MEAT

SCIENCE
Meat Science 74 (2006) 564–577
www.elsevier.com/locate/meatsci

Application of an electronic nose for measurements of boar taint

in entire male pigs
a,b,*
Jannie S. Vestergaard , John-Erik Haugen c, Derek V. Byrne b

a
Mikkeli Polytechnic, YTI Research Centre, P.O. Box 181, FIN-50101 Mikkeli, Finland
b
The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Department of Food Science, Sensory Science, Rolighedsvej 30, DK-1958 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
c
MATFORSK AS, Osloveien 1, N-1430 Ås, Norway

Received 14 October 2005; received in revised form 10 April 2006; accepted 8 May 2006

Abstract

An electronic nose based on ion mobility spectrometry was used for boar taint measurements of entire male pig samples varying in
androstenone and skatole levels (0.09–0.88 lg/g fat and 0.01–0.26 lg/g fat, respectively). Sensory perceptible boar taint (especially boar
odour) was found to be more related to androstenone than to skatole, whereas a rancid note was determined more related to skatole than
to androstenone. Multivariate models implementing some generally prescribed cut-off limits for androstenone (0.50 lg/g) and skatole
(0.21 lg/g) indicated that the e-nose could be used for ordering samples with respect to low and high levels of androstenone and skatole.
Studying the direct relationships between e-nose data, sensory data, androstenone and skatole showed better predictivity of the chemical
compounds (androstenone: r = 0.948, RMSEP = 0.309; skatole: r = 0.629, RMSEP = 0.069) than for single sensory descriptors
(boar odour r = 0.409, RMSEP = 0.789). The results thus suggest that the e-nose technology based on ion mobility spectrometry as
in the MGD-1 may have a potential for future rapid sorting of boars at the slaughter line. The study provides new knowledge of the
applicability of ion mobility spectrometry for measuring boar taint and also confirms the challenge of measuring boar taint using chem-
ically determined cut-off limits for a sensory perceptible phenomenon. Thus, future development should be more devoted to developing
holistic approaches rather than focusing on the influence of single variables on boar taint.
Ó 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Boar taint; E-nose; Ion mobility spectrometry; Sensory analysis; Multivariate data analysis

1. Introduction Dijksterhuis et al. (2000) found that androstenone

Boar taint is a distinctive and unpleasant taint perceived
through a combination of sensory odour, flavour and taste
in pork and pork products during cooking and eating. It
has been described as ‘‘animal’’, ‘‘urine’’, ‘‘fecal’’ and/or
‘‘sweet’’ like in character. Traditionally, sensory perception
of boar taint has been related to levels of androstenone and
skatole in fat since they are the primary contributors to
boar taint (Gunn et al., 2004).
*
Corresponding author. Address: Mikkeli Polytechnic, YTI Research
Centre, P.O. Box 181, FIN-50101 Mikkeli, Finland. Tel.: +358 40 569
8919; fax: +358 15 3556365.
E-mail address: janniev@surfeu.fi (J.S. Vestergaard).
related mostly to ‘‘urine’’, while skatole related mostly to
‘‘manure’’ and, to a lesser extent, to ‘‘naphthalene’’. Sev-
eral other compounds such as indole and p-cresol may also
contribute to the overall perception of boar taint (Gunn
et al., 2004). Also Babol, Squires, and Gullet (1996, 2002)
gave, in studies involving both a trained sensory panel
and a consumer panel, evidence that other factors due to
sexual maturity are involved in the development of boar
taint and that androstenone and skatole cannot completely
account for the occurrence of boar taint.
The boar taint issue is controversial and little agreement
has been reached so far on the relative contributions or the
interaction of androstenone and skatole to boar taint,
which is often due to differences in characteristics of meat
samples (androstenone and skatole levels), sensory

0309-1740/$ - see front matter Ó 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2006.05.005
 J.S. Vestergaard et al. / Meat Science 74 (2006) 564–577
methodology and cooking procedures, meat consumption
habits and consumer sensitivity to particularly androste-
none, e.g., anosmia (Bonneau, Kempster, et al., 2000;
Gunn et al., 2004).
Possible cut-off values for androstenone and skatole for
sorting out boar tainted carcasses have been widely stud-
ied. Støier and Olsen (1998) have in large scale studied clas-
sification accuracy for different classification criteria for
on-line sorting of Danish entire male pigs. They found that
classification criteria based on skatole with a cut-off value
of 0.25 lg/g skatole resulted in a satisfactory classification
(1.2% approved with off-odour and 4% rejection). When
classification was based on both skatole and androstenone
it was found that the cut-off value for androstenone should
be 0.5 lg/g in order to obtain the same classification accu-
racy. Criteria for skatole and androstenone levels can be
tightened or loosened depending on the requirement for
classification accuracy. Similar cut-off limits are widely
used in Europe (Gunn et al., 2004). The cut-off levels from
a Norwegian study, which are used in the present study, are
for skatole 0.21 lg/g and for androstenone 0.50 and 1.0 lg/g
(Aldal et al., 2005).
Analysis of off-odours and flavour in meat and meat
products has traditionally been performed by trained sen-
sory panels or by headspace gas chromatography mass
spectrometry (GC–MS). These methods for detecting
boar taint are time consuming and costly and it would
therefore be useful to have objective rapid methods in
order to sort out the boars on the slaughter line based
on both chemical and sensory criteria. New methods
should allow a high number of samples to be analysed
within a short period of time with a sufficient reproduc-
ibility and accuracy.
Recently, there has been a rapid development of chemi-
cal sensor technology for analysis of volatile compounds.
Commercially available gas-sensor devices cover a variety
of chemical sensing principles, system design and data
analysis techniques. Gas-sensors are based on physical or
chemical adsorption and desorption, optical adsorption
or chemical reactions of an analyte in the gas phase that
take place on the surface and/or in the bulk of the sensor
material. These interactions cause characteristic physical
changes of the sensor to be detected. A series of different
transducing principles can be used in chemical gas sensors:
heat generation, conductivity, electrical polarisation, elec-
trochemical activity, ionisation, optical properties, dielec-
tric properties and magnetic properties.
Chemical sensor arrays combined with multivariate data
processing methods have demonstrated to have a potential
for rapid analysis of meat quality (e.g., Blixt & Borch,
1999; Hansen, Petersen, & Byrne, 2005; Haugen & Kvaal,
1998; Rajamäki et al., 2006; Schaller, Bosset, & Escher,
1998).
In recent years attempts to apply gas-sensor technology
to the detection of boar taint have been reported. The
research in this field comprise limited feasibility studies
analyzing pure lipid phases (oils and fats) spiked with pure
565
androstenone and skatole and mixtures of both at different
concentration levels and real back fat samples from boars
with different levels of skatole and androstenone (Berdagúe
& Talou, 1993; Bourrounet, Talou, & Gaset, 1995; Di
Natale et al., 2003). Most of the published studies do not
involve any aspects of the relation to sensory perceptible
boar taint. However, Annor-Frempong, Nute, Wood,
Whittington, and West (1998) found in a study that an
e-nose with a 12-conducting polymer array could discrimi-
nate between different intensities of boar taint caused by
different concentrations of both boar taint compounds in
a model system. Comparing the e-nose responses to those
of a sensory panel they found high correlations between
the e-nose and the sensory panel (canonical correlation =
0.78).
With non-specific gas-sensor arrays there is a potential
of detecting several compounds in the vapour phase related
to boar taint. Accordingly, this could allow the measure-
ment of the odour and/or flavour of the meat instead of
analysing the specific compounds that might be responsible
for boar taint. This technique cannot completely replace
reference methods like the use of sensory panels, as the
technique requires training and calibration against valid
reference methods such as sensory analysis. Reviewing
on-line methods for detection of boar taint in carcasses,
Gunn et al. (2004) suggested gas-sensor technology as a
potential technology. Progress towards specific gas-sensor
applications for boar taint has been limited and so far,
nothing has been published on boar taint applications
using ion mobility spectrometry.
In this study, it was therefore of interest to evaluate a
commercial ion mobility spectrometer, the MGD-1 system
(Environics Ltd., Finland) for the detection of boar tainted
meat. Originally, the MGD-1 device was developed for
detecting chemical warfare agents back in the 1980s. Since
the 1990s the instrument has also been applied to, e.g.,
environmental applications. In a recent study of warmed-
over flavour (WOF) in pork O’Sullivan, Byrne, Jensen,
Andersen, and Vestergaard (2003) showed that the
MGD-1 could clearly separate samples on the basis of mus-
cle type, treatment and degree of WOF development.
Repeating the experiment 11 months later in another labo-
ratory, gave good evidence of the reproducibility and
repeatability of the MGD-1.
This e-nose study is part of a larger project carried out in
Norway in 2001 with the purpose of investigating possible
quality changes occurring in Norwegian boars when not
castrated (Aldal et al., 2005). The electronic nose MGD-1
was introduced as a possible rapid method for detecting
boar taint.
The overall aim of this study was to investigate the rela-
tionships between electronic nose (MGD-1) data, sensory
data and androstenone and skatole concentrations by util-
ising cut-off values for androstenone and skatole as a basis
for estimating the effectiveness of the ability of the elec-
tronic nose to predict sensory defined boar taint. Another
aim was to learn more about whether the perceptible boar
566 J.S. Vestergaard et al. / Meat Science 74 (2006) 564–577
taint and/or chemically measured androstenone and ska-
tole can be predicted by the commercially available elec-
tronic nose MGD-1. As there is a future demand for
rapid on-line sorting methods and as the MGD-1 is trans-
portable and originally designed to operate in an open
environment the aim was also to investigate possible on-
line applicability of the system.
The study described here is part of a larger study where
the influence of a lower slaughtering weight on the occur-
rence of boar taint was studied (Aldal et al., 2001).
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Sample material
A total of 205 male pigs of the Noroc race were slaugh-
tered at an average weight of approximately 55 kg (maxi-
mum age of 110 days). Eighty-five samples (carcasses)
were, on the basis of their androstenone and skatole con-
tent, grouped into categories according to some general
cut-off limits suggested for sorting boars in Europe and
applied in Norway (see also Aldal et al., 2001; Gunn
et al., 2004; Støier & Olsen, 1998) and chosen for sensory
analysis. The procedure is described in more details by
Aldal et al. (2005).
According to these categories based on androstenone
and skatole cut-off limits 18 samples were then chosen for
the e-nose analysis with the MGD-1. The samples varied
in androstenone and skatole levels 0.09–0.88 lg/g fat and
0.01–0.26 lg/g fat, respectively. The categories, androste-
none and skatole cut-off limits and number of samples in
each category analysed in this study are shown in Table
1. This study included no extreme samples (high in both
androstenone and skatole), which was due to the generally
low amount of extreme samples available in the larger
study.
2.2. Sample preparation
Neck cuts (2 pcs.) taken from the head joint to the fifth
rib were taken out for sensory analysis and vacuum packed
at 23 °C. Backfat samples taken from the 6–7 vertebrae
Table 1
The 18 samples analysed in this study divided into categories based on
some generally accepted cut-off limits for androstenone and skatole
applied in Norway (Aldal et al., 2001; Gunn et al., 2004; Støier & Olsen,
1998)
Categorya # of samples Androstenone Skatole
concentration (lg/g fat) concentration
(lg/g fat)
LL 6 <0.50 <0.21
LH 5 <0.50 P0.21
HL 7 P0.50 <0.21
a
LL = low androstenone, low skatole; LH = low androstenone, high
skatole; HL = high androstenone, low skatole.
and abdominal cuts (2 pcs.) taken from the central part
of the flank were taken out at the slaughter line for chem-
ical analysis. Abdominal cuts were cut into smaller pieces
at minimum 50 g (for skatole, androstenone and e-nose
analyses respectively). Samples for skatole and androste-
none analyses were vacuum packed and stored at 23 °C.
Samples for e-nose analyses were packed in aluminium foil
prior to vacuum packaging and stored at 80 °C (Aldal
et al., 2001).
Studies have shown, that variations in intracarcass dis-
tribution of androstenone and skatole exist but are not sys-
tematic or significant (Claus, 1975; Haugen, Flåtten, &
Andresen, 2005; Malmfors, Lundström, Hansson, &
Gahne, 1976; Weiler, Denhard, Herbert, & Claus, 1995).
Since measurements of androstenone and skatole showed
no significant differences in androstenone and skatole levels
in fat of the two sampling sites used, i.e., abdominal and
neck fat, we found it practical to use different parts of
the carcass for different types of analysis. Neck cuts (cut-
lets) were used for sensory analysis and abdominal fat for
e-nose analysis.
2.3. Chemical analysis
Samples of fat tissue (2–5 g) were used for the analysis of
skatole and androstenone content. The levels of skatole in
fat, or in fact skatole equivalents, were measured by a spec-
trophotometric method developed by Mortensen and
Sørensen (1984). The levels of androstenone in fat were
measured by use of a commercial enzyme immunoassay
method (ELISA-Systems, 5a-androst-16-en-3on from Rie-
del-de Häen, Seelze, Germany). The method is based on
the method described by Claus, Herbert, and Dehnhard
(1997). The chemical analyses are described in more detail
by Aldal et al. (2005).
2.4. Sensory analysis
Frozen necks were sliced into 1 cm thick cutlets (40–
60 g) and each piece was put into a plastic bag with a code,
vacuumed and thawed over night at 4 °C prior to the sen-
sory analysis. The samples (cutlets) were heat treated in a
water bath at 75 °C for one hour before serving to the
assessors in which time a core temperature of 70 °C was
obtained. The core temperature when the assessors received
the sample was about 50 °C. Hot plates were used to ensure
that the temperature of the samples was maintained during
evaluation. The sensory analysis was carried out by a
trained panel consisting of 11 trained female assessors all
sensitive to androstenone. Assessors had been screened
and tested according to international standards (ISO,
1985). Prior to each session pre-trials were performed on
samples low and high in androstenone and skatole, respec-
tively. The descriptive method used included the descrip-
tors overall odour and flavour, rancid odour and flavour,
boar odour and flavour, sour flavour, bitter taste and
 J.S. Vestergaard et al. / Meat Science 74 (2006) 564–577
Table 2
Sensory descriptors for evaluation of pork meat (Aldal et al., 2001). Descriptors are presented in evaluation order
Descriptor Abbreviationa
Overall intensity, odour Overall-O
Rancid odour Rancid-O
Boar odour Boar-O
Overall intensity, flavour Overall-F
Sour flavour Sour-F
Bitter taste Bitter-T
Metallic taste Metallic-T
Rancid flavour Rancid-F
Boar flavour Boar-F
a
Suffix to abbreviation indicates method of assessment by panellists: -O, odour; -F, flavour; -T, taste.
metallic flavour assessed on a linear scale ranging from no
intensity (0) to clear intensity (9) (Table 2) (Aldal et al.,
2001, 2005).
2.5. Electronic nose analysis
The commercially available electronic nose MGD-1
(Environics Ltd., Finland) based on the principle of ion
mobility spectroscopy (IMS) was used. Ionisation of mol-
ecules take place in the IMCELL with an Am-241
5.9 MBq (160 lCi) radiation source. Electrical fields,
which can be set individually between three electrode
pairs, interfere with the ion flow. Since the polarity of
the electric field is changed at short time intervals, ions
of both polarities can be detected simultaneously. The
channel output of the electrodes is thus doubled to six
(IMC-1 to IMC-6). IMC-1 to IMC-3 measure signals
from positive ions and IMC-4 to IMC-6 measure signals
from negative ions. Seven IMS sensor signals including
the signal sum for IMC-1 to IMC-6 (SUM) are obtained.
IMCELL temperature can be adjusted between 30 and
60 °C, and the flow rate between 1 and 2 L/min. Thus,
the electrical signals obtained (bits) are dependent on
the size and the loading of the ions, on the flow rate
and on the settings of the electrical fields. The relative
and absolute humidity as well as the ambient temperature
are registered during measuring. The MGD-1 is also
equipped with a semiconductor, the SCCELL, (metal
oxide sensor, MOS) which is often used for further confir-
mation of the performance of the MGD-1 (e.g., sulphuric
compounds). A more detailed description of the opera-
tional principle of the MGD-1 detector can be found else-
567
Definition Scale
Intensity of the overall odour in the sample 0 = No odour
9 = Clear odour
Relates to the odour of oxidised fat 0 = No rancidity
9 = Clear rancid odour
Relates to the odour of androstenone and skatole 0 = No boar odour
9 = Clear boar odour
Intensity of the overall flavour in the sample 0 = No flavour
9 = Clear flavour
Relates to a fresh, sour/sweet/fruitlike flavour 0 = No sour flavour
9 = Distinct sour flavour
Relates to the basic taste bitter (caffeine) 0 = No bitter taste
9 = Clear bitter taste
Relates to the taste of metal (ferrous sulphate) 0 = No metallic taste
9 = Clear metallic taste
Relates to the flavour of oxidised fat 0 = No rancid flavour
9 = Clear rancid flavour
Relates to the flavour of androstenone and skatole 0 = No boar flavour
9 = Clear boar flavour
where (Utriainen, Kärpänoja, & Paakkanen, 2003). The
MGD-1 analyses were carried out at MATFORSK,
Norway.
2.5.1. E-nose sample preparation and system set-up
Fat from abdominal fat tissue was excised and 3 g were
weighed into a 250 ml stoppered conical flask and kept
refrigerated (+5 °C) until measuring later the same day.
A system set-up was developed for this specific study.
The sample was incubated in water bath at 40 °C for
10 min. Head space (sample air) was transported to the
electronic nose MGD-1 (internal pump) through a column
heater (BAS – Bioanalytical Systems Inc., USA) at 60 °C.
The flow rate was adjusted to 1.5 l/min, IMCELL temper-
ature adjusted to 55 °C and the sampling time was set to
30 s. During incubation (e-nose system not measuring)
ambient air was flowing through the MGD-1 (baseline
adjustment). The duration of the sample cycle was approx-
imately 12 min. To determine the repeatability of the sen-
sor response each sample was analysed by three
consecutive runs. Analyses were carried out with two repli-
cates of each sample in random order. All together 18 sam-
ples were analysed.
2.5.2. Data acquisition and pre-treatment
Data were collected in log-files in the programme MGD-
Winuip, version 1.0.1 (Environics Ltd., Finland). Logging
was adjusted to one data point per second. The data sets
were transferred to Excel (Microsoft, version 5.0) for visual
examination of the measurements and pre-treatment of the
raw-data. The raw data were pre-treated by summing the
signals from 0 to 20 s (summing of 20 data points).
568 J.S. Vestergaard et al. / Meat Science 74 (2006) 564–577
2.6. Data analysis
2.6.1. Sensory data
In order to study the relationships between the sensory
data and the main design factors (LL, LH, and HL) mean
panel data (n = 11) were analysed by Discriminant Partial
Least Square Regressions (DPLSR). DPLSR makes it pos-
sible to investigate the predictability of the Y-matrix, e.g.,
category variables from the sensory data and chemically
measured androstenone and skatole (X-matrix). Design
variables were included as 0/1 indicator variables in the
Y-matrix. A PLSR was performed in order to study the
direct relationships between the sensory data (X-matrix)
and the chemically measured androstenone and skatole
(Y-matrix). Derived loading plots were replaced by bi-plots
of correlation loadings, which reveal and visualise both
structure in the data and degree of fit in the model and thus
provide a quantitative and easier interpretation of X and Y
data. Regression coefficients were analysed by jack-knifing
(Martens & Martens, 2000, 2001), which allows the deter-
mination of the regression coefficients with uncertainty lim-
its that correspond to ±2 standard uncertainties under
ideal conditions. From these the significance (P < 0.05) of
the variable relationship in X- and Y-matrices were deter-
mined. Data were centred and both X- and Y-matrices were
standardised (1/Sdev). Models were validated using full
cross-validation.
2.6.2. E-nose data
Principal component analysis (PCA) was used for initial
exploration of the pre-treated e-nose data and for deter-
mining the repeatability of measurements (centred and
unstandardised data). DPLSR were used for studying the
relationships between e-nose, sensory and androstenone
and skatole data and the category variables as described
in Section 2.5.2. A PLSR was performed to determine the
predictability of the electronic nose (X-matrix) to the sen-
sory and chemical data (Y-matrix). In the regression anal-
ysis all data were centred and both X- and Y-matrices were
standardised (1/Sdev). Models were validated using full
cross-validation. All multivariate data analyses were per-
formed with the Unscrambler version 9.1 (Camo ASA,
Oslo, Norway).
3. Results
3.1. Data analysis strategy
Data analysis strategy was chosen to investigate the rela-
tionships between the category variables LL (low androste-
none, low skatole), LH (low androstenone, high skatole)
and HL (high androstenone, low skatole) representing
some generally prescribed cut-off limits for androstenone
and skatole (Table 1) and the e-nose, sensory and chemical
data as illustrated in Fig. 1. A DPLSR was performed to
investigate the relationships between the category variables
and the sensory and chemical data. The influence of the
Androste-
none &
Skatole
2)
5)
E-nose Sensory
analysis
4)
3) 1)
Category
variables
LL, LH,
HL
Fig. 1. Data analysis strategy for the e-nose experiment illustrating the
relationships between the data and category variables. : performed data
analysis; (1) DPLSR on the relationship between sensory data and
androstenone/skatole level on the category variables; (2) PLSR on the
direct relationship between androstenone/skatole level and sensory data;
(3) DPLSR on the relationship between e-nose data and androstenone/
skatole level on the category variables; (4) DPLSR on the relationships
between e-nose data, sensory data and androstenone/skatole level on the
category variables; (5) prediction of androstenone/skatole level and
sensory data by the e-nose data (PLSR). : other direct data relationships
not included here.
category variables on the multivariate models was investi-
gated by studying the direct relationships between the sen-
sory and chemical data in a PLSR. Further DPLSR was
carried out to investigate the association of the category
variables with the e-nose and chemical data and a DPLSR
was carried out to determine the relationships of the cate-
gory variables to all measured data. The corresponding
direct relationships between e-nose and sensory data and
e-nose and chemical data, respectively, are not presented
here. Finally, a PLSR was carried out to determine the pre-
dictability of the electronic nose to the sensory and chem-
ical data.
3.2. Sensory and chemical results
3.2.1. Significance of the relationships between design and
sensory-chemical data
To study the relationship between the nine sensory
descriptors (Table 2), androstenone and skatole levels
and the category variables, data were analysed by multivar-
iate DPLSR. This resulted in a model with two significant
PCs (41% explained validated variance). A correlation
loadings plot of the first and second principal components
(PC1 and PC2) is shown in Fig. 2. The category variables
spread out the data in a two-dimensional space and two
of the three variables are found between the inner and
outer ellipses representing 50% and 100% explained
 J.S. Vestergaard et al. / Meat Science 74 (2006) 564–577 569

Fig. 2. DPLSR correlation loadings plot of the two principal components (PC1 and PC2; 41% explained cross-validated variance). Sensory descriptors,
androstenone and skatole concentrations in the X-matrix (m) and the category variables in the Y-matrix (d; LL: androstenone concentration <0.50 lg/g
fat and skatole <0.21 lg/g fat; LH: androstenone <0.50 lg/g fat and skatole P0.21 lg/g fat; HL: androstenone P0.50 lg/g fat and skatole <0.21 lg/g
fat). Ellipses represent r2 = 50% and 100%, respectively.

variance, respectively, indicating they are well explained by
the first two PCs in the DPLSR model. The variation in the
first dimension (PC1) is explained by high androstenone
(category variable HL) and skatole levels (category vari-
able LH), respectively. The variation in the second dimen-
sion (PC2) is explained by low levels of androstenone and
skatole (category variable LL). The sensory descriptors
are distributed across PC1/PC2 (from upper left corner
to the lower right corner as shown in Fig. 2) from sour fla-
vour to metallic taste, rancid odour/flavour and boar
odour and flavour, overall intensity odour/flavour and bit-
ter taste. Redundancy between odour and flavour descrip-
tors, i.e., overall intensity, rancid notes and boar is seen.
Further studies of the relationships were carried out
by calculating estimated regression coefficients from the
jack-knife uncertainty test. These showed that the vari-
ables androstenone, skatole, overall intensity odour,
rancid odour and flavour and boar odour are signifi-
cant (P 6 0.05) for one or more category variables.
The estimated regression coefficients and significance
of the sensory and chemical variables are shown in
Table 3.
From Fig. 2 and Table 3 it is found, that boar odour and
androstenone concentration are positively associated with
samples high in androstenone and low in skatole (category
variable HL). Rancid notes (both odour and flavour) and
skatole concentration are positively associated with the cat-
egory variable LH and negatively associated with the cate-
gory variable HL. Overall intensity odour is negatively
associated with the category variable LL. Other descriptors

Table 3
Estimated regression coefficients and their significance as derived by the jack-knife uncertainty test from a DPLSR model (two significant PCs) studying
the relationships of the category variables (LL, LH and HL) to sensory descriptors, androstenone and skatole concentrations
Variable LL LH HL
ba Significanceb b Significance b Significance
Androstenone 0.089 n.s. 0.280 * +0.343 *
Skatole 0.041 n.s. +0.296 * 0.232 *
Overall intensity-Oc 0.117 * 0.023 n.s. +0.135 n.s.
Rancid-O 0.048 n.s. +0.192 ** 0.130 *
Boar-O 0.079 n.s. 0.094 n.s. +0.163 **
Overall intensity-F 0.075 n.s. +0.053 n.s. +0.024 n.s.
Sour-F +0.086 n.s. 0.033 n.s. 0.053 n.s.
Bitter-T 0.091 n.s. +0.010 n.s. +0.079 n.s.
Metallic-T 0.024 n.s. 0.044 n.s. +0.068 n.s.
Rancid-F 0.048 n.s. +0.206 ** 0.143 *
Boar-F 0.059 n.s. 0.010 n.s. +0.067 n.s.
a
Estimated regression coefficients, b.
b
Significant levels: n.s. – not significant; * 0.01 < P 6 0.05; ** 0.001 < P 6 0.01; *** P 6 0.001. Significant variables in italics (P 6 0.05).
c
Suffix to sensory descriptors indicate method of assessment by panellists: -O, odour; -F, flavour; -T, taste.
570 J.S. Vestergaard et al. / Meat Science 74 (2006) 564–577
showing clear relationships to the category variables with-
out being significant are sour flavour, being positively asso-
ciated with samples low in both androstenone and skatole
(category variable LL), and bitter taste which is negatively
associated with the category variable LL.
3.2.2. Sensory and chemical predictability
To study the predictability and causality of the sensory
descriptors and androstenone and skatole levels, a PLSR
without the category variables was carried out. The PLSR
resulted in a model with four significant PCs (15%
explained validated variance). The correlation loadings
plot with the sensory descriptors (X-matrix) and the
androstenone and skatole concentrations (Y-matrix) in
Fig. 3 shows, that the chemical components androstenone
and skatole are separated by the sensory descriptors. Nei-
ther of the two chemical components is found between the
inner and outer ellipses (50% and 100% explained vari-
ance, respectively) indicating a low fit to the calculated
model. The variation in the first dimension is explained
by the sensory descriptors going from sour flavour to
metallic taste to overall intensity odour/flavour, bitter
taste and boar odour/flavour (from left to right). The sec-
ond dimension (PC2) is explained by rancid odour/flavour
and boar odour/flavour. Strong redundancy is found
between odour and flavour for the descriptors overall
intensity and rancid notes. Lesser redundancy is found
for boar odour and flavour. Estimated regression coeffi-
cients derived from the jack-knife uncertainty test showed,
that rancid odour is significant for skatole (P 6 0.05).
Rancid odour/flavour show positive association to skatole
and negative association to androstenone. Boar odour/fla-
vour are positively associated with androstenone (jack-
knife regression coefficients and significances not shown
here).
Fig. 3. PLSR correlation loadings plot of the first and second dimension (PC1 and PC2; 8% explained cross-validated variance) of the sensory descriptors
(X-matrix; m) and androstenone and skatole concentrations (Y-matrix; d). Ellipses represent r2 = 50% and 100%, respectively.
3.3. Electronic nose and chemical results
3.3.1. Electronic nose measurements and repeatability
A typical profile of abdominal fat obtained with the
MGD-1 device (30 s sampling) is shown in Fig. 4. From
the profile obtained it is seen, that IMC-4 gives the highest
response, IMC-1, IMC-2 and IMC-5 give intermediate
responses and IMC-3 and IMC-6 give the lowest responses.
The response time for the IMCELLÒ is fast (1 s) and the
recovery time is approximately 20 s. The MOS (metal oxide
sensor referred to as the SCCELL) gives intermediate
response and has a relatively longer response time and
recovery time (approximately 90 s). The MGD-1 also gives
a response for the total bits measured (SUM), which also is
included in the analysis of the e-nose data. In total the
MGD-1 gives responses for IMCELL channels, SCCELL,
IMCELL temperature, ambient temperature, relative and
absolute humidity (measured after the IMCELL).
Pre-processed e-nose data analysed by PCA showed
good repeatability between measurements and sample rep-
licates (explained variance 86.7% (4 PCs), results not
shown). Repeatability was improved, when not taking the
MOS into account. Thus, the results of the MOS were
not used for further analyses.
3.3.2. Significance of the relationships between design and
electronic nose-chemical data
E-nose data were analysed by DPLSR where e-nose
data, androstenone and skatole concentrations were used
as the X-matrix and the three category variables as the
Y-matrix. This resulted in a model with five significant
PCs (40% explained validated variance). The correlation
loadings plot (Fig. 5) shows the design variables spanning
the two-dimensional space of PC1 and PC2 (24% explained
cross-validated variance). Two of the three category vari-
 J.S. Vestergaard et al. / Meat Science 74 (2006) 564–577
Fig. 4. A typical profile of an abdominal fat sample from boar showing
the sensor signals (electrical current, pA) of the IMCELL (IMC1-IMC6)
and the MOS (SCCELL). Sampling time is 30 s.
ables are found between the inner and outer ellipses repre-
senting 50% and 100% explained variance, respectively,
indicating they were well explained by the first two PCs
in the DPLSR model. The variation in PC1 is explained
by high androstenone and low skatole levels (category var-
iable HL to the left) and high skatole and low androste-
none (category variable LH to the right). The second
dimension (PC2) is explained by the low levels of androste-
none and skatole (category variable LL). The MGD-1
channels IMC-1, IMC-4, IMC-5 and SUM are placed in
the upper left corner of the correlation loadings plot being
more associated to the category variable LL. IMC-2, IMC-
3 and IMC-6 are distributed along PC1 being most associ-
ated to the category variables HL and LH.
Estimated regression coefficients derived from the PLSR
model with five significant PCs (jack-knife uncertainty test)
Fig. 5. DPLSR correlation loadings plot showing the first and second dimension (PC1 and PC2; 24% explained cross-validated variance). MGD-1
channels, androstenone and skatole concentrations in the X-matrix (m) and category variables in the Y-matrix (d; LL: androstenone concentration
<0.50 lg/g fat and skatole <0.21 lg/g fat; LH: androstenone <0.50 lg/g fat and skatole P0.21 lg/g fat; HL: androstenone P0.50 lg/g fat and skatole
<0.21 lg/g fat). Ellipses represent r2 = 50% and 100%, respectively.
571
showed that the variables androstenone and skatole were
significant (P 6 0.05) for one or more category variables.
With regards to the e-nose variables estimated regression
coefficients were in general low and not significant except
for IMC-4 and IMC-5 (Table 4).
Since the estimated regression coefficients (Table 4) are
based on a model with five PCs and the correlation loadings
plot only shows the first two PCs (Fig. 5) they are not visually
comparable. From Table 4 it is found that androstenone is
positively associated with the category variable HL and ska-
tole is positively associated with the category variable LH.
Both androstenone and skatole are negatively associated
with the category variable LL. IMC-4 is positively associ-
ated with the category variable HL and negatively associated
with the category variable LL. IMC-5 is positively associ-
ated with the category variable LL and negatively associated
with the category variable LH.
3.4. Significance of relationships of design and electronic
nose, sensory and chemical data
In order to study the relationships combining all data
against the design matrix a DPLSR was carried out. This
resulted in a model with two significant PCs (33% of the
explained validated variance). The correlation loadings
plot of PC1 and PC2 is shown in Fig. 6. The category vari-
ables span out the two-dimensional space and two of the
three category variables are found between the inner and
outer ellipses representing 50% and 100% explained vari-
ance, respectively, indicating they are well explained by
the two PCs in the DPLSR model. The IMCELL channels
except IMC-6 are all placed in the lower left corner and
especially IMC-2, IMC-3, IMC-4 and SUM are positively
572 J.S. Vestergaard et al. / Meat Science 74 (2006) 564–577

Table 4
Estimated regression coefficients and their significance as derived by the jack-knife uncertainty test from a DPLSR model (five PCs) studying the
relationships of the category variables (LL, LH and HL) to e-nose data, androstenone and skatole concentrations
Variable LL LH HL
ba Pb b P b P
Androstenone 0.759 ** 0.145 n.s. +0.867 ***
Skatole 0.840 ** +0.826 *** +0.053 n.s.
IMC-1 c +0.030 n.s. +0.006 n.s. 0.035 n.s.
IMC-2 0.060 n.s. 0.007 n.s. +0.064 n.s.
IMC-3 +0.018 n.s. 0.071 n.s. +0.047 n.s.
IMC-4 0.125 n.s. +0.008 n.s. +0.114 n.s.
IMC-5 +0.267 n.s. 0.234 n.s. 0.043 n.s.
IMC-6 +0.024 n.s. 0.051 n.s. +0.024 n.s.
SUM +0.016 n.s. 0.056 n.s. +0.036 n.s.
a
Estimated regression coefficients, b.
b
Significant levels: n.s. – not significant; * 0.01 < P 6 0.05; ** 0.001 < P 6 0.01; *** P 6 0.001. Significant variables in italics (P 6 0.05).
c
MGD-1 channels IMC-1 to IMC-6 and SUM.

Fig. 6. DPLSR correlation loadings plot of the first and second dimension (PC1 and PC2) of the MGD-1 data, sensory descriptors and androstenone and
skatole concentrations (X-matrix; m) and category variables (Y-matrix; d). Ellipses represent r2 = 50% and 100%, respectively.

associated with high androstenone and low skatole levels.
Sensory descriptors are distributed along the PC2: sour fla-
vour being positively associated and boar odour/flavour,
overall intensity odour/flavour and bitter taste being nega-
tively associated with the category variable LL. Rancid
notes (odour/flavour) are positively associated with the cat-
egory variable LH.
The estimated regression coefficients derived from the
PLSR model with two significant PCs (jack-knife uncer-
tainty test) showed that the variables androstenone, ska-
tole, overall intensity odour and flavour, rancid odour
and flavour, boar odour, bitter taste, IMC-2 and IMC-3
were significant (P 6 0.05) for at least for one or more cat-
egory variables (Table 5).
The results of the DPLSR and the jack-knife uncertainty
test show (Fig. 6 and Table 5), that androstenone, boar
odour, IMC-2 and IMC-3 are positively associated with
the category variable HL and negatively associated with
the category variable LH. Skatole, rancid odour/flavour,
overall intensity flavour are positively associated with the
category variable LH and negatively associated with the
category variable HL. Overall intensity odour/flavour,
boar odour and bitter taste are negatively associated with
the category variable LL, whereas sour flavour to some
extend is positively associated to the category variable
LL. The estimated regression coefficients for the IMCELL
channels are in general very low for the category variable
LL.
3.5. Predictability of sensory descriptors and chemical data
from the electronic nose
In order to go into more depth regarding predictability
of the sensory descriptors, androstenone and skatole con-
 J.S. Vestergaard et al. / Meat Science 74 (2006) 564–577 573

Table 5
Estimated regression coefficients and their significance as derived by the jack-knife uncertainty test from a DPLSR model (two significant PCs) studying
the relationships of the category variables (LL, LH and HL) to e-nose data, sensory descriptors, androstenone and skatole concentrations
Variable LL LH HL
ba Pb B P b P
Androstenone 0.054 n.s. 0.208 ** +0.243 *
Skatole 0.074 n.s. +0.271 *** 0.178 **
Overall intensity-Oc 0.108 * +0.026 n.s. +0.081 n.s.
Rancid-O 0.066 n.s. +0.185 * 0.107 n.s.
Boar-O 0.069 * 0.048 n.s. +0.111 *
Overall intensity-F 0.082 * +0.079 * +0.007 n.s.
Sour-F +0.091 n.s. 0.065 n.s. 0.028 n.s.
Bitter-T 0.100 * +0.051 n.s. +0.050 n.s.
Metallic-T 0.013 n.s. 0.029 n.s. +0.039 n.s.
Rancid-F 0.072 n.s. +0.199 ** 0.114 n.s.
Boar-F 0.058 n.s. +0.017 n.s. +0.040 n.s.
IMC-1 d +0.036 n.s. 0.033 n.s. +0.005 n.s.
IMC-2 0.009 n.s. 0.117 n.s. +0.116 *
IMC-3 0.031 n.s. 0.122 * +0.125 *
IMC-4 0.005 n.s. 0.059 n.s. +0.059 n.s.
IMC-5 +0.031 n.s. 0.038 n.s. +0.006 n.s.
IMC-6 0.012 n.s. +0.097 n.s. 0.078 n.s.
SUM +0.017 n.s. 0.084 n.s. +0.061 n.s.
a
Estimated regression coefficients, b.
b
Significant levels: n.s. – not significant; * 0.01 < P 6 0.05; ** 0.001 < P 6 0.01; *** P 6 0.001. Significant variables in italics (P 6 0.05).
c
Suffix to sensory descriptors indicate method of assessment by panellists: -O, odour; -F, flavour; -T, taste.
d
MGD-1 channels IMC-1 to IMC-6 and SUM.

centrations by the MGD-1 a PLSR with the IMCELL chan-
nels as the X-matrix and sensory descriptors, androstenone
and skatole concentrations as the Y-matrix was carried out.
Estimated regression coefficients derived by the jack-knife
uncertainty test showed significance (P 6 0.05) for the vari-
ables IMC-4 and SUM (results not shown). An improved
APLSR model including these two variables was calculated.
On the basis of this model correlation coefficients and root
mean square error of prediction (RMSEP) were calculated
(Table 6). The results showed a high correlation with
androstenone (r = 0.948) and a fairly good predictability
(RMSEP = 0.309) as well as a fairly good correlation with
skatole (r = 0.629) and a good predictability (RMSEP =
0.069). Correlation with sensory descriptors were somewhat
lower and the highest correlation was found for boar odour
(r = 0.409, RMSEP = 0.789).
4. Discussion
4.1. Boar taint, cut-off limits for androstenone and skatole in
relation to sensory aspects

4.1.1. Boar taint in relation to generally prescribed cut-off

Table 6 limits
Predictability of androstenone, skatole levels and sensory descriptors The data analysis strategy chosen to analyse the results
derived from the improved DPLSR model including the significant used some generally prescribed cut-off limits for androste-
variables (IMC-4 and SUM) shown as the correlation coefficients (r) for
none and skatole levels also applied in Norway (Aldal
measured vs. predicted and root mean square error of prediction
(RMSEP) et al., 2001; Gunn et al., 2004; Støier & Olsen, 1998). The
cut-off limits were used to illustrate the relationships
Variable PCa r RMSEP
between the data and the sensitivity of the MGD-1 and
Androstenone 2 0.948 0.309
do not give any information about the applicability of
Skatole 1 0.629 0.069
Overall intensity-O 1 +0.146 0.352 cut-off values as absolute limits measured chemically. It
Rancid-O 1 0.116 0.908 should be kept in mind that boar taint is indeed a sensory
Boar-O 2 +0.409 0.789 perceptible issue, differently perceived across populations
Overall intensity-F 1 +0.292 0.210 and gender and also affected by anosmia (Gunn et al.,
Sour-F 2 0.314 0.606
2004). Therefore, the cut-off limits used here should be
Bitter-T 1 +0.302 0.326
Metallic-T 2 0.324 0.195 regarded as representative of values generally presented
Rancid-F 1 0.244 0.834 for discussion rather than absolute cut-off values for boar
Boar-F 2 +0.318 0.903 taint.
a
Number of principal components (PC) involved in the model for cal- A large European study involving consumers from seven
culation of r and RMSEP. countries (Mathews et al., 2000) found that, in general,
574 J.S. Vestergaard et al. / Meat Science 74 (2006) 564–577
there was a greater degree of disliking with increasing
androstenone/skatole levels. Skatole had a greater effect
than androstenone on disliking and the effect was more
pronounced for odour than for flavour. However, the
results did not provide any evidence for a ‘‘consumer’’
threshold, or cut-off limits, which could be used for sorting
out unacceptable carcasses. In a companion paper, Bon-
neau, Walsstra, et al. (2000) simulated consumer dissatis-
faction with entire male pork and the effect of sorting
carcasses. It demonstrated that sorting carcasses with
respect to androstonene and skatole levels reduced, but
could not eliminate, the differences in consumer dissatisfac-
tion between entire male and gilt pork. With maximum lev-
els of 0.10 ppm for both androstenone and skatole, the
difference would still be 0.4% for flavour and 2.3% for
odour. Also from other studies it has been concluded, con-
sumers do detect differences in the sensory quality of pork
meat and that it has influence on their liking, consumption
and purchasing of pork (Bryhni et al., 2002, 2003). From
these results it could thus be argued, that in order to reduce
consumer dissatisfaction with pork meat from entire males,
future efforts should be put into sorting carcasses on the
basis of boar taint odour.
4.1.2. Sensory perceptible boar taint
The relationships of the sensory descriptors to the cate-
gory variables found in the DPLSR models (Figs. 1 and 5)
showed a systematic pattern. The first dimension related to
skatole and androstenone levels and in the second dimen-
sion sensory descriptors were moving from sour towards
metallic, rancid notes, boar taint and overall intensity
odour/flavour. The sour flavour is defined as fresh, sour/
sweet and fruitlike flavour (Table 1), thus the dimension
could be related to a ‘‘freshness’’ dimension with no boar
taint, which also was confirmed by the correlation between
sour and samples low in both androstenone and skatole
(Tables 3 and 5).
The sensory descriptors overall intensity odour/flavour
were in this study found to relate more to boar taint than
to rancid notes (Figs. 2 and 6), indicating perceptible boar
taint has a greater influence on the overall sensory percep-
tion than rancid notes. The results also showed that boar
taint was positively associated with high androstenone
and high skatole levels indicating that both compounds
are contributing to boar taint. Boar taint (especially boar
odour) was found to be somewhat more related to andros-
tenone than to skatole, whereas the rancid note was more
related to skatole than to androstenone (Figs. 1 and 5).
Previous studies have been inconsistent in their conclusions
as to the relative contribution of androstenone and skatole
and their possible synergism (Gunn et al., 2004).
A certain redundancy between odour and flavour
descriptors (overall intensity, rancid notes and boar taint)
was found indicating that either the odour or flavour
descriptor could be left out of the analysis without influenc-
ing the results. A visual inspection of the correlation load-
ing plots (Figs. 2, 3 and 6) showed most redundancy for
rancid notes. However, jack-knife uncertainty tests showed
variation in significance levels (e.g., Table 3) for all odour
and flavour descriptors which in turn would allow no
descriptors to be left out of the analysis.
In this study, boar odour was found to be more signifi-
cant than boar flavour (Tables 4 and 6) indicating, that the
human is more sensitive to boar odour than to boar fla-
vour. The same indications were found in a consumer
study, where sorting of carcasses on the basis of cut-off val-
ues for androstenone and skatole and consumer dissatisfac-
tion with entire male pork resulted in higher percentage
rejection when sorting was based on odour than on flavour
(Bonneau, Walsstra, et al., 2000).
4.2. Boar taint in relation to the electronic nose
The obtained DPLSR model for the relationships
between the MGD-1, androstenone and skatole levels
and the cut-off limits was complex (involving five signifi-
cant PCs) and did not reveal any significant relationship
with regards to specific IMCELL channels even though
the estimated jack-knife regression coefficients were rela-
tively high for IMC-4 (with respect to LL and HL) and
IMC-5 (with respect to LL and LH) (Table 4). Including
the sensory descriptors in the model did not provide as
good a model for the predictivity of the cut-off limits by
the MGD-1, especially with regards to detecting samples
below the cut-off limits (Table 5). The IMCELL channels
IMC-2 and IMC-3 were significant in this model and were
positively associated with samples high in androstenone
and low in skatole and negatively associated with samples
high in skatole and low in androstenone.
When studying the direct relationships between e-nose,
sensory and chemical data (Table 6) a better predictability
of the MGD-1 was obtained for the chemical compounds
than for single sensory descriptors. Using the obtained mod-
els the prediction of androstenone with the MGD-1 was very
good (r = 0.948, RMSEP = 0.309). Also the predictability
of skatole was fairly good (r = 0.629, RMSEP = 0.069),
whereas predictability of sensory descriptors was lower
(boar odour r = 0.409, RMSEP = 0.789).
These results thus indicate that, the MGD-1 could detect
and order the samples on the basis of the category variables
(high and low levels of androstenone and skatole). On the
basis of this study there is no evidence of single boar taint
specific IMCELL channels, but depending on the data
analysis approach different IMCELL channels were found
significant. Furthermore, the results confirm the problems
of measuring boar taint using chemically determined cut-
off limits for a sensory perceptible phenomenon, which also
has been stated in earlier studies (Bonneau, Kempster,
et al., 2000; Gunn et al., 2004).
In a recent attempt to apply gas-sensor technology to
boar taint measurements Berdagúe and Talou (1993) ana-
lysed backfat samples from female, castrate, and entire
male pigs with a prototype solid state based gas-sensor
(MOS) array system. The measurements showed different
 J.S. Vestergaard et al. / Meat Science 74 (2006) 564–577
gas-sensor signal profiles for the different sexes and they
were able to discriminate the boar samples from the
females and castrates. In another study with solid state
based gas sensors (Bourrounet et al., 1995) where backfat
from entire male pigs was measured (androstenone ranging
from 0.1 to 15 lg/g) a correlation of r = 0.9 between the
sensor readings and androstenone levels was obtained. By
selecting two classes on the basis of androstenone content,
<0.7 and >1.7 lg/g, they obtained 85% correct classifica-
tion. Annor-Frempong et al. (1998) applied a commercial
12-conducting polymer sensor array on the measurement
of pure lipid samples spiked with different levels of skatole
and androstenone and entire male backfat samples. The
responses of the gas-sensor array showed a significant
canonical correlation with the sensory panel (boar taint
odour, r = 0.78). In addition, the sensor system was able
to discriminate pork samples with low (<0.2 lg/g skatole
and <0.5 lg/g androstenone), intermediate (<0.2 lg/g ska-
tole and <1.0 lg/g androstenone) and high (>0.2 lg/g ska-
tole and >1.0 lg/g androstenone) levels of androstenone
and skatole. In another study, using a commercial conduct-
ing organic polymer sensor array, they showed that the sen-
sor system could discriminate between samples with
different levels of boar taint (belly fat from female, castrate
and entire male pigs, 0.2–2.8 lg/g androstenone and 0.03–
0.7 lg/g skatole). In a Norwegian study, the incidence of
boar taint in young boars was investigated (Aldal et al.,
2001) using a hybrid commercial solid state gas-sensor
array system with MOSFET and MOS type sensors (back-
fat samples, 0.06–0.8 lg/g skatole and 0.02–3.3 lg/g
androstenone). The sensor readings showed a significant
correlation, r = 0.7, with androstenone levels and r = 0.5
with skatole. However, a low correlation was obtained with
boar odour and flavour. In a recent study a prototype of
four different porphyrine coated quartz resonator sensors
(QMB) were used to detect androstenone in pure pork
fat and pork fat added androstenone from 0.7 to 10 lg/g
(Di Natale et al., 2003). The difference in sensor signals
of the androstenone added fat and pure pork fat showed
high non-linear correlation with androstenone concentra-
tions for the single sensors. By using the sensor signal of
all four sensors, they obtained a correlation of r = 0.98
with androstenone concentration. It was also demonstrated
that the sensor system was able to discriminate the samples
with different levels of androstenone.
The high correlation found for androstenone with gas-
sensor arrays may not necessarily imply that the sensors
are sensitive enough to detect this compound specifically
in the vapour phase of real fat samples, since there will also
be other major volatile compounds present in the gas
phase. This may indicate that other major compounds
present in the gas phase are highly correlated to androste-
none and that this could be an indirect way of measuring
androstenone levels and boar taint. This has been sug-
gested in a previous study where it could be demonstrated
that androstenone was highly correlated to a few major
volatile compounds (Viallon et al., 1992). It has been sug-
575
gested that other volatile compounds also may contribute
to the sensory perception of boar taint (Annor-Frempong,
Nute, Whittington, & Wood, 1997; Salvatore, 2003; Solé &
Regueiro, 2001). A complete characterisation of the profile
of volatile compounds in boar fat would be very useful to
reveal possible marker compounds correlated to boar taint.
This could also be a fruitful basis for the development of
a dedicated gas-sensor system for the detection of boar
taint.
Since the first evidences of the importance of androste-
none and skatole for the development of boar taint were
given three to four decades ago (Patterson, 1968; Vold,
1970) the complexity of boar taint and the controversy of
‘‘how’’ to measure boar taint has been widely studied and
was latest reviewed by Gunn et al. (2004). Taking also pre-
vious e-nose results into account the results of the present
study adds to the thought, that in addition to the impor-
tance of getting more insight in the sensory and chemical
characteristics of boar taint, more effort should be put into
developing a method with a holistic approach rather than
looking at individual variables and that the e-nose technol-
ogy could provide the basis for such an approach.
4.3. The electronic nose and boar taint; future on-line/at-line
applications
Sampling is a crucial issue related to gas-sensor technol-
ogy. The substances to be measured in the vapour phase,
androstenone and skatole, represent lipophilic compounds
with a relative high molecular weight compared to other
odour active compounds. Due to their low volatility, boiling
points above 250 °C, and their presence at low concentration
in pork fat tissue, only small fractions (0.1–1%) may be pres-
ent in the vapour phase. Direct sampling at ambient temper-
atures will therefore not be sufficient to allow the detection of
these compounds due to the limited sensitivity of gas- sen-
sors. In order to enhance the sensitivity, other sampling
approaches will be required. Heating of the pork fat or apply-
ing enrichment techniques (purge and trap) using adsorbents
combined with heating of the fat would be a more appropri-
ate way of gas sampling for the application of boar taint
(Mitra, 2003; Pascale et al., 2002). However, by heating fat,
other volatile compounds present in the fat may be released,
which may interfere with the skatole and androstenone deter-
mination. In particular, volatile, secondary lipid oxidation
products may be generated at high levels in the vapour phase.
This may partly be overcome by applying oxygen free condi-
tions during heating and sampling.
In the literature, it is often not possible directly to com-
pare results because of differences regarding the measure-
ments such as reaction time, recovery time and time
consumed for baseline adjustments (time between measure-
ments) of sensors of different electronic nose methods, but
clearly these are aspects to look into, when developing on-
line or/and at-line applications for the industry.
The boar taint method developed in this study was rela-
tively fast involving a low degree of sample preparation and
576 J.S. Vestergaard et al. / Meat Science 74 (2006) 564–577
low incubation time (10 min at 40 °C) prior to the mea-
surement. The measurement itself was the lesser time con-
suming part of the method including fast reaction time
(approximately 1 s) and low recovery time for the IMCELL
(approximately 30 s). The method and the pre-processing of
the raw data were not automated and thus demanded a lot
of manual work. The results indicate that the MGD-1 with
improved experimental set-up could be an alternative to the
traditional boar taint measuring methods. However, the
validated multivariate models are not optimal suggesting
the need for further development of the method and mea-
surements of large numbers of samples.
In order to come up with an automated on-line system
based on gas-sensor technology this would require the
development of a tailor-made dedicated sensor system
including optimized gas-sampling unit, sensor module, sig-
nal processing and alarm system. The system should be cal-
ibrated with respect to the sensory perceptible boar taint
and chemical substances related to boar odour/flavour.
This would not necessarily imply the need for a skatole
and androstenone specific sensor array, since also other
possible compounds may be involved in the sensory per-
ception of boar taint, but rather a broad-selectivity sensor
array that matches the sensory perception of boar taint,
which in turn should be calibrated against national con-
sumer thresholds.
5. Conclusions
The results from this feasibility study showed significant
correlations between the sensor signals and levels of
androstenone, skatole and sensory attributes related to
boar odour and flavour. The sensory perceptible boar taint,
especially boar taint odour, showed stronger correlation
with androstenone than with skatole. Although the calcu-
lated multivariate models were not fully optimal in predict-
ing the studied relationships, PLSR models could be
improved by introducing some generally prescribed cut-
off values for androstenone and skatole levels (0.50 lg/g
androstenone and 0.21 lg/g skatole). The results thus sug-
gest that the e-nose technology based on ion mobility spec-
trometry as for the MGD-1 may have a potential for future
rapid sorting of boars at the slaughter line, but since boar
taint is a sensory perceptible phenomenon more effort
should be put into developing a method with an holistic
approach.
Acknowledgements
The work was partly funded by the programme ‘‘On-line
measurement techniques in the process industry’’ funded
by the Finnish Technology Agency, Tekes, Finland. The
Nordic Research Academy, NorFA, funded the collabo-
rate exchange under the Nordic Network on Meat Science.
The Norwegian Meat Research Centre is thanked for pro-
viding the samples, the HedOp slaughterhouse for contrib-
uting with the skatole analyses and the Norwegian School
of Veterinary Science for performing the androstenone
analyses. Author Byrne would like to acknowledge the
‘‘Sense-Index’’ project and the financial support of the
Directorate for Food, Fisheries and Agri Business (DFFE),
under the Danish Ministry of Food, Agriculture and
Fisheries.
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