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MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY
(ME 6402)
UNIT – 1
THEORY OF METAL CUTTING
Prepared by
S. Senthil Kumar
AP/Mech
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SVCET
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Machining
Cutting action involves shear deformation of work
material to form a chip
As chip is removed, new surface is exposed
Time consuming
A machining operation generally takes more
time to shape a given part than alternative
shaping processes, such as casting, powder
metallurgy, or forming
Machining Operations
Most important machining operations:
Turning
Drilling
Milling
Turning
Drilling
Used to create a round hole, usually by means of
a rotating tool (drill bit) with two cutting edges
(b) drilling,
Milling
Rotating multiple-cutting-edge tool is moved
across work to cut a plane or straight surface
Two forms: peripheral milling and face milling
Cutting Tools
(a) A single-point tool showing rake face, flank, and tool point; and (b)
a helical milling cutter, representative of tools with multiple cutting
edges.
Machine Tools
A power driven machine that performs a
machining operation, including grinding
Functions in machining:
Holds work part
Positions tool relative to work
Provides power at speed, feed, and depth
that have been set
Shear Strain
Shear strain in machining can be computed
from the following equation, based on the
preceding parallel plate model:
= tan( - ) + cot
Chip Formation
Discontinuous Chip
Continuous Chip
(b) continuous
Serrated Chip
Semi continuous –
saw tooth
appearance
Cyclical chip forms
with alternating high
shear strain then low
shear strain
Associated with
difficult-to-machine
metals at high cutting
speeds (d) serrated.
Resultant Forces
Vector addition of F and N = resultant R
Vector addition of Fs and Fn = resultant R'
Forces acting on the chip must be in balance:
R' must be equal in magnitude to R
R’ must be opposite in direction to R
R’ must be collinear with R
Coefficient of Friction
Coefficient of friction between tool and chip:
F
N
Shear Stress
Shear stress acting along the shear plane:
Fs
S
As
Forces in metal
cutting: (b) forces
acting on the tool that
can be measured
45
2 2
Effect of shear plane angle : (a) higher with a resulting lower shear
plane area; (b) smaller with a corresponding larger shear plane
area. Note that the rake angle is larger in (a), which tends to increase
shear angle according to the Merchant equation
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Fcv
HPc
33,000
Pc HPc
Pg or HPg
E E
Pc HPc
PU = or HPu =
RMR RMR
Pc Fcv
U = Pu = =
RMR vtow
Cutting Temperature
Approximately 98% of the energy in machining
is converted into heat
This can cause temperatures to be very high at
the tool chip interface
The remaining energy (about 2%) is retained
as elastic energy in the chip
Cutting Temperature
Cutting Temperature
Experimental methods can be used to measure
temperatures in machining
Most frequently used technique is the
tool-chip thermocouple
Using this method, Ken Trigger determined the
speed-temperature relationship to be of the
form:
T = K vm
where T = measured tool-chip interface
temperature, and v = cutting speed
Thermal Aspects
Energy dissipated at the cutting edge is
converted into heat
Three regions where heat is generated are
1. Shear zone
80 - 85% of heat is generated
2. Chip - tool interface region
15 – 20 % oh heat is generated
3. Tool – work interface region
1 – 3 % of heat is generated
Tool Wear
Classification
Flank wear
Crater wear
Nose wear
Tool Life
Ways of expressing tool life
Volume of metal removed per grind
Number of work pieces machined per grind
Time unit
Factors affecting tool life
Cutting speed
Feed and depth of cut
Tool geometry
Tool material
Cutting fluid
Work material
Rigidity of work, tool and machine
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Cutting Fluids
Used to carry away the heat produced during
machining
Functions of cutting fluids
Cools the tool and work piece
Lubricates the cutting tool
Reduces co-efficient of friction between tool and
work piece
Improves surface finish
Causes the chip to break up into small pieces
Washes away the chips from the tool
Prevents corrosion of work and machine
Cutting Fluids
Properties of cutting fluids
Should possess good lubricating properties
Should have high heat absorbing capacity
Should have high specific heat
Should be odorless
Should be non-corrosive
Should have low viscosity
Should be harmless
Should not stain
Should be economical
Should be transparent
Cutting Fluids
Types of cutting fluids
Water based cutting fluids
Straight or heat oil based cutting fluids
1. Mineral oils
2. Straight fatty oils
3. Mixed oils
4. Sulphurised oils
5. Chlorinated oils
Methods of applying cutting fluids
Drop by drop under gravity
Flood under gravity
Form of liquid jet
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Machinability
Defined as the ease with which a material can
be satisfactorily machined
Also defined as
Life of tool before tool failure
Quality of machined surface
Power consumption per unit volume of material
removed
Variables affecting machinability
Work variables
Tool variables
Machine variables
Cutting conditions
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Machinability
Evaluation of machinability
Tool life per grind
Rate of metal removal per grind tool grind
Surface finish
Magnitude of cutting forces and power
consumption
Dimensional stability of the finished work
Heat generated during cutting
Ease of chip disposal
Chip hardness
Shape and size of chips
Machinability
Advantages
Good surface finish can be produced
Higher cutting speed can be used
Less power consumption
MRR is high
Less tool wear
Machinability Index
MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY – II
UNIT III
Prepared by
S. Senthil Kumar
AP / Mech
SVCET
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MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY – II
Parts of Shaper:
1. Table
2. Tool Head
3. Ram
The tool head is fitted on the front end of the ram while the job is rigidly
fixed on the table.
The tool is mounted on the tool post or head.
The ram reciprocates along with the tool to remove the metal in the
forward stroke called cutting stroke.
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Classification of Shaper
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Position arrangement
Shaper Tools
Specification of Planer
The distance between two columns
Stroke length of the planer
Radial distance between the top of the table and the bottom most
position of the cross rail
Maximum length of the table
Power of the motor
Range of the speeds and feed available
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Type of drives required
Double Housing Planer
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Pit Planer
Edge Planer
Feed mechanism
Planer Tools
Parts of Slotter
1. Base
2. Column
3. Saddle
4. Rotary table
5. Ram
6. Tool head
Slotter Operations
Machining flat surface
Machining grooves, slots, keyways
Machining cylindrical surface
Machining irregular surface
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Principle Parts of Slotter
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Drives
3. Hydraulic Drive
Feed mechanism
Slotter Tools
Slotter Operations
Principle of Operation
In Up Milling Process, the workpiece is fed
opposite to the cutter's tangential velocity.
Each tooth of the cutter starts the cut with
zero depth of cut.
Milling Machines
Milling Attachments
Milling Cutters
Milling Cutters
Milling Cutters
Milling operations
Milling operations
Milling operations
Milling operations
Milling operations
Gang Milling
Indexing mechanisms
Indexing mechanisms
DRILLING is the process of producing hole ion the work piece by using a
rotating cutter called drill.
The machine on which the drilling is carried out is called drilling machines.
The drilling machine sometimes called drill press as the machine exerts
vertical pressure to originate a hole.
Hole Making
Drilling operations
Reaming Tool
Various reamers
Tapping Tool
Boring
Broaching
NC Machine Tools
Mechanical actions of a machine tool or other
equipment are controlled by a program
containing coded alphanumeric data
Constructional Details
Basic Components of NC system
Types of CNC
• Electric
Based on Power • Hydraulic
Supply • Pneumatic
Based on • Incremental
Positioning System • obsolete
High Precision
Increases Production
• Productivity
• Reduction of machine Time
• Reduction of non-productive time
• Machining with more than one tool simultaneously
• Improved reliability of machine components
• Proper maintenance to prevent unscheduled stoppage
• Accuracy
• Improve geometrical accuracy of machine elements
• Lead screw
• Guide ways
• Improves kinematic accuracy of machine tools
• Increases static and dynamic stiffness of machine tool structure
• Provides accurate machine tool for measuring distance
• Reduces thermal deformation of tool while machining
• Appearance
• Good appearance and attractiveness to the workers to interest on machines
• Cost
• Low cost for manufacturing and operation
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• Operating characteristics
• Reliability
• Maintainability
• Component characteristics
• Frictional characteristics and amount of backlash
• Inertia and stiffness
• Simplicity in Design
• Uses simplified standard and sub-parts
Slide Ways
Linear Bearings
Ball Screw
Spindle Drives
Feed Drives
Slide Ways
• Example
• Grinding machine - programmed controllable
• copying machine
• Disadvantages
• Misalignments may happen due to lifting of slides
• Uneven distribution of load on work table
• Types
• Ball bearing guide ways
• Roller bearing guide ways
Linear Bearings
Types
• applications include
• delicate instrumentation,
• robotic assembly,
• cabinetry,
• high-end appliances
• clean room environments
• manufacturing industry
• furniture
• electronics
• construction industries
• Applications include
• clean rooms,
• vacuum environments,
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• material handling and automation machinery.
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Roller Slides - Construction
• Consisting of a stationary linear base and a moving carriage,
roller slides work similarly to ball bearing slides, except that the
bearings housed within the carriage are cylinder-shaped instead
of ball shaped.
• The rollers are between "V" grooved bearing races, one being on
the top carriage and the other on the base.
Dovetail Slides
• Typically constructed from cast iron, but can also be
constructed from hard-coat aluminum or stainless steel
• Once the dovetail carriage is fitted into its base's channel, the
carriage is locked into the channel's linear axis and allows
free linear movement.
Dovetail Slides
• Greater force is required to move the saddle than other linear
slides, which results in slower acceleration rates
• fixed,
• floating intermediate member and
• the section attached to the equipment.
Rack Slides
• These can be friction bearing, ball bearing, or roller bearing.
• They are sized to fit into racks with mounting flanges on the ends to
mate to the mounting holes in racks.
• In some cases, one mounting flange is formed into the rack slide with
an adapter bracket attached to the other end to accommodate different
depths of the rack.
• The outer fixed member is attached to the rack and the inner moving
member is generally screwed to the side of the mounted equipment.
• They are made to close tolerances and are therefore suitable for
use in situations in which high precision is necessary.
• The ball assembly acts as the nut while the threaded shaft is the
screw.
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Ball Screw
• Another form of linear actuator based on a rotating rod is
the thread less ball screw.
• Three (or more) rolling-ring bearings are arranged
symmetrically in a housing surrounding a smooth (thread-less)
actuator rod or shaft.
• The bearings are set at an angle to the rod, and this angle
determines the direction and rate of linear motion per
revolution of the rod.
• Sequence of instructions
• Turning centers
– Horizontal machines
• Chucking machines
• Shaft machines
• Universal machines
– Vertical machines
• G 63 – tapping operation
• G 70 – finishing cycle lathe
• G 71 – rough cutting cycle lathe
• G 78,79 – milling cycle
• G 83 – drilling cycle
• G 90 – absolute dimensioning
• G 91 – incremental dimensioning
• G 92 – position preset
• G 94 – feed rate in mm/min
• G 95 – feed rate in mm/rev
• G 98 – absolute datum
• G 99 – floating datum
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M Codes
• M 00 – program stop
• M 02 – end of program
• M 03 – spindle start (clockwise)
• M 04 – spindle start (anticlockwise)
• M 05 – spindle stop
• M 06 – tool change
• M 07 – coolant ON (flood cooling)
• M 08 – coolant ON (mist cooling)
• M 09 – coolant OFF
• M 10 – clamping
• M 11 – unclamping
• M 30 – end of tape
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Micromachining
• A technique for the fabrication of 3D structures on the
micrometer scale
• Refers to super finishing, a metal working process for
producing very fine surface finishes
• Types of micromachining process are
– Bulk micromachining
– Surface micromachining
• Mainly applied in MEMS
– Examples include
• Airbag sensor
• Medical devices
• Micro dies
• molds