6-6 Linear-Elastic Fracture Mechanics Method

6-6 Linear-Elastic Fracture Mechanics Method

•  Stage I – Initiation of micro-crack •  Crack growth in Region II is approximated by the Paris equation
due to cyclic plastic deformation
•  Stage II – Progresses to macro-
crack that repeatedly opens and
closes, creating bands called
beach marks
•  Stage III – Crack has propagated ΔK I = β (σ max − σ min ) πa = βΔσ πa
far enough that remaining Paris Law
da = C ( ΔK I )m
material is insufficient to carry dN
Nf 1 af da
the load, and fails by simple Nf = ∫0
dN =
C ∫ (βΔσ
ai
πa )
m

ultimate failure 1 af da
⇒ Δσ m N f = ∫ (β m
C ai
πa )
Propagation of this class of
b
⇒ Δσ ⋅ (N f ) = constant cracks also follows the S-N
diagram s functional form.

Stress Life Testing: R. R. Moore Machine

Motivation: Train Axel

Low Cycle Fatigue: 1≤N≥103

Quantifying Fatigue Failure: High Cycle Fatigue: N>103

Stress-Life Method for Zero Mean Stress R. R. Moore

specimen

(Suitable for Elastic Stress and High

Lifetimes— S-N diagrams )
(material
point on
the
outside)

R.R. Moore specimen (in inches)

[Failure of materials in mechanical design: analysis, prediction, prevention, by Jack A. Collins, Wiley, 1993, p. 189]

1

 Deformation of R. R. Moore Specimen

R. R. Moore Exaggerated
Consider Zero Mean Stress First

load reversals (2 reversals = 1 cycle)

Stress at A

maximum stress, σmax  

stress amplitude, σa  

t

mid-range stress, σm  =  0

minimum stress, σmin  

Follow a material point A

on the outer fiber

[Modified from Failure of materials in mechanical design: analysis, prediction,
prevention, by Jack A. Collins, Wiley, 1993, p. 189]

Experimental Correlations of Fatigue: S-N Diagrams

6-4 Stress-Life Method

Fig. 6-10. Fatigue diagram

R.R. Moore machine fatigue for 4130 (chromoly) steel,
zero mean stress

test specimen (in inches).

′ The fatigue strength Sf (or

endurance strength) is the If stress amplitude σa  is low
stress amplitude σa enough, the specimen lasts
corresponding to the forever in cyclic loading

number of cycles to failure

Log-log plots that correlate

stress amplitude to number
of cycles to failure are (to failure)

S-N bands for aluminum alloy
called S-N diagrams

2

 Fatigue Strength and Endurance Limit, Se (R. R. Moore Se′)
6-7 Sut Correlation for the Endurance Limit

x

This lower limit of σa = Sf Ductile

below which ∞ life is
guaranteed is called the
endurance limit Se
Martensite

The fatigue strength Sf (or

endurance strength) is the ′

stress amplitude σa The endurance limit of an R. R. R.R. Moore specimen (in inches)

corresponding to the Moore specimen (i.e., carefully
number of cycles to failure
lab-controlled) is denoted by Se'
⎧0.5Sut Sut ≤ 200 kpsi(1400MPa)
For Steels,
⎪
⎪
S e' = ⎨100kpsi Sut > 200kpsi
(to failure)
⎪
⎪⎩700MPa Sut > 1400MPa
(See Eq. 6-8 and Table A-24)

6-8 Estimating the S-N Diagram

E.g. 1. (Example 6-2)

High cycle (103 ≤ N ≤ 106):
Sf
Given a 1050 HR steel (Sut = 90 ksi (a)
Sut = 90ksi
Sut
(Table A-21)), estimate:

b S-N Diagram
Se' = 0.5(90) = 45kpsi
S f = aN
(a)  The (R. R. Moore) rotating-beam
(b)
f = 0.86 (Figure 6 − 18)
log S f = b log N + log a (S f )10 3 = fS ut endurance limit at 106 cycle

( fS ut )2 (0.86 ⋅ 90)2
a= = = 133.13
Know two points (Sf)10e3, (Sf)10e6:
(b)  The fatigue strength of a polished Se 45
(S f )10 = S eʹ′ (use Sut correlation)
rotating-beam specimen 1 ⎛ fS ⎞ 1 0.86 ⋅ 90 ⎤
(Use f from Fig. 6-18 for (Sf)10e3)
b = − log⎜ ut ⎟ = − log ⎡⎢
6
corresponding to 104 cycles to = −0.785
103(lo-cycle 106(hi-cycle N
3 ⎝ S e ⎠ 3 ⎣ 45 ⎥⎦
Solve for a and b:
failure

S f = 133.13N −0.0785
boundary assumed)
boundary assumed)

( fS ut ) 2 (c)  The expected life of a polished − 0.0785

a= S f = 133.13(104 ) = 64.6kpsi
rotating-beam specimen under a
Se
completely reversed stress of (c)
S f = σ a = 55ksi
failure
1 ⎛ fS ⎞ 55kpsi.

b = − log⎜ ut ⎟ ⎛ S f ⎞
1/ b
55 ⎞
−1 0.0785
3 ⎝ S e ⎠ N = ⎜ ⎟ = ⎛⎜ ⎟
⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ 133.13 ⎠
(Valid for 103≤N≤106)

= 77500 = 7.75(104 )cycles

3

 Exercise:
Find safety Factor against fatigue failure, R. R. 6-9 Endurance Limit Modifying Factors

Moore specimen of E.g. 1, Mmax = 200 lbf-in

•  High-cycle Fatigue (103<N<107 cycles)

Se = ka kb kc kd ke k f Seʹ′

where Se′=endurance limit under idealized condition

ka=surface factor


kb=size factor


kc=load modification factor


kd=temperature factor


ke=reliability factor


kf=miscellaneous factor

Surface and Size Factor

Size factor: Non-R.R.Moore Loading/Geometry

b
•  Surface factor:
k a = aS ut
•  Effective dimension, de

–  Equate the volume of material stressed at and above 95%
of the maximum stress to the same volume in the rotating-
beam sample
π 2
A0.95σ =
4
[d 2
]
− (0.95d ) = 0.0766d e
2

•  Size factor
For Axial loading
kb = 1 –  Bending without rotation: solid/hollow round
A0.95 σ = 0.01046d 2

d e = 0.370d
For Torsion and Bending
⎧ 0.879d −0.107 0.11 ≤ d ≤ 2in
kb|R.R. Moore specimen = 1
⎪ –  Rectangular section
A0.95σ = 0.05hb
⎪⎪ 0.91d −0.157 2 < d ≤ 10in
kb = ⎨ d e = 0.808 ⋅ hb
⎪1.24d −0.107 2.79 ≤ d ≤ 51mm
⎪
⎪⎩1.51d −0.107 51 < d ≤ 254mm

4

 Table 6-3. 95% Stress Areas

Loading and Temperature factors

⎧1 Bending
•  Loading Factor
k c = ⎪⎨ 0.85 Axial
⎪ 0.59 Torsion
⎩
•  Temperature factor
kd = 0.975 + 0.432(10 −3 )TF − 0.115(10 −5 )TF2
( ) (
+0.104 10 −8 TF3 − 0.595 10 −12 TF4 )
If the endurance limit

at room temperature

is known

ST
kd =
S RT
Data culled from 21 carbon and alloy steels for when temperature testing is not available (Standard
Handbook of Machine Design, Shigley/Mischke, 2nd ed., McGraw Hill, 1996, p. 13.16)

Reliability factor
Miscellaneous factors

•  Manufacturing history

–  Residual stresses

•  Corrosion

•  Coatings

•  Electrolytic Plating

•  Metal Spraying

Reliability is defined as the probability of no failure.
•  Cyclic frequency

We say, The actual value of the endurance limit is greater than ke(R)
∙Se′ with a probability of R (left-most column). (See also §6-17)

•  Frettage Corrosion

5

 Stress Concentration and Notch Sensitivity Stress Concentration & Notch Sensitivity
(Bending & Axial)
Static stress concentration, (Torsion)
Static stress concentration,
Kt, depends on geometry Kts, depends on geometry
(see Table A-15):
(see Table A-15):

σmax = Kt σo τmax = Kts τo

Fatigue stress concentration, Fatigue stress concentration,

Notch sensitivity factor
Kf, depends on geometry, Notch sensitivity factor
Kfs, depends on geometry,
K f −1 material & loading
K fs − 1 material & loading

q= qs =
Kt − 1 K ts − 1
⎧Endurance limit for ⎫ ⎧Endurance limit for ⎫
For cast iron, q=0.2
⎨ notched specimen ⎬ For cast iron, qs=0.2
⎨ notched specimen ⎬
K f = ⎩ ⎭ K fs = ⎩ ⎭
⎧ Endurance limit for ⎫ ⎧ Endurance limit for ⎫
⎨notch -­‐ free specimen ⎬ ⎨notch -­‐ free specimen ⎬
⎩ ⎭ ⎩ ⎭
= 1 + (K t − 1)⋅ q = 1 + (K ts − 1)⋅ q s
Eqn  6-­‐35a  (extends  Figure  6-­‐20) Eqn  6-­‐35b  (extends  Figure  6-­‐21)
1
q=
1
, a = 0.246 − 3.08 × 10−3 ⋅ Sut + 1.51× 10−5 ⋅ Sut2 − 2.67 × 10−8 ⋅ Sut3 qs = , a = 0.190 − 2.51 × 10−3 ⋅ Sut + 1.35 × 10−5 ⋅ Sut2 − 2.67 × 10−8 ⋅ Sut3
1+ ar
r [in], Sut [kpsi]
1+ ar r [in], Sut [kpsi]

E.g. 2. SN Diagram for Zero Mean Stress

E.g. 2. Zero Mean Stress

Shaft A: 1010 hot-rolled steel

Kts= 1.6 at the 3-mm fillet

T = F ⋅ d = F ⋅ 0.05 m Approximate ideal endurance limit:
S eʹ′ = 0.5Sut = 0.5(320 ) = 160 MPa
− 0.5 kN ≤ F ≤ 0.5 kN ⇒ − 25 N ⋅ m ≤ T ≤ 25 N ⋅ m
F = −0.5 to 0.5 kN cycle

toe of fillet

Sut = 320 MPa
τ=
Tc
=
Tc
=
T
= 636620 ⋅ T
Convert ideal to actual endurance limit:
S e = k a kb kc k d ke k f S eʹ′
Find safety factor against the finite-life

J πc 4 2 π (0.01)3 2
− 0.718
− 15.9 MPa ≤ τ ≤ 15.9 MPa k a = aSutb = 57.7(320 ) = 0.917
fatigue failure of shaft A.

− 0.107
(95% stress area is the same as R. R. Moore specimen)
kb = 1.24(20) = 0.9
Static shear-stress concentration is Kts=1.6

(kc converts tensile endurance to shear endurance!)
kc = 0.59
at the toe of the 3-mm fillet: τtoe → Ktsτnom

S es = S e k c = 0.59
= 0.917 (0.9)(0.59)(160) = 77.9 MPa

23.21 − (− 23.21)
Stress amplitude:
τa = = 23.21
2
Calculate the fatigue concentration factor

with Kts=1.6 at the toe of the 3-mm fillet:
strength S 77.9
Sut = 320 MPa too low Safety factor:
n= = es = = 3.36
service stress τ a 23.2
K fs = 1 + qs (K ts − 1) to register on Fig. 6-21.
Use Eqn. (6-35b)

K fs = 1 + qs (Kts − 1) = 1 + 0.775(1.6 − 1) = 1.46

The diameter of shaft A proves to be overly conservative. Exercise: How
⇒ 1.46(−15.9) ≤ τ toe ≤ 1.46(15.9) much do we have to reduce the diameter to get a design factor of 1.75?

or −23.2 MPa ≤ τ toe ≤ 23.2 MPa