SEMINAR ON

METHODS OF ACQUIRING
KNOWLEDGE
AND
PROBLEM SOLVING –
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
SUBMITTED BY: AMIRUDEEN .T,
M.Sc Nursing 1st Year,
MTPG & RIHS

SUBMITTED TO: Ms. FELICIA CHITRA,

Principal I/C, CON,
MTPG & RIHS.

PRESENTED ON: 29.09.2009

Introduction:

Knowledge is essential information acquired in a variety of ways, expected to be an

accurate reflection of reality, and incorporated and used to direct a person’s actions. The
quality of nursing practice depends on the quality of the knowledge that we acquired.
Thus we need to question the quality and credibility of new information that we hear and
read. Without knowledge nothing can be done. Hence our first step in any education
programme should be acquiring knowledge. In this seminar we will come through the
topics such as knowledge, study of knowledge, forms of knowledge, ways of acquiring
knowledge, and scientific methods of problem solving.

Definition of Knowledge:
“Knowledge is defined as the expertise, and skills acquired by a person through
experience or education; the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject”,
Or
“Knowledge is what is known in a particular field or in total; facts and
information”.
Or
“Awareness or familiarity gained by experience of a fact or situation”.

Epistemology:
“Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope
of knowledge”.

Nursing Epistemology:
“Nursing epistemology has been defined as the study of the origins of nursing
knowledge, its structure and methods, the patterns of knowing of its members, and the
criteria for validating for its knowledge claims”. It formulates four fundamental patterns
of nursing knowledge.
1. Empirical knowledge:

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 It is objective, abstract, generally quantifiable, exemplary, discursively
formulated and verifiable.
2. Esthetic knowing:
It is subjective, expressive unique and experimental rather than formal or
descriptive. Esthetic knowledge relies on perceptions. It cannot be quantitatively
formulated.
3. Personal Knowledge:
It refers to the way in which nurses view themselves and the client. It
incorporates experience, knowing, encountering, and actualizing self within
the practice
4. Ethics:
It refers to the moral code for nursing and is based on obligation to service
and respect for human life. Ethical knowledge requires rational and deliberate
examination and evaluation of what is good, valuable, and desirable as goals,
motives and characteristics.

Types/Forms of knowledge:
1. Propositional knowledge:
It involves textbooks and theoretical knowledge.
2. Practical knowledge:
It involves functional skills and psychomotor abilities to some extent.
3. Experimental knowledge:
It is the knowledge gained by subjective, affective, and embedded in
personal encounters
4. Direct knowledge:
Direct-knowledge is first hand experience with data received
through sensors like seeing, hearing, and feeling, smelling and tasting. Something feels
hot, looks blue, tastes bitter, or smells bad are all data that can be remembered as Direct-
knowledge.
5. Indirect knowledge:
Indirect-knowledge is knowledge acquired by processing information.
The processes of thinking and understanding produce indirect knowledge.

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 6. Intuitive knowledge:
Intuitive-knowledge is knowledge stored in subsystem memory that is not
accessible to the higher brain functions. Intuitive-knowledge may be stored in
DNA or a motor-control subsystem like the knowledge that controls walking.
7. Procedural knowledge:
Procedural-knowledge is the how-to instructions that tell step by step how to
do something. Procedural-knowledge is like a recipe or computer program, it is a
list of instructions needed to perform a specific task.

Sources of acquiring Knowledge:

1. Unstructured Source.
2. Structured/Scientific method of acquiring knowledge.
Unstructured Source of acquiring knowledge:
Traditional methods:
Tradition includes truths or beliefs that are based on customs and trends. Nursing
traditions from the past have been transferred to the present by written or oral
communication. Tradition can positively influence nursing practice because they were
developed from effective past experience.
However traditions also can narrow and limit the knowledge sought for nursing
practice. Many traditions have not been tested for accuracy or efficiency through
research, and even those not supported through research tend to persist. For e.g. many
patients with cardiac condition are required to take basin baths throughout their
hospitalization despite findings from nursing research that “The physiologic cause of the
three types of baths(basin,tub,and shower) are similar; differences in responses to bathing
seem more a function of subject variability than bath types; and many cardiac patients
can take a tub bath or shower earlier in their hospitalization”

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Authority:
An authority is a person with expertise and power who is able to influence
opinion and behaviour. Nurses who publish articles and books or develop theories are
frequently considered authorities. However, as with tradition, much of the knowledge
acquired from authorities has not been validated by research.
Borrowing:
Some nursing leaders have described part of nursing’s knowledge as information
borrowed from disciplines such as medicine, sociology, psychology,physiology, and
education. Nursing has borrowed in two ways.
1. Some nurses have taken information from other disciplines and applied it directly
to nursing practice. For e.g. Use of medical model to guide nursing practice, thus
focusing on diagnosis and treatment of diseases.
2. Second way of borrowing, which is more useful in nursing, involves integrating
information from other disciplines within the focus of nursing.
However, borrowed knowledge has been inadequate for answering many questions
generated in nursing practice.
Trial and Error:
Trial and error is an approach with unknown outcomes that is used in a situation
of uncertainty in which other sources of knowledge are unavailable. The trial and error
approach to acquire knowledge also can be time-consuming because multiple
interventions may be implemented before one is found to be effective. There is also risk
of complementing nursing actions that are detrimental to patient’s health.
Personal Experience:
Personal Experience involves gaining knowledge by being personally involved in
an event, a situation, or a circumstance. For e.g., you may read about giving an injection
or be told how to give an injection in a class room setting, but you do not know how to
give an injection until you observe other nurses giving injection to patients and actually
give several injection yourself.

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 Benner(1984) described five levels of clinical experience and expertise. They are
 Novice
 Advanced beginner
 Competent
 Proficient
 Expert
Novice nurses have no personal experience in the work they are to perform. The
advanced beginner nurse has just enough experience to recognize and intervene in
recurrents situation. The competent nurse is able to generate and achieve long-range
goals and plans because of years of personal experience. The proficient nurse recognize
that each patient and family response differently to illness and health. The expert nurse
has an extensive background of experience and he is able to identify accurately and
intervene skillfully in a situation. Additional research is needed to clarify the dynamics
of expert nursing practice and to determine methods that to facilitate meaningful personal
experience for nursing students and new graduate.
Role Modeling:
Role modeling is imitating the behaviour of an expert. In nursing, role modeling
enables the novice nurse to learn through interactions with or examples set by highly
competent, expert nurses. Role models include admired teachers, expert clinicians,
researchers, or persons who inspire others through their examples (Rempusheski,1992).
An intense form of role modeling is mentorship, in which the expert nurse serves as a
teacher, sponsor, guide, and counselor for the novice nurse. Many new graduates enter
internship programs provided by clinical agencies so that expert nurses can mentor them
during the novices’ first few months of employment.
Intuition:
Intuition is an insight into or understanding of a situation as a whole that usually
cannot be explained logically9Rew & Barrow, 19870. Because intuition is a type of

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knowing that seems to come unbidden, it may also be described as “hunch”. However
intuition is not the lack of knowing; rather, it is a result of “deep” knowledge some nurses
can intuitively recognize when a patient is experiencing a health crisis. Using this
intuitive knowledge, they can assess the patient’s condition and contact the physician for
medical intervention.

Scientific method of acquiring Knowledge:

Empirical Thinking:
Truth is established on the basis of evidence. Conclusions is admitted only when
it is based on evidence. For which relevant data are collected. The validity and
reliability of data checked carefully and the data are analyzed thoroughly, using
appropriate method of analysis. Conclusions is reached on the basis of the result of
analysis .
Conceptualization:
Person experience a number of facts through his senses. Facts are thing which
actually exists. Concepts are logical constructs or abstractions created from sense
impressions, percepts and experiences.
Reasoning:
 Inductive reasoning:
Inductive reasoning moves from the specific to the general; particular instances
are observed and then combined into a larger whole or a general statement. An e.g., of
inductive reasoning follows,
A headache is an altered level of health that is stressful.
A terminal illness is an altered level of health that is stressful.
Therefore it can be induced that all altered level of health’s are stressful.
 Deductive Reasoning:
Deductive reasoning moves from the general to the specific or from a general
premise to a particular situation or conclusion. An e.g. of deductive reasoning follows,
All nurses are caring hearted.
Alice is a nurse.

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Therefore it can be deducted that Alice is caring hearted. In this e.g. deductive reasoning
is used to move from the two general premises (All nurses and Alice ) to the conclusion
that Alice caring hearted.

 Scientific Approach:
Scientific Approach is the most advanced method of acquiring knowledge that
humans have developed. The scientific method combines both induction and deduction
together with severe characteristics to create a system of obtaining knowledge. The term
research designates the application of this scientific approach to the study of a question or
interest.
Knowledge versus belief, Truth and Justification:
Knowledge entails belief, so the statement, "I know the sky is blue, but I don't
believe it", is self-contradictory. Knowledge should be truth speaking and since belief on
something cannot be always true, it (belief) cannot be considered as a source of
knowledge.
For something to count as knowledge, it must actually be true. Hence any
statement which is proved to be true can be considered as the source of knowledge.
knowledge is justified true belief, in order to know that a given proposition is true,
one must not only believe the relevant true proposition, but one must also have a good
reason for doing so. Hence all the justified statements can be considered as a good source
of knowledge.

Scientific Method of Problem Solving, Research and Nursing

Process:
Problem Solving:
Problem Solving is a process of overcoming difficulties that appears to interfere
with the attainment of a goal. It is a procedure of making adjustment in spite of
interference.
Or

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 Problem solving is a systemic approach to the solution or alleviation of simple,
complex, immediate, long- term problems.

Basic Steps of Problem Solving:

1. State the problem- A problem cannot be solved if it isn’t understood.
2. Form a hypothesis-This is possible solution a problem formed after gathering
information about the problem.
3. Test the hypothesis-An experiment is performed to determine if the hypothesis
solves the problem or not. Experiments are done to gather data. It is very
important that good observations and records are made during an experiment.
4. Collect the data-This is where you record your observations, measurements,
or information from experiment.
5. Analyze the data- Just what does all that indicate about answering the problem
you are solving.
6. Draw conclusions-after examining the data from the experiment, conclusions
can be drawn.
Traditional problem-solving process:
It involves seven steps:
1. Identify the problem.
2. Gather data to analyze the causes and consequence of the problem.
3. Explore alternative solutions.
4. Evaluate the alternatives.
5. Select the appropriate solutions.
6. Implement the solution.
7. Evaluate the results.
The Wueste approach to the ethical problem solving:
The four steps mentioned by Wueste are:
1. Identification.
2. Analysis.

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 3. Justification.
4. Movement.

IDEALS method of Problem solving:

 Identify the problem.
 Define the context.
 Enumerate choices.
 Analyze options.
 List reasons explicitly.
 Self - correct.

Management functions associated with problem solving:

 Creates a work environment that minimizes the antecedent conditions for conflict.
 When appropriate formally facilitates conflict resolution
 Accepts mutual responsibility for reaching pre determined goal.
 Compromises unit needs only when the need is not critical to unit functioning.
 Pursues alternative dispute resolution when conflicts cannot be resolved by using
traditional conflict management strategies.

Research:
“Research is a quest for new knowledge pertinent to an identified area of interest,
i.e. a problem, through application of the scientific process”.

Nursing Process:
The nursing process provide a another theoretical system of problem solving and
decision making. Although the process was designed for nursing practice with regard to

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patient care and nursing accountability, it can easily be adapted as a theoretical model for
solving leadership and management problems.

Difference between Problem Solving process Nursing Process

and Research process:
Problem Solving process Nursing Process Research process
Data collection Assessment Knowledge of nursing
Data collection world
Data interpretation Clinical experience
Literature review
Problem Definition Nursing Diagnosis Problem and purpose
identification
Plan Plan Methodology
Setting goals Setting goals Design
Identifying solutions Planned interventions Sample
Measurement methods
Data collection
Data analysis

Implementation Implementation Implementation

Evaluation and revision Evaluation and modification Outcomes, communication
and synthesis of study
findings to develop
evidence-based practice.

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Conclusion:
World is moving into new dimensions. Technology forms the foundation of
today’s competitive world. Hence, we nurses for our quality improvement and
professional standardization should also strive a lot in this scientific era. Acquiring
knowledge forms the foundation of all innovations. Although technology is advancing,
the nurses ability to use the technology and make it fruitful is the real test of
effectiveness. Exploring various knowledge acquisition methods is vital in evidence
based practice and for the upliftment of profession.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY
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1. Basavanthapa.B.T, Nursing Research, 2nd ed., JP publication, New Delhi, 2007, Pp:2
-22 .
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Methods,Lippincott Publications Philadelphia, 1999, Pp:30-32.
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Publication, Missouri, 2007, Pp;13-17, 30-31.
4. Helen Strubert. J, Speziale, Qualitative Research in Nursing, 4th ed., Lippincott
Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia, 2007, pp:4-8.
5. Khan J.A., Research Methodology, APH publishing Corporation, New Delhi, 2007,
Pp:7-12.
6. Young Lynne E, Paterson Barbara L, Teaching Nursing- Developing a Student
Centered Leaning Environment, 1st ed, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia,

2007, Pp: 243-245.

7. Singh.Y.K., Bajpai.R.B., Research Methodology Techniques and Trends, APH

publishing company, New Delhi, 2007, Pp: 36-39.
8. William Gorton. A, Karl Popper and the Social Sciences, State University of New
York Press, Albany, 2006, Pp:55-59.
9. Frederick Gravetter. J, Lori Ann Forzano.B, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences,
3rd ed., Wadsworth publications USA, 2009, Pp: 135-138.
10. Mc Even Malaine, WillsEvelyn M, Theoritical basis for Nursing, 2nd ed., LWW,
Philadelphia, 2007.Page No:13.

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Journals:
1. George Neumann.F Research Challenges in Examining Nurses as a Resourse,
Research and Throry for Nursing Practice an International Journal.no.2, 2007
springer publishing company, USA, Pp:77-79.
2. Bargagliotti, researchmanship: The scientific method and phenomenology:
western journal of nursing research, vol 5 ,1983,Pp: 409- 411.

Internet Reference:
1. www.scientificmethod.com
2. www.charicko.kiz.ri.us
3. www.wikipedia.org
4. www.sciencedaily.com

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