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Tension test
Subjects of interest
• Introduction/Objectives
• Engineering stress-strain curve
• True stress-true strain curve
• Instability in tension
• Stress distribution at the neck
• Ductility measurement in tension tests
• Effect of strain rate on flow properties
• Effect of temperature on flow properties
Ao Af
Stress
Necking
Ultimate tensile strength
Fracture strength Fracture
Yield strength
Lo
Necking
Af
Young’s modulus = slope
Fracture = stress/strain
Non-uniform
Elastic Uniform plastic plastic
deformation deformation deformation
Yield strength P
s= Eq.1
Ao
Young’s modulus = slope
= stress/strain
Average
linear strain
Non-uniform
Elastic Uniform plastic plastic
deformation deformation deformation
δ
∆L L − Lo
Elastic
strain
Plastic strain Strain
e= = = Eq.2
Total strain
Lo Lo Lo
• Composition
• Heat treatment Metallurgical factors
• State of stress
E E
• Permanent plastic strain a Eq.3
O
A’ B’ Elongation • Loading and unloading following
ab d OABB’ gives plastic deformation c
c
whereas elastic deformation under
loading is d.
Pmax
su =
Ao Eq.4
Load
Load
Load
modulus)
50%CW Al alloy
20%CW
Yielding
Improvement in elastic
Improvement of yielding by cold working limit by alloying
Load
Upper yield
point
L2
Yield point
elongation
Energy
Energy required L1
for initial
movement of Lower yield
atom point
Interstitial
solute Distance Extension
atom
At yield point, localised internal friction requires more energy for
interstitial atom to move dislocation, after that dislocation are free
from interstitial atom (carbon, nitrogen).
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
Ductility
Ductility is a qualitative, subjective property of a material.
Elongation L f − Lo
ef =
Lo
Eq.6
Reduction of area, q Ao − A f
q=
Ao Eq.7
L − Lo Ao 1 q
eo = = −1 = =
Lo A 1− q 1− q Eq.8
Young’s modulus
Stiffness
Deflection
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
Example: A 13 mm diameter tensile specimen has a 50 mm gauge
length. The load corresponding to the 0.2% offset is 6800 kg and the
maximum load is 8400 kg. Fracture occurs at 7300 kg. The diameter
after fracture is 8 mm and the gauge length at fracture is 65 mm.
Calculate the standard properties of the material from the tension test.
π L − Lo 65 − 50
Ao = (13) 2 = 132.7 mm 2 = 132.7 × 10 −6 m 2 ef = = = 30%
4 Lo 50
π Ao − A f 132.7 − 50.3
Af = (8) 2 = 50.3 mm 2 = 50.3 × 10 −6 m 2 q= = = 62%
4 Ao 132.7
Modulus of
resilience, UR
1
UR = s o eo
2
Strain, e
U T ≈ su e f 2
UT ≈ su e f
so + su 3
Comparison of stress-strain curves for U T ≈ 2
ef
Eq.10 Eq.11
high and low-toughness materials.
(only approximation)
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
True-stress-true-strain curve
• True stress-strain curve gives a true indication of deformation
characteristics because it is based on the instantaneous
dimension of the specimen.
• The true stress-strain curve is also known as the flow curve.
• In engineering stress-strain curve,
stress drops down after necking since it is
based on the original area.
• In true stress-strain curve, the stress
however increases after necking since the
cross-sectional area of the specimen
decreases rapidly after necking.
Ao
Eliminating Pmax gives σ u = su = su e ε u
Au Eq.14
Eq.15
Ao 1
ε f = ln ε f = ln
Af Eq.16 1− q Eq.17
σ = K (ε o+ε ) n Eq.21
σ = σ o + Kε n Eq.22
σ = Kε n + e K e n ε
1 1 Eq.23
Lf
= ln = 0.405
60
ε f = ln At the maximum load, both area
Lo 40
and gauge length can be used for a
Ao
ε f = ln = ln 150 = 0.405 strain calculation.
100
Af
If a more ductile metal is tested such that necking occurs and the
final gauge length is 83 mm and the final diameter is 8 mm, while
Lo = 40 mm and Do = 12.8 mm.
Lf
= ln = 0.730
83 After necking, gauge length gives
ε f = ln
Lo 40 error but area of reduction can still
Do
2
be used for the calculation of true
ε f = ln = 2 ln 12.8 = 0.940 strain at fracture.
8
Df
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
Instability in tension
Undergo necking after yielding with
Ideal plastic material no strain hardening
So that at a point of dσ
=σ
tensile instability dε Eq.24
εu = n Eq.25
1) Diffuse necking
• Provide a large extent of necking on the
tensile specimen similar to necking from a
cylindrical specimen.
• Diffuse necking might terminate in fracture
Diffuse and localised necking
in a sheet tensile specimen. but normally followed by localised necking.
2) Localised necking
Power law flow curve for • Localised necking is a narrow band with
localised necking its size ~ specimen thickness, and inclined
at an angle φ ~55o.
ε u = 2n Eq.26
• Give no change in width through the
localised neck plain strain deformation.
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
Stress distribution in necking
• Necking introduces a complex triaxial state of stress in the
necked region ~ a mild notch.
• The average true stress at necking, which is much higher
than the stress would be required to cause a normal plastic flow
due to stresses in width and thickness directions.
(a) Geometry of necked region, (b) Elastic stresses beneath the notch in
stress acting on element at point O (a) plain stress, (b) plain strain
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
Ductility measurement in tension test
A
Lo
Gauge length Lo
% Elongation
• % Elongation is chiefly influenced by uniform elongation,
which is dependent on the strain-hardening capacity of the
material.
Reduction of Area
• Reduction of area is more a measure of the deformation
required to produce failure and its chief contribution results
from the necking process.
• Because of the complicated state of stress state in the
neck, values of reduction of area are dependent on
specimen geometry, and deformation behaviour, and
they should not be taken as true material properties.
• RA is the most structure-sensitive ductility parameter
and is useful in detecting quality changes in the materials.
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
Effect of strain rate on flow properties
• Strain rate is defined as
• dε
ε=
dt Eq.28
• m
σ = C ε Eq.29
ε ,T
Testing temperature
Homogenous temperature =
Melting temperature
Screw Hydraulic
driven testing
machine machine
midas.npl.co.uk
• Due to the constraint at the notch, the notch strength is higher than
the tensile strength of the unnotched specimen.
Transformation temperature
Spacing between
cementite platelets
Effect of
forging on
longitudinal
and
transverse
Reduction of area and angle between the reduction of
longitudinal direction in forging and the area
Suranaree University of Technology specimen axis May-Aug 2007
References