Kg approximately
Power Supply : 230 V ±10%, 50 / 60 Hz
Power Consumption : 2.5 VA approximately
Operating Conditions : 0-400 C, 80% RH
Dimensions (mm) : W 340 x D 240 x H 100
Product Tutorial : Online (Theory, procedure, reference results, etc).

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Functional Block

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Circuit Diagram
+12v

3
DC1
R111 RV7 100N
100 E 2 10K R107
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R113 R112 RV8 2
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NC 4 SRL1 +5V
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NO 7
1
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FUNCTION GENERATOR RELAY DPDT

F1 F2
SFU455 SFU455
1
2
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2
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CV1 J9 GND_SIGNAL
J8
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IN R156 80P OUT

3.3K
VR 16 -12V -12V
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CERAMIC fILTER

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Scientech 2204
+12V
R10 +12V
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DC9 C14
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CARRIER
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SIGNAL R6 LM1496 C6

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DC10 C5 BALANCED MODULATOR
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SWEEP GENERATOR
+12V +12V
DC12 DC11
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Scientech 2204
+12V

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DC7 C203
100n +12V 100n

U101B
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R201 100n
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LOW PASS FILTER

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Scientech 2204
Theory
Frequency Components of Human Voice :
When we speak, we generate a sound that is very complex and changes continuously so at
a particular instant in time the waveform may appear as shown in next Figure.

However complicated the waveform looks, we can show that it is made of many different
sinusoidal signals added together.
To record this information we have a choice of three methods.
The first is to show the original waveform as we did in above figure. The second method
is to make a list of all the separate sinusoidal waveforms that were contained within the
complex waveform (these are called ‘components’, or ‘frequency components’). This can
be seen in next Figure.

Waveforms
Only four of the components of the audio signal are shown in this figure. The actual
number of components depends on the shape of the signal being considered and could be a
hundred or more if the waveform was very complex.
The third way is to display all the information on a diagram. Such a diagram shows the
frequency spectrum. It is a graph with amplitude plotted against frequency. Each separate
frequency is represented by a signal vertical line, the length of which represents the
amplitude of the sine wave. Such a diagram is shown in figure below. Note that nearly all
speech information is contained within the frequency range of 300 Hz to 3.4 KHz.

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Spectrum
Although an Oscilloscope will only show the original complex waveform, it is important
for us to remember that we are really dealing with a group of sine waves of differing
frequencies, amplitudes and phases.
Communication and Communication System:
Communications is the field of study concerned with the transmission of information
through various means. It can also be defined as technology employed in transmitting
messages.
In the most fundamental sense, Communication involves implicitly the transmission of
information from one place to another through a succession of processes, as describe here:
• The generation of message signal: voice, music, and picture or computer data.
• The description of that message signal by set of symbols.
• The encoding of these symbols in a form that is suitable for transmission over physical
medium.
• The transmission of encoded symbols to desired destination.
• The decoding and reproduction of original symbol.
• The recreation of original message.

In a communication system, there are three basic elements, namely, transmitter, receiver
and channel as shown in next figure.

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Scientech 2204

Block diagram of Communication System

The transmitter is located at one point in space, the receiver is located at some other point
separated from transmitter, and channel is a physical medium which connects them. The
purpose of transmitter is to convert the message signal produced by the source of
information, into a form suitable for transmission over the channel. However, as the signal
propagates along the channel, it is distorted due to channel imperfections. The received
signal is a corrupted version of transmitted signal. The receiver has the task of operating
on the received signal so as to reconstruct a recognizable form of the original message
signal.

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Scientech 2204
A Simple Communication System
Once we are out of shouting range of another person, we must rely on some
communication system to enable us to pass information.
The essential parts of any communication system are transmitter, a communication link
and a receiver, and in the case of speech, this can be achieved by a length of cable with a
microphone and an amplifier at one end and a loudspeaker and an amplifier at the other.

Simple Communication System

For long distances, or when it is required to send signals to many destinations at the same
time, it is convenient to use a radio communication system. One of the alternative systems
is frequency modulation in which the information signal is used to control the frequency
of the carrier wave. This works equally well, and in some respects, better than the
amplitude modulation.
The frequency of the carrier is made to increase as the voltage in the information signal
increases and to decrease in frequency as it reduces. The larger the amplitude of the
information signal, the further the frequency of the carrier signal is shifted from its starting
point. The frequency of the information signal determines how many times in a second
this change in frequency occurs. Notice in figure below that the modulation process does
not affect the amplitude.

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Analog Communication system
In analog communication the physical signals are first converted into electrical signals
with the help of input transducer and then processed electrically in terms of modulation
and then transmitted over the channel with the help of antennas and received with the help
of antennas and then amplified it with the help of amplifier to fed it to the speaker which
converts the electrical signals into physical signals.

Analog Communication system

Input transducer: Converts the message into electrical signal.

Transmitter: Converts the electrical signal into transmission signal.
Channel: A medium that bridges the distances from transmitter to receiver. Ex. Wire,
coaxial cable and fiber optic.
Receiver: Converts the transmission signal to electrical signal.
Output Transducer: Converts electrical signal into its original message.
Noise: An unwanted signal that can cause distortion to the message signal.

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Scientech 2204
Introduction to Modulation
A large number of information sources are analog sources such as speech, images, and
videos. Today, they are transmitted as analog signal transmission, especially in audio and
video broadcast. The transmission of an analog signal is either by modulation of the
amplitude, the phase, or the frequency of a sinusoidal carrier.
Modulation is the process of putting information onto a high frequency carrier for
transmission (frequency translation). Modulation occurs at the transmitting end of the
system.

Block diagram of Modulation Process

At the transmitter, modulation process occurs when the transmission takes place at the
high frequency carrier, which has been modified to carry the lower frequency information.
At the receiver, demodulation takes place. Once this information is received, the lower
frequency information must be removed from the high-frequency carrier.

Block diagram of Modulation and Demodulation processes

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Why to modulate the analog signals:
All audio signals occupy the same frequency band i.e. between 0 and 20 kHz. Before
being broadcast an audio signal (speech or music) must be moved, or frequency translated
to a specific frequency range in order to use the available frequency spectrum. To do this
the audio signal (or modulating signal) modulates a much higher radio frequency (the
carrier frequency). Each audio signal is assigned a carrier – defining a channel – so that it
is possible for the receiver to discriminate between all the streams of signals coming in.
There are 3 main reasons to modulate a signal on to a high frequency carrier:
• Audio is in the range approx. 30 – 20000 kHz. If an electromagnetic signal with a
frequency of 30 Hz is transmitted it will have a wavelength of (speed of light
/frequency) = 300,000/30 km = 10,000 km. To pick up this signal an aerial of size
approx. 2,500 km will be required – impractical. If this signal is used to modulate a
carrier of 1 MHz the wavelength will be 300,000/1,000,000 km = 300 m, and an
aerial of 75 m will suffice. If the carrier is 100 MHz, the wavelength is 3 m and a
750 cm aerial is sufficient.
• A large number of radio transmitters are trying to transmit at the same time. It is
necessary for the receiver to pick up only the wanted signal and to reject the rest.
One way to do to this is to assign a carrier with a known frequency to each
transmitter, modulate this carrier with the signal, and then design the receiver to pick
up only that known carrier frequency and reject the rest, using appropriate filtering
methods. Then the original signal is removed from the received carrier. The same
concept is used in carrying a large number of telephone conversations over a single
pair of wires or optical fiber.
• Using appropriate modulation techniques it is possible at the receiver to remove a lot
of the noise and other distortions which the transmission medium would impose on
the signal.

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Types of Modulation
In analog communication systems, we use the sinusoidal signal as the frequency carrier.
And as the sinusoidal wave can be represented in three parameters; amplitude, frequency
and phase, these parameters may be varied for the purpose of transmitting information
giving respectively the modulation methods:
• Amplitude Modulation (AM):
The amplitude of the carrier waveform varies with the information signal
• Frequency Modulation (FM):
The frequency of the carrier waveform varies with the information signal
• Phase Modulation (PM):
The phase of the carrier waveform varies with the information signal.

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Frequency modulation
Frequency modulation is a system in which the amplitude of the modulated carrier is kept
constant, while its frequency is varied by the modulating signal.
For simplicity, it is again assumed that the modulating signal is sinusoidal. This signal has
two important parameters which must be represented by the modulation process without
distortion: namely its amplitude and frequency.
If ec = Ec sin ωct, and em = Em sin ωmt then, the peak or maximum frequency
deviation:
δ ∝ em
δ = kfem
Where, kf is proportionality constant, and em is the instantaneous value of the modulating
signal amplitude. Thus the frequency of the FM signal is:
es (t) = ec + δ = ec + kfem(t)
Then es = ec + kfEmsin ωmt
Then the equation for the FM signal is:
es = Ec sin (ωct + mf sin ωmt) ………(1)
Where, mf = modulation index, which can be greater than 1. It is measured in radians
mf = Freq. Deviation / Modulating Freq.
= δ/fm

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Scientech 2204

Equation (1) may be analyzed by Fourier methods in order to obtain the spectrum. This
signal can be expressed as a series of sinusoids: es = Ec{Jo(mf) sin ωct
- J1(mf)[sin (ωc - ωm)t - sin (ωc + ωm)t]
+ J2(mf)[sin (ωc - 2ωm)t + sin (ωc + 2ωm)t]
- J3(mf)[sin (ωc - 3ωm)t + sin (ωc + 3ωm)t] + .........
The amplitude coefficients Jn(mf) are known as Bessel functions.
The J's in the equation are known as Bessel functions of the first kind:
mf Jo J1 J2 J3 J4 J5 J6 …….
0 1
0.5 .94 .24 .03
1 .77 .44 .11 .02
2.4 0.0 .52 .43 .20 .06 .02
5.5 0.0 -.34 -.12 .26 .40 .32 .19
• Theoretically, there is an infinite number of side band besides the carrier. The
sideband are separated from the carrier by integer multiples of FM.
• For a given mf Jn coefficients eventually decreases to negligible values as n
increases.
• The sidebands on either of carrier at equal distance from fc have equal amplitudes so
that the sideband distribution is symmetrical about the carrier.

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Graph of Bessel Functions:

FM Side-Bands:
Each (J) value in the table gives rise to a pair of side-frequencies.
The higher the value of mf the more pairs of significant side- frequencies will be
generated.

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Power and Bandwidth of FM Signal:
Regardless of mf, the total power of an FM signal remains constant because its amplitude
is constant. The required BW of an FM signal is:
BW = 2 x n x fm, where n is the number of pairs of side-frequencies.
If mf > 6, a good estimate of the BW is given by Carson's rule:
BW = 2[δ + fm (max)]
Narrowband & Wideband FM:
FM systems with a bandwidth <15 KHz, are considered to be NBFM A more restricted
definition is that their mf < 0.5. These systems are used for voice communication. Other
FM systems, such as FM broadcasting and satellite TV, with wider BW and/or higher mf
are called WBFM.

Comparison of FM with AM
Advantages over AM:
• Better SNR, and less susceptible to noise
• Less power is required to MODULATE
• Capture effect reduces mutual interference
Disadvantages:
• Much wider bandwidth is required
• Slightly more complex circuitry is needed
Advantages of frequency modulation, FM :
FM is used for a number of reasons and there are several advantages of frequency
modulation. In view of this it is widely used in a number of areas to which it is ideally
suited. There are three advantages of frequency modulation for a communication system.

Electrical noise alters the amplitude but not the signal frequency

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• Resilience to noise: One particular advantage of frequency modulation is its
resilience to signal level variations. The modulation is carried only as variations in
frequency. This means that any signal level variations will not affect the audio
output, provided that the signal does not fall to a level where the receiver cannot
cope. As a result this makes FM ideal for mobile radio communication applications
including more general two-way radio communication or portable applications
where signal levels are likely to vary considerably. The other advantage of FM is its
resilience to noise and interference. It is for this reason that FM is used for high
quality broadcast transmissions.
• Easy to apply modulation at a low power stage of the transmitter: Another
advantage of frequency modulation is associated with the transmitters. It is possible
to apply the modulation to a low power stage of the transmitter, and it is not
necessary to use a linear form of amplification to increase the power level of the
signal to its final value.
• It is possible to use efficient RF amplifiers with frequency modulated signals:
It is possible to use non-linear RF amplifiers to amplify FM signals in a transmitter
and these are more efficient than the linear ones required for signals with any
amplitude variations (e.g. AM and SSB). This means that for a given power output,
less battery power is required and this makes the use of FM more viable for portable
two-way radio applications.
Disadvantages of FM :
• This requires the wide bandwidth of the transmission. The medium frequency
broadcast band extends from about 550 KHz to 1,600 KHz, and is therefore only a
little over 1MHz in width. If we tried to use FM using a bandwidth of 250 KHz for
each station, it would mean that no more than four stations could be accommodated.
This wide bandwidth forces us to use higher carrier frequencies, usually in the VHF
band, which extends from about 85 MHz to 110MHz. This is a width of 25MHz and
would hold many more stations.

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FM Transmitter:
The block diagram is shown in figure.

Frequency Modulator
The audio oscillator supplies the information signal and could, if we wish, can be replaced
by a microphone and AF amplifier to provide speech and music instead of the sine wave
signals.
The FM modulator is used to combine the carrier wave and the information signal much in
the same way as in the AM transmitter. The only difference in this case is that the
generation of the carrier wave and the modulation process is carried out in the same block.
It is not necessary to have the two processes in same block, but in our case, it is. The
output amplifier increases the power in the signal before it is applied to the antenna for
transmission just as it did in the corresponding block in the FM transmitter.
The only real difference between the AM and FM transmitters are the modulations, so we
are only going to consider this part of the transmitter.
We are going to investigate two types of modulator; they are called the Varactor
modulator and the reactance modulator.

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How do this modulators work?
The basic idea is quite simple and both modulations function in the same way. They both
include a RF oscillator to generate the carrier and these oscillators employ a parallel tuned
circuit to determine the frequency of operation.
The frequency of resonance depends
on the value of the inductance and
capacitance

This extra capacitance will

reduce the frequency of resonance

Adding an additional capacitor in parallel will cause the total capacitance to increase and
this will result in a decrease in the resonance frequency.
If you feel that a reminder of the formula may be helpful, the approximate frequency of
resonance is given by :
1
f= Hz
2π LC
Where L is the inductance in Henrys and C is the capacitance in Farads
The tuned circuit is part of the oscillator used to generate the carrier frequency so, the
capacitance changes then so will the carrier frequency. This is demonstrated in next figure.

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To produce a frequency modulated carrier, all we have to do is to find a way of making

the information signal increase and decrease the size of the capacitance and hence control
the carrier frequency.
In the following sections we will look to see two ways of achieving this. First by using a
device called a Varactor diode and then by using a transistor.
Varactor Diode:
The Varactor diode is a semiconductor diode that is designed to behave as a voltage
controlled capacitor. When a semiconductor diode is reversing biased, no current flows
and it consists of two conducting regions separated by non-conducting region. This is very
similar to the construction of a capacitor.

Varactor Diode

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By increasing the reverse biased voltage, the width of the insulating region can be
increased and hence the capacitance value decreases. This is shown in figure 19.
Low voltage applied Narrow non-conducting region

More capacitance
Increased voltage applied Wider non-conducting region

Less capacitance

Operation of Varactor Diode

If the information signal is applied to the Varactor diode, the capacitance will therefore be
increased and decreased in sympathy with the incoming signal.
Voltage controlled Oscillator (VCO) Direct - FM Modulator
More common direct-FM modulation technique in use today uses an analog voltage
controlled oscillator (VCO) as shown in figure. In this configuration, a VCO produces a
desired carrier frequency, which is in turn modulated by applying the audio signal to the
VCO input via a varactor diode. A varactor diode is generally used to vary the capacitance
of a circuit. Therefore varactor behaves as a variable capacitor whose capacitance changes
as the input voltage across it changes. As the input capacitance of the VCO is changed is
changed by the varactor, the output frequency of the VCO is shifted, which produces a
direct-FM modulated signal.

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VCO circuit
A basic Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO) can be seen in below figure. It shows a basic
voltage controlled oscillator by which frequency of oscillation is determined by L1, C2,
and D2. D2 is a so-called varactor or varicap. Most common diodes will behave as a
varicap when reversed biased, but they must be operated below the junction breakdown
parameters.
With reverse bias, this diode will act as a capacitor, its depletion zone forming the
dielectric properties. Changing the amount of reverse bias within the diode's breakdown
limits, will alter the depletion zone width and hence vary the effective capacitance
presented by the diode. This in turn changes the frequency resonance of the oscillator
circuit.

Simply connect the audio output to the socket labeled VCO modulation in and observe the
FM modulated waveform on the Oscilloscope at the VCO modulation out terminal. Keep
the amplitude of audio output to approximately 4 V pp and frequency 2 KHz
approximately Observe a stable FM modulated waveform on CRO.
This should look like as under. Similar waveforms are shown in Kennedy’s book.

Now turn the time base speed of CRO little higher and you will observe the same
waveforms as under (like Bessel function).

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Scientech 2204

Now disconnect the audio amplifier’s output from modulation In and connect it to audio
In, keep the reactance/Varactor switch in Varactor position. Observe the output of mixer /
amplifier circuit. Keep the Oscilloscope in X10 position now observe the full waveform
by shifting the X position. It is as shown in figure above. Mark the resemblance between
the output of VCO and the Varactor modulator. They are same.
The Frequency modulation in VCO was more because the Frequency difference between
the carrier and the modulating signal was very less. But in real life applications reactance
and Varactor modulation techniques are used which utilizes high frequency carrier and
you will not observe signal as shown in figure above, but you will see as shown in figure
above.

Mind you both are frequency modulation and there should be no ambiguity about this. The
above is purposely included to make the students clearer in mind that the Varactor and
reactance modulators used in this techbook are frequency modulators only.

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Frequency Demodulator
A FM receiver is very similar to an AM receiver. The most significant change is that the
demodulator must now extract the information signal from a frequency rather than
amplitude modulated wave.

FM Receiver

The basic requirement of any FM demodulator is therefore to convert frequency change

into change in voltage, with the minimum amount of distortion. To achieve this, it should
ideally have a linear voltage/frequency characteristic, similar to that shown in figure. A
demodulator can also be called a ‘discriminator’ or a ‘detector’.

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Scientech 2204

Any design of circuit that has a linear voltage/frequency characteristic would be

acceptable and we are point to consider the five most popular types. In each case the main
points to look are:
• How do they convert FM signals into AM signals?
• How linear is their response-this determines the amount of distortion in the final
output.
• How good are they at rejecting noise signals?

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Phase Locked Loop Detector :
This is another demodulator that employs a phase comparator circuit. It is a very good
demodulator and has the advantage that it is available, as a self-contained integrated
circuit so there is no set up required. You plug it in and in works. For these reasons, it is
often used in commercial broadcast receivers. It has very low levels of distortion and is
almost immune from external noise signals and provides very low levels of distortion. Al -
together a very nice circuit.

Phase Lock Loop Detector

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Scientech 2204
The overall action of the circuit may, at first, seem rather pointless. As we can see in
Figure, there is a Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO). The DC output voltage from the
output of the low pass filters controls the frequency of this oscillator. Now this DC voltage
keeps the oscillator running at the same frequency as the original input signal and 90° out
of phase. And if we did, then why not just add a phase shifting circuit at the input to give
the 90° phase shift? The answer can be seen by imagining what happens when the input
frequency changes – as it would with a FM signal. If the input frequency increases and
decreases, the VCO frequency is made to follow it. To do this, the input control voltage
must increase and decrease. These change of DC voltage level that forms the demodulated
signal. The AM signal then passes through a signal buffer to prevent any loading effects
from disturbing the VCO and then through an audio amplifier if necessary. The frequency
response is highly linear as shown in figure.

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Controlling the VCO:
To see how the VCO is actually controlled, let us assume that it is running at the same
frequency as an un-modulated input signal. The waveforms are given in figure.

The input signal is converted into a square wave and, together with the VCO output, forms
the two inputs to an Exclusive – OR gate.
Remember that the Exclusive – OR gate provides an output whenever the two inputs are
different in value and zero output whenever they are the same.
Figure shows the situation when the FM input is at its un-modulated carrier frequency and
the VCO output is of the same frequency and 900 out of phase. This provided an output
from the Exclusive –OR gate with an on-off ratio of unity and an average voltage at the
output of half of the peak value (as shown).
Now let us assume that the FM signal at the input decreases in frequency . The period of
the ‘squared up’ FM signal increases and the mean voltage level from the Exclusive – OR
gate decreases. The mean voltage level is both the demodulated output and the control
voltage for the VCO. The VCO frequency will decrease until its frequency matches the
incoming FM signal.

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Scientech 2204
Experiment 1
Objective:
Study and observation of Frequency Modulation
Items Required:
• FM Communication Trainer
• Power Supply cord
• Scientech Oscilloscope with connecting probe
• 2mm Patch cords
Connection Diagram:

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Scientech 2204
Procedure:
• Please check the following conditions:
} Function Generator: Frequency toggle switch at 1-10KHz
} VCO 2: Frequency toggle switch at 1500 KHz.
} PLL detector Switch at Off position.
• Carry out the following presetting as under:
} VCO 2: Frequency at 455 KHz and amplitude at maximum.
} Function Generator: Frequency and amplitude both potentiometers at
maximum.
• Make connections as shown in above figure.
• Connect the output of Function Generator to input of VCO 2.
• Now connect the CH I (Y) of Oscilloscope to the output of VCO 2 to observe
frequency modulated waveform.
• Connect CH II (X) of Oscilloscope to Function Generator output to observe
modulating signal.
• Now carry out following settings on CRO.
} Set CRO in dual channel mode.
} Keep CRO at AC coupling position.
} Keep CH I (Y) at1 V/Div and CH II (X) at 1V/Div and Time base at 10µS.
} Use alternate Trigger mode.
• Now you will get Frequency modulated waveform as shown below.

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Scientech 2204
Experiment 2
Objective:
Study and calculation of Frequency deviation and Modulation index
Items Required:
• FM Communication Trainer
• Power Supply cord
• Scientech Oscilloscope with connecting probe
• 2mm Patch cords
Connection Diagram:

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Scientech 2204
Procedure:
• Please check the following conditions:
} Function Generator: Frequency toggle switch at 1-10KHz
} VCO 2: Frequency toggle switch at 1500 KHz.
} PLL detector Switch at Off position.
• Carry out the following presetting as under:
} VCO 2: Frequency at 455 KHz and amplitude at maximum.
} Function Generator: Frequency potentiometer at center and amplitude both
potentiometer also at center position.
• Make connections as shown in above figure.
• Connect the output of Function Generator to input of VCO 2.
• Connect the Oscilloscope to the output of VCO 2.
Note : The frequency deviation can be calculated as follows
} From the waveform evaluate FM and fm detecting the periods of the respective
sine waves.
} The frequency deviation is defined as ∆f = ( FM - fm) / 2.
} You can note that if the modulator operates in a linear zone so F M and fro are
over and under the central frequency by the same ∆f, otherwise this does not
occur.
} Modulation index me is calculated by the relation.
mf = ∆f /f
Where, f is the frequency of the modulating signal

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Scientech 2204
• Now monitor the modulated output on the Oscilloscope keeping the following
settings of controls. You will obtain a waveform similar to the one shown in next
figure.
[CHI(Y) – 1V/Div; Time Base – 5 µS]

• The frequency deviation can be calculated as follows

} From the waveform of above figure, evaluate FM and fm detecting the periods
of the respective sine waves.
Here FM and fm are calculated as follow:
Time base is 5 µS;
22 Cycles of Fm are completed in 50 µS; hence time period of 1 Cycle is 50/22 =
2.273 µS.
Hence fm= 1/2.273 µS = 440 KHz (approx.)
22 Cycles of fM are completed in 48 µS; hence time period of 1 Cycle is 48/22 =
2.182 µS.
Hence FM = 1/2.182 µS = 458 KHz (approx.)
} You can note that if the modulator operates in a linear zone so FM and fm are
over and under the central frequency F by the same ∆f.
} The frequency deviation is defined as ∆f = ( FM - fm) / 2.
=> ∆f = (458 - 440) / 2 = 9 KHz
a. Modulation index mf is calculated by the relation.
mf = ∆f /f (Where, f is the frequency of the modulating signal = 4.5KHz)
mf = 9/4.5 = 2
• The variation in the frequency Deviation and modulation index can be monitored
with variation in the amplitude of the modulating signal.

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Scientech 2204
Observation Table:

Sr. No Freq. (f) Input FM fm Freq. Deviation Modulation

Signal ∆f = (FM-fm)/2 Index
Amplitude mf = ∆f/f

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Scientech 2204
Experiment 3
Objective:
Study of Phase Locked Loop detector
Items Required:
• FM Communication Trainer
• Power Supply cord
• Scientech Oscilloscope with connecting probe
• 2mm Patch cords
To demodulate a frequency modulated signal a circuit is necessary which supplies the
output with a proportional voltage to the frequency deviation of the input modulated
signal.
The ideal characteristic of the demodulator is a straight line. PLL is a detector that
matches this ideal response. It has the advantage that it is available as a self contained
integrated circuit so there is no setting up required.
It is used in commercial broadcast receivers. It has very low levels of distortion and is
almost immune from external noise and provides very low levels of distortion.
The PLL detector circuit utilizes IC 4046.
As we can see in next figure there is a voltage controlled oscillator (VCO). The DC output
voltage from the output of the low pass filters controls the frequency of this oscillator.
Now, this DC voltage keeps the oscillator running at the same frequency as the original
input signal and 90° out of phase. What happens when the input frequency changes?

If the input frequency changes, the VCO is made to follow it. To do this, the input control
voltage must increase and decrease, these change of DC level form the demodulated
signal.

Connection Diagram:

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Scientech 2204

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Scientech 2204
Procedure:
• Please check the following conditions:
} Function Generator: Frequency toggle switch at 1-10KHz
} VCO 2: Frequency toggle switch at 1500 KHz.
} PLL detector Switch at Off position.
• Carry out the following presetting as under:
} VCO 2: Frequency at 455 KHz and amplitude at maximum.
} Function Generator: Frequency potentiometer at center and amplitude 100mV.
• Make connections as shown in above figure.
• Connect output of FG block to input of VCO.
• Output of VCO to input of PLL detector.
• Output of PLL detector to input of low pass filter.
• Switch in PLL detector block in ‘On’ position.
• Now connect Oscilloscope between output of low pass filter and ground and
Observe the output of low pass filter circuit, with adjusting the frequency adjust
potentiometer in the PLL detector.
• Note that the sine wave observed on the CRO resembles the modulating signal. Vary
the modulating signal's frequency and amplitude to confirm that it is the
demodulated output.
• If you get distorted output at lower frequency, slightly adjust the amplitude of
Function Generator to get optimum output.
• If At higher amplitude of modulating signal you will get distorted output because of
over modulation.

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Scientech 2204
Experiment 4
Objective:
Study of Marker insertion to evaluate frequency deviation
Items Required:
• FM Communication Trainer
• Power Supply cord
• Scientech Oscilloscope with connecting probe
• 2mm Patch cords
Connection Diagram:

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Scientech 2204
Procedure:
• Please check the following conditions:
} Function Generator: Frequency toggle switch at 1-10KHz
} VCO 2: Frequency toggle switch at 1500 KHz.
} PLL detector Switch at Off position.
• Carry out the following presetting as under:
} Function Generator: Frequency potentiometer at center position and amplitude
at maximum.
} VCO 1: Frequency potentiometer at completely clockwise position and
amplitude potentiometer at center position.
} VCO 2: Frequency potentiometer at completely clockwise position and
amplitude potentiometer at center position.
} RF detector level: At center.
• Make connections as shown in above figure.
• Set the Oscilloscope in XY mode (Y=0.1V/ div, X= 1V/div). Connect the CH I( Y)
to the output of the RF detector and CH II (X) to the Modulation In of VCO 2.
• Vary the frequency of Function Generator to get the pattern as shown in below
figure. If required vary the frequency and Amplitude of VCO 2 until the
Oscilloscope gives a similar representation to the one of next figure.

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Scientech 2204
• The measurement operation can be explained in the following way:
} In the output stage of the FM modulator (VC02) the FM signal (with
instantaneous frequency f) and the sine wave signal supplied by the VCO1
(with frequency f2) are added.
} The beating caused by the signals produces different spectral components,
among which two the sum and the difference of input frequencies [(f + f2) and
(f - f2)]. Only the low frequency component is (f - f2) is detected by the RF
Detector, while the high frequency component (f + f2) is removed by the
output low pass filter of the RF detector.
} As f is variable, when f gets near f2 the beating can be displayed by the
Oscilloscope as small "peaks".
} Varying the frequency of VCO 1 the peaks move from one extreme to the other
of the curve. The difference between the two frequencies supplies the
frequency deviation (peak to peak) of the FM modulator.

Observation Table:

Sr. No 1st Peak 2nd Peak 1st -2nd Peak

Frequency Frequency

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Scientech 2204
Experiment 5
Objective:
Study of Spectrum of FM signal
Items Required:
• FM Communication Trainer
• Power Supply cord
• Scientech Oscilloscope with connecting probe
• 2mm Patch Cords
Connection Diagram:

Procedure:
• Please check the following conditions:
} Function Generator: Frequency toggle switch at 0.1 - 1KHz
} VCO 2: Frequency toggle switch at 1500 KHz.
} PLL detector Switch at Off position.
• Carry out the following presetting as under:
} Function Generator: Frequency and amplitude both potentiometers at center
position.
} VCO 1: Frequency potentiometer at minimum position and amplitude at
maximum position.

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Scientech 2204
} VCO 2: Frequency potentiometer at center position and amplitude at maximum
position.
} Balanced Modulator: Carrier Null at center position, so that the circuit operates
as frequency converter (balanced modulator with suppressed carrier),
Amplitude maximum.
} Ceramic filter: adjust at center position.
} RF Detector : Amplitude maximum.
} Sweep depth: at centre position.
• Set the Oscilloscope in XY mode (Y=0.2V/ div, X= 1V/div). Connect the CH I( Y)
to the output of the RF detector and CH II (X) to the Out 1 of sweep generator.
• Vary the frequency of VCO 1 until the Oscilloscope gives a similar representation to
the one of figure given below. To obtain the best waveform adjust the Depth of the
sweep generator towards anticlockwise direction, slight adjustment of VCO 2 (if
needed).

• The waveform represents the spectrum of the FM signal. Check the distribution of
the harmonics is symmetrical in respect to the one of the carriers.
• Vary the amplitude and frequency of the modulating signal, and examine how the
spectrum varies. Check that when the amplitude increases also the number of
spectral lines increases (the increase of the amplitude of the modulating signal
causes the frequency deviation to increase ∆f, this causes the modulation index mf to
increase and consequently the spectrum to enlarge). Check that the spectral line
corresponding to the carrier varies in amplitude and annuls in correspondence to
frequency deviation values.

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Scientech 2204
Glossary
Amplitude - The difference between the zero level and peak or trough of a signal.
Amplitude Modulation (AM) - The process of combining the message signal with the
carrier signal and the two sidebands: the lower sideband and the upper sideband.
Analog - A signal that varies continuously with respect to time. Conventional telephones
and modems transmit analog signals. The digital or pulse output from a computer must be
converted to an analog signal for transmission on these lines.
Analog Communication - A communication format in which information is transmitted
by modulating a continuous signal, such as a sound wave. Current TV and radio signals
are analog, as are many telephone lines.
Angle Modulation - The process of combining the message signal with the carrier signal
that causes the message signal to vary the frequency and/or phase of the carrier signal.
Attenuation - The dissipation of the power of a transmitted signal as it travels over a wire.
Audio Signal - Signals that a person can hear.
Audio Frequency (AF) - Frequencies that a person can hear. AF signals range from about
20 Hz to 20 kHz.
Balanced Modulator - An amplitude modulator that can be adjusted to control the
amount of modulation.
Balanced Mixer - A device that generates output frequencies equal to the sum and
difference of the two input frequencies: the carrier frequency is suppressed. In an SSB
transmitter, the balanced mixer performs an up conversion.
Bandwidth - The frequency range, in hertz (Hz), between the upper and lower frequency
limits.
Baseband - The band of frequencies occupied by a message signal.
Carrier Signal - A single, high-frequency signal that can be modulated by a message
signal and transmitted.
Center Frequency - The frequency of the unmodulated FM carrier signal.
Communication - Communication (from Latin "communis", meaning to share) is the
activity of conveying information through the exchange of thoughts, messages, or
information, as by speech, visuals, signals, writing, or behavior.
Demodulation - The process of recovering or detecting the message signal from the
modulated carrier frequency.
Discriminator – A device that demodulates an FM signal.
Envelopes - The waveform of the amplitude variations of an amplitude modulated signal.
Frequency deviation - The maximum frequency change between a modulated and
unmodulated carrier signal.

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Scientech 2204
Frequency Modulation (FM) - The process of combining the message signal with the
carrier signal that causes the message signal to vary the frequency of the carrier signal.
Frequency modulation index -The ratio of frequency deviation to the message signal
frequency.
Frequency Translate - The process of displacing the frequency contents of a signal to
another place in the frequency spectrum.
Hertz - Frequency measurement. 1 Hertz = I cycle per second.
Harmonics - Signals with frequencies that are an integral multiple of the fundamental
frequency.
Intermediate Frequency (IF) stage - Section of a receiver between the mixer and the
detector. The IF stage operates at a fixed intermediate frequency (FIF) and is where most
of the amplification and filtering occurs.
Local Oscillator (LO) - An oscillator in a piece of electronic equipment that is usually
used as a source of electromagnetic wave frequencies for mixing with other frequencies
that the equipment handles.
Message Signal - Any signal that contains information; it is also called the intelligence
signal.
Mixer - An electronic device that combines two frequencies.
Modulation - Process of varying one or more properties of a high frequency periodic
waveform, called the carrier signal, with respect to a modulating signal.
Modulation Index (m) - The ratio between the amplitudes of the message signal and the
unmodulated carrier signal.
Overmodulation - The term used when the modulation index is greater than 1. It occurs
when the peak amplitude of the message signal is greater than the peak amplitude of the
unmodulated carrier signal.
Percentage Of Modulation - The modulation index expressed as a percentage (m x 100).
Phase Detector - An electronic circuit whose output varies with the phase differential of
the two input signals.
Phase-locked loop (PLL) - A circuit that locks onto a phase relationship between an input
signal and a VCO signal, and produces an error signal. The error signal is fed back to
control the VCO frequency so that it equals the input frequency.
Phase Modulation (PM) - The process of combining the message signal with the carrier
signal that causes the message signal to vary the phase of the carrier signal.
Product Detector - A detector whose audio frequency output is equal to the product of
the Beat Frequency Oscillator (BFO) and the RF signal inputs.
Pulse amplitude modulation - Pulse-amplitude modulation, acronym PAM, is a form of
signal modulation where the message information is encoded in the amplitude of a series
of signal pulses
Pulse code modulation - A pulse modulation technique in which the amplitude of an
analog signal is converted to a binary value represented as a series of pulses.
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Scientech 2204
Pulse modulation - Method of varying the amplitude, frequency or phrase of information-
bearing signals into a series of pulses.
Radio Frequency (RF) - The transmission frequency of electromagnetic (radio) signals.
RF frequencies are from about 300 kHz to the 1,000,000 kHz range.
RF stage - The first input stage, in which primary selection, filtering and amplification of
the input RF (radio frequency) signal is performed.
Quadrature - The phase relationship between two equal frequency signals that are 90°
out of phase.
Selectivity - A measure of how well a receiver rejects adjacent station signals when tuned
to a particular station.
Sidebands - The frequency bands on each side of the carrier frequency that are formed
during modulation; the sideband frequencies contain the intelligence of the message
signal.
Sideband Pair - Two sidebands that are spaced equally on each side of the center
frequency.
Signal - An electric quantity (voltage or current or field strength) whose modulation
represents coded information about the source from which it comes
Significant Sideband Pairs - The number of sideband pairs that contain significant
energy content.
Transmission Efficiency - Fraction of the total AM signal power that is contained in the
sidebands.
Varactor Diode - A diode that changes capacitance with a change in input voltage.

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Scientech 2204
Frequently asked Questions
Q1. What is communication?
Ans. Communication means transferring a signal from the transmitter which passes
through a medium then the output is obtained at the receiver. (or) communication says as
transferring of message from one place to another place called communication.
Q2. What is modulation?
Ans. Modulation is the process of varying one or more properties of a periodic waveform,
called the carrier signal, with a modulating signal which typically contains information to
be transmitted. A device that performs modulation is known as a modulator and a device
that performs the inverse operation of modulation is known as a demodulator (sometimes
detector or demod).
Q3. Define amplitude Modulation.
Ans. Amplitude Modulation is the process of changing the amplitude of a relatively high
frequency carrier signal in proportion with the instantaneous value of the modulating
signal.
Q4. Define Frequency modulation.
Ans. Frequency modulation is a type of modulation where the frequency of the carrier
signal is varied in accordance with the information bearing signal.
Q5. Define direct frequency modulation.
Ans. In this type of angle modulation, the frequency of the carrier is varied directly by the
modulating signal. This means; an instantaneous frequency deviation is directly
proportional to amplitude of the modulating signal
Q6. Define indirect frequency Modulation.
Ans. In this type of angle modulation, FM is obtained by phase modulation of the carrier.
This means, an instantaneous phase of the carrier directly proportional to amplitude of the
modulating signal
Q7. Where do we use AM and FM?
Ans. AM is used for video signals for example TV, ranges from 535 to 1705 kHz.
FM is used for audio signals for example Radio, ranges from 88 to 108 MHz.
Q8. What is cut-off frequency?
Ans. The frequency at which the response is -3dB with respect to the maximum response
is referred to as cut-off frequency.
Q9. What is pass band?
Ans. Pass band is the range of frequencies or wavelengths that can pass through a filter
without being attenuated.
Q10. What is demodulation?
Ans. Demodulation is the act of removing the modulation from an analog signal to get the
original baseband signal back. Demodulation is necessary because the receiver system
receives a modulated signal with specific characteristics and it is required to turn it to
base-band.
Q11. Which is better AM or FM? How?

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Scientech 2204
Ans. FM is better, because it makes it possible to transmit the signal at a long distance
than any other modulation technique and also in FM. very less noise affects the
transmitted signal.
Q12. What do you mean by Frequency deviation in FM?
Ans. The amount of frequency increase and decrease around the center frequency in an
FM signal is called the frequency deviation.
Q13. Define instantaneous frequency deviation.
Ans. The instantaneous frequency deviation is the instantaneous change in the frequency
of the carrier and is defined as the first derivative of the instantaneous phase deviation.
Q14. Define Deviation ratio.
Ans. Deviation ratio is the worst case modulation index and is equal to the maximum peak
frequency deviation divided by the maximum modulating signal frequency.
Mathematically, the deviation ratio is
D= Δf (max)/fm(max)
Q15. State Carson rule.
Ans. Carson rule states that the bandwidth required to transmit an angle modulated wave
as twice the sum of the peak frequency deviation and the highest modulating signal
frequency. Mathematically Carson’s rule is
B=2(Δf +fm) Hz
Q16. Why Armstrong method of FM is superior to reactance modulator?
Ans. Reactance modulator is direct FM, where as Armstrong method is indirect FM.
Armstrong method generates FM from PM. Hence crystal oscillators can be used in
Armstrong method. Therefore frequency stability is better than reactance modulator.
Q17. Differentiate between narrow band FM and wideband FM
Ans. In narrow band FM, the frequency deviation is very small. Hence the frequency
spectrum consists of two major sidebands like AM. Other sidebands are negligible and
hence they can be neglected. Therefore the bandwidth of narrowband FM is limited only
to twice of the highest modulating frequency. If the deviation in carrier frequency is large
enough so that other sidebands cannot be neglected, then it is called wideband FM.
Q18. What do you mean by PLL?
Ans. A phase-locked loop is a feedback system combining a voltage controlled oscillator
(VCO) and a phase comparator so connected that the oscillator maintains a constant phase
angle relative to a reference signal. Phase-locked loops can be used, for example, to generate
stable output high frequency signals from a fixed low-frequency signal.
Q19. Which type of tank circuit is used in the Foster-Seeley discriminator?
Ans. A double-tuned tank circuit is used in the Foster-Seeley discriminator.
Q20. What is the primary advantage of a ratio detector?
Ans. Suppresses amplitude noise without limiter stages.

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Scientech 2204
Warranty
• We guarantee this product against all manufacturing defects for 24 months from the
date of sale by us or through our dealers.
• The guarantee will become void, if
} The product is not operated as per the instruction given in the Learning
Material.
} The agreed payment terms and other conditions of sale are not followed.
} The customer resells the instrument to another party.
} Any attempt is made to service and modify the instrument.
• The non-working of the product is to be communicated to us immediately giving full
details of the complaints and defects noticed specifically mentioning the type, serial
number of the product and date of purchase etc.
• The repair work will be carried out, provided the product is dispatched securely
packed and insured. The transportation charges shall be borne by the customer.
Hope you enjoyed the Scientech Experience.

List of Accessories
} Patch Cord 16"......................................................................................... 8 nos.
} Power Cord ................................................................................................ 1 no

55