ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Tissues
Group of cells that are closely associated in structure and have common or similar functions
• Histology – study of tissue

Four Types of Tissue

1. Epithelial tissue 2. Connective tissue 3. Muscle tissue 4. Nervous tissue

EPITHELIAL TISSUES
 Cells lie close together in continuous sheets with little extracellular material
 Cover surfaces and line cavities; always a free (apical) surface
 Forms glands
 Basement membrane of connective tissue underlies epithelium
 Has no blood vessels (is avascular)
 Has a nerve supply
 Has a high capacity for cell division

Arrangement of cells in layers

 Simple epithelium: 1 layer of cells
 Stratified Epithelium: more than 1 layer of cells

Cell Shapes
 Squamous
 Cuboidal
 Columnar
 Transitional (change shape)

Simple epithelium
- Squamous= single layer of flat cells.
- Important for filtration (kidneys) or
diffusion (lungs, capillaries)
- Called endothelium when lining heart,
blood and lymphatic vessels
- Called mesothelium when in serous
membranes

Simple cuboidal epithelium

 Makes up: functional units of
the thyroid gland salivary
glands

 glandular epithelium: function

is secretion

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Simple Columnar Epithelium

• Found lining the digestive tract from the

stomach to the anal canal
• Goblet cells:
• unicellular glands
• found : columnar epithelial cells of the
duodenum
• secrete mucus = a lubricating substance
which keeps the surface smooth

Simple Columnar Ciliated Epithelium

• One layer of columnar cells with cilia
on their free surfaces
• Lining of trachea—sweeps mucus and
dust to the pharynx
• Lining of fallopian tube—sweeps ovum
toward uterus

Stratified Epithelium
• Many layers of cells; surface cells flat; lower cells
rounded;
• lower layer undergoes mitosis
• lining: mouth cavity is an example of an
nonkeratinized, stratified epithelium
• Epidermis : stratified keratinized epithelium

Transitional Epithelium
• type of stratified epithelium
• the surface cells change shape from
round to squamous
• Lining of urinary bladder—permits
expansion without tearing the lining

Glands - epithelial tissues that produce secretions.

Unicellular - one-celled glands.

ex. Goblet cells

Multicellular - many-celled glands.

Exocrine glands : have ducts
ex. salivary glands
Endocrine glands: (no ducts); secrete hormones
directly into capillaries
ex. thyroid gland

Functions of Epithelial Tissue

• Protection: Skin protects vulnerable structures or tissues deeper in the body.
• Barrier: Epithelial tissues prevent foreign materials from getting inside the body.
• Sensation: Sensory nerve endings embedded in epithelial tissue connect the body with outside
stimuli.
• Secretion: Epithelial tissue in glands can be specialized to secrete enzymes, hormones, and fluids.

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CONNECTIVE TISSUE
• Connect, support, and bind body structures together
• Most abundant tissue type; typically found between other tissues
• Small cells far apart with large amount of extracellular material (matrix)
• Has good blood supply; exception: cartilage is avascular
• Collagen = the main protein of connective tissue

Connective Tissue Cells Vary with Tissue Type

 Fibroblasts
o Secrete fibers & ground substance
 Macrophages: formed from monocytes
o Engulf bacteria and cell debris by phagocytosis
 Plasma cells: develop from B lymphocytes
o Make antibodies
 Mast cells: near blood cells
o Part of an inflammatory reaction: produce histamine that dilates blood vessels
 Adipocytes: fat cells or adipose cells
o Store triglycerides (fat) for energy and provide protection

Extracellular Matrix
 Fluid, gel or solid plus protein fibers
 Ground substance found between cells and fibers

Areolar or loose connective tissue

• Cells: fibroblast matrix: collagen, elastin fiber
• Fxn: connective tissue ―glue‖

Adipose Tissue
• Cells – adipocytes = secretes leptin (appetite
suppressing hormone )

Dense fibrous connective tissue

 Regular: parallel collagen fiber (tendons,
ligaments)
 Irregular: unparallel collagen fiber (dermis)
 Has great strength yet flexible

Reticular Tissue
cell: phagocytes
function: performs phagocytic function

Elastic connective tissue

 Consist of elastin fiber
 Location: walls of arteriers (heart, lungs)

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Bone or Osseous Tissue
• Cell: osteocytes
• Matrix: calcium salts, collagen
• Haversian system or osteons
Function:
• Support the body
• Protect internal organs from mechanical injury
• Store excess calcium
• Contain and protect red bone marrow
Cartilage
Hyaline cartilage
• Hyaline = glass, shiny, translucent

• appears clear because fibers are not

easily visible
• most abundant cartilage in the body,
it’s elastic
• Ex. Skeleton of fetus, tip of the nose
Elastic cartilage
• bounce back to its original shape after
being bent
• Ex. External ear
Fibrocartilage – strongest, most durable cartilage
• Serve as shock absorber
• Ex. intervertebral discs of the vertebral column

Blood
• Only liquid connective tissue
• Consist: cells and plasma
• Matrix: plasma

MUSCLE TISSUE
 Functions - Produce movements, release heat
 Cells – Elongated, contractile (called muscle fibers)
Skeletal Cardiac muscle Smooth muscle:
– muscle pulls on bones – forms wall of heart; pumps – found in walls of hollow
allowing body movements blood through blood vessels organs such as stomach
– Cells: multinucleate – Has striations and bladder
– Striated – Usually: single nucleus – Has no striations
– Voluntary – Joined to another muscle cell – Spindle-shaped cells
at an intercalated disc – single nucleus
– Involuntary – Involuntary
– Found only in the heart

NERVOUS TISSUE
Functions: conduct nerve impulses
Cell Body : nucleus
Dendrites
Axons

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 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Membranes

 Function of body membranes

 Line or cover body surfaces
 Protect body surfaces
 Lubricate body surfaces

Four Types
 Mucous membranes: line body cavities and passageways
open to the exterior
o Secrete mucus
 Serous membranes: line closed cavities and surrounds
organs located there
o Serous fluid reduces friction
o Parietal and visceral layers
o Pleura (around lungs), pericardium (around
heart), peritoneum (around abdominal organs)

 Synovial membranes: line

cavities of most joints
o Made of connective
tissues (no epithelium)
o Secrete synovial fluid
that reduces friction
and lubricates and
nourishes cartilage
 Cutaneous membranes: skin

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
 The body’s covering
 Includes: skin, nails, and hairs
 Skin: cutaneous membrane

• the largest organ of the body

– 1.5 - 2 square
meters
– 4 - 5 kg
Function:
• regulation of body
temperature

• protection

• sensation

• excretion

• synthesis of Vitamin D

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  Two main parts
 Epidermis - surface epithelial layer
 Dermis - deeper connective tissue layer
 Subcutaneous (subQ) layer or hypodermis lies deep to dermis; is not part of the skin

Epidermis
Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium

Four Cell Types

A. Keratinocytes - 90%
 filled with keratin (protein)
 waterproof barrier
B. Melanocytes - 8%
 produce melanin (pigment)
C. Langerhans cells
 phagocytes, damage by UV
D. Merkel cells
 in deepest layer of hairless skin sensory
transduction - Sense of touch

Four Layers (strata)

Stratum basale
 Includes stem cells; new cells arise here
Stratum spinosum: 8-10 cell layer
 Cells beginning to look flattened
Stratum granulosum makes keratin
 Losing cell organelles and nuclei
 Have waterproofing lipid
Stratum corneum: flattened dead cells
 Cells here consist mostly of keratin.
 Cells here are shed and replaced from below

Dermis
• irregular dense fibrous connective tissue
• the location for blood vessels, nerves and sensory
receptors, glands, hair follicles

Two layers
• Papillary region (layer) - outer layer - 20%
– areolar connective tissue, elastic fibers
– dermal papillae –increase surface area for nutrition from capillaries
– some papillae contain Meissner's corpuscles (for light touch)

 Reticular layer
– collagen, elastic fibers in a network surrounding the various cells
– fibers give strength, elasticity, extensibility

Skin Color
 Melanin: dark color
 Darkness depends on amount of melanin produced.
 Provides some protection against UV rays
 Carotene: yellow orange
 In stratum corneum and adipose layers-
 Hemoglobin in blood: pink-red
 Depends on blood flow

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Accessory Structure
 Hair
 Skin glands
 Nails

Hair
Found on most skin surfaces
 Not on palmar surfaces of hand and
fingers or plantar surfaces of feet
Made of fused keratinized cells
Consists of shaft and root
Surrounded by hair follicle
 Base is bulb which includes growing
matrix producing cells
Nerves in hair root plexuses
Muscle that pulls on hair: arrector pili
 Causes hair to stand on end

Skin Glands
Sebaceous gland
secrete oily sebum
Sudoriferous (sweat) gland
Eccrine sweat gland
Wide distribution-
thermoregulation
Apocrine sweat gland
Axilla, groin, areolae, beard
Contain other cell material
Ceruminous (wax) gland

Nails
Plates of packed hard dead keratinized cells
Nail body: major visible portion
Free edge: part extending past finger or toe
Root: cells deep to here (in nail matrix) form new nail cells

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