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Which Turbulence Model Should I

Choose for My CFD Application?
by Walter Frei

July 6, 2017

The COMSOL Multiphysics® software offers several different

formulations for solving turbulent flow problems: the L-VEL, algebraic
yPlus, Spalart-Allmaras, k-ε, k-ω, low Reynolds number k-ε, SST, and v2-f
turbulence models. These formulations are available in the CFD Module,
and the L-VEL, algebraic yPlus, k-ε, and low Reynolds number k-ε models
are also available in the Heat Transfer Module. In this blog post, learn why
to use these various turbulence models, how to choose between them,
and how to use them efficiently.

This post was originally published in 2013.and

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Introduction to Turbulence Modeling

Let’s start by considering the fluid flow over a flat plate, as shown in the
figure below. The uniform velocity profile hits the leading edge of the flat
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and the flow begins to transition to
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Introduction
The transition between these three regions can be defined in terms of the
Electromagnetic Heating
Reynolds number, , where is the fluid density; is the
Materials
Particle
velocity; is Tracing
the characteristic length (in this case, the distance from the
Mesh
leadingPiezoelectric
edge); and Devices
is the fluid’s dynamic viscosity. We will assume that
the fluid is Newtonian, meaning that the Modeling
viscousTools
stress is directly
Plasma Physics
proportional, with the dynamic viscosity as the constant
Optimization of proportionality,
& Inverse
to the shear rate. This is true, or very nearly
Ray Optics Methodsso, for a wide range of fluids
of engineering importance, such as air or water. Density can vary with
respect to pressure, although it is here assumed that the fluid is only
weakly compressible, meaning that the Mach number is less than about
0.3. The weakly compressible flow option for the fluid flow interfaces in
COMSOL Multiphysics neglects the influence of pressure waves on the
flow and pressure fields.

In the laminar regime, the fluid flow can be completely predicted by

solving Navier-Stokes equations, which gives the velocity and the pressure
fields. Let us first assume that the velocity field does not vary with time.
An example of this is outlined in The Blasius Boundary Layer tutorial
model. As the flow begins to transition to turbulence, oscillations appear in
the flow, despite the fact that the inlet flow rate does not vary with time.
It is then no longer possible to assume that the flow is invariant with time.
In this case, it is necessary to solve the time-dependent Navier-Stokes
equations, and the mesh used must be fine enough to resolve the size of
the smallest eddies in the flow. Such a situation is demonstrated in the
Flow Past a Cylinder tutorial model. Note that the flow is unsteady, but
still laminar in this model. Steady-state and time-dependent laminar flow
problems do not require any modules and can be solved with COMSOL
Multiphysics alone.

As the flow rate — and thus also the Reynolds number — increases, the
flow field exhibits small eddies and the spatial and temporal scales of the
oscillations become so small that it is computationally unfeasible to
resolve them using the Navier-Stokes equations, at least for most practical
cases. In this flow regime, we can use a Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes
(RANS) formulation, which is based on the observation that the flow field
(u) over time contains small, local oscillations (u’) and can be treated in a
time-averaged sense (U). For one- and two-equation models, additional
transport equations are introduced for turbulence variables, such as the
turbulence kinetic energy (k in k-ε and k-ω).

In algebraic models, algebraic equations that depend on the velocity field

— and, in some cases, on the distance from the walls — are introduced in
order to describe the turbulence intensity. From the estimates for the
turbulence variables, an eddy viscosity that adds to the molecular viscosity
of the fluid is calculated. The momentum that would be transferred by the
small eddies is instead translated to a viscous transport. Turbulence
dissipation usually dominates over viscous dissipation everywhere, except
for in the viscous sublayer close to solid walls. Here, the turbulence model
has to continuously reduce the turbulence level, such as in low Reynolds
number models. Or, new boundary conditions have to be computed using
wall functions.

Low Reynolds Number Models

The term “low Reynolds number model” sounds like a contradiction, since
flows can only be turbulent if the Reynolds number is high enough. The
notation “low Reynolds number” does not refer to the flow on a global
scale, but to the region close to the wall where viscous effects dominate;
i.e., the viscous sublayer in the figure above. A low Reynolds number
model is a model that correctly reproduces the limiting behaviors of
various flow quantities as the distance to the wall approaches zero. So, a
low Reynolds number model must, for example, predict that k~y2 as y→0.
Correct limiting behavior means that the turbulence model can be used to
model the whole boundary layer, including the viscous sublayer and the
buffer layer.

Most ω-based models are low Reynolds number models by construction.

But the standard k-ε model and other commonly encountered k-ε models
are not low Reynolds number models. Some of them can, however, be
supplemented with so-called damping functions that give the correct
limiting behavior. They are then known as low Reynolds number k-ε
models.

Low Reynolds number models often give a very accurate description of the
boundary layer. The sharp gradients close to walls do, however, require
very high mesh resolutions and that, in turn, means that the high accuracy
comes at a high computational cost. This is why alternative methods to
model the flow close to walls are often employed for industrial
applications.

Wall Functions
The turbulent flow near a flat wall can be divided into four regions. At the
wall, the fluid velocity is zero, and in a thin layer above this, the flow
velocity is linear with distance from the wall. This region is called the
viscous sublayer, or laminar sublayer. Further away from the wall is a region
called the buffer layer. In the buffer region, turbulence stresses begin to
dominate over viscous stresses and it eventually connects to a region
where the flow is fully turbulent and the average flow velocity is related to
the log of the distance to the wall. This is known as the log-law region.
Even further away from the wall, the flow transitions to the free-stream
region. The viscous and buffer layers are very thin and if the distance to the
end of the buffer layer is , then the log-law region will extend about
away from the wall.

It is possible to use a RANS model to compute the flow field in all four of
these regions. However, since the thickness of the buffer layer is so small,
it can be advantageous to use an approximation in this region. Wall
functions ignore the flow field in the buffer region and analytically
compute a nonzero fluid velocity at the wall. By using a wall function
formulation, you assume an analytic solution for the flow in the viscous
layer and the resultant models will have significantly lower computational
requirements. This is a very useful approach for many practical engineering
applications.
If you need a level of accuracy beyond what the wall function formulations
provide, then you will want to consider a turbulence model that solves the
entire flow regime as described for the low Reynolds number models
above. For example, you may want to compute lift and drag on an object or
compute the heat transfer between the fluid and the wall.

Automatic Wall Treatment

The automatic wall treatment functionality, which is new in COMSOL
Multiphysics version 5.3, combines benefits from both wall functions and
low Reynolds number models. Automatic wall treatment adapts the
formulation to the mesh available in the model so that you get both
robustness and accuracy. For instance, for a coarse boundary layer mesh,
the feature will utilize a robust wall function formulation. However, for a
dense boundary layer mesh, the automatic wall treatment will use a low
Reynolds number formulation to resolve the velocity profile completely to
the wall.

Going from a low Reynolds number formulation to a wall function

formulation is a smooth transition. The software blends the two
formulations in the boundary elements. Then, the software calculates the
wall distance of the boundary elements’ grid points (this is in viscous units
given by a liftoff). The combined formulations are then used for the
boundary conditions.

All turbulence models in COMSOL Multiphysics, except the k-ε model,

support automatic wall treatment. This means that the low Reynolds
number models can be used for industrial applications and that their low
Reynolds number modeling capability is only invoked when the mesh is
fine enough.

About the Various Turbulence Models

The eight RANS turbulence models differ in how they model the flow close
to walls, the number of additional variables solved for, and what these
variables represent. All of these models augment the Navier-Stokes
equations with an additional turbulence eddy viscosity term, but they
differ in how it is computed.

L-VEL and yPlus

The L-VEL and algebraic yPlus turbulence models compute the eddy
viscosity using algebraic expressions based only on the local fluid velocity
and the distance to the closest wall. They do not solve any additional
transport equations. These models solve for the flow everywhere and are
the most robust and least computationally intensive of the eight
turbulence models. While they are generally the least accurate models,
they do provide good approximations for internal flow, especially in
electronic cooling applications.

Spalart-Allmaras
The Spalart-Allmaras model adds a single additional variable for an
undamped kinematic eddy viscosity. It is a low Reynolds number model
and can resolve the entire flow field down to the solid wall. The model was
originally developed for aerodynamics applications and is advantageous in
that it is relatively robust and has moderate resolution requirements.
Experience shows that this model does not accurately compute fields that
exhibit shear flow, separated flow, or decaying turbulence. Its advantage is
that it is quite stable and shows good convergence.

k-ε
The k-ε model solves for two variables: k, the turbulence kinetic energy;
and ε (epsilon), the rate of dissipation of turbulence kinetic energy. Wall
functions are used in this model, so the flow in the buffer region is not
simulated. The k-ε model has historically been very popular for industrial
applications due to its good convergence rate and relatively low memory
requirements. It does not very accurately compute flow fields that exhibit
adverse pressure gradients, strong curvature to the flow, or jet flow. It
does perform well for external flow problems around complex geometries.
For example, the k-ε model can be used to solve for the airflow around a
bluff body.

The turbulence models listed below are all more nonlinear than the k-ε
model and they can often be difficult to converge unless a good initial
guess is provided. The k-ε model can be used to provide a good initial
guess. Just solve the model using the k-ε model and then use the new
Generate New Turbulence Interface functionality, available in the CFD
Module with COMSOL Multiphysics version 5.3.

k-ω
The k-ω model is similar to the k-ε model, but it solves for ω (omega) —
the specific rate of dissipation of kinetic energy. It is a low Reynolds
number model, but it can also be used in conjunction with wall functions.
It is more nonlinear, and thereby more difficult to converge than the k-ε
model, and it is quite sensitive to the initial guess of the solution. The k-ω
model is useful in many cases where the k-ε model is not accurate, such as
internal flows, flows that exhibit strong curvature, separated flows, and
jets. A good example of internal flow is flow through a pipe bend.

Low Reynolds Number k-ε

The low Reynolds number k-ε model is similar to the k-ε model, but does
not need wall functions: it can solve for the flow everywhere. It is a logical
extension of the k-ε model and shares many of its advantages, but
generally requires a denser mesh; not only at walls, but everywhere its low
Reynolds number properties kick in and dampen the turbulence. It can
sometimes be useful to use the k-ε model to first compute a good initial
condition for solving the low Reynolds number k-ε model. An alternative
way is to use the automatic wall treatment and start with a coarse
boundary layer mesh to get wall functions and then refine the boundary
layer at the interesting walls to get the low Reynolds number models.

The low Reynolds number k-ε model can compute lift and drag forces and
heat fluxes can be modeled with higher accuracy compared to the k-ε
model. It has also shown to predict separation and reattachment quite well
for a number of cases.

SST
The SST model is a combination of the k-ε model in the free stream and
the k-ω model near the walls. It is a low Reynolds number model and kind
of the “go to” model for industrial applications. It has similar resolution
requirements to the k-ω model and the low Reynolds number k-ε model,
but its formulation eliminates some weaknesses displayed by pure k-ω and
k-ε models. In a tutorial model example, the SST model solves for flow
over a NACA 0012 Airfoil. The results are shown to compare well with
experimental data.

v2-f
Close to wall boundaries, the fluctuations of the velocity are usually much
larger in the parallel directions to the wall in comparison with the direction
perpendicular to the wall. The velocity fluctuations are said to be
anisotropic. Further away from the wall, the fluctuations are of the same
magnitude in all directions. The velocity fluctuations become isotropic.

The v2-f turbulence model describes the anisotropy of the turbulence

intensity in the turbulent boundary layer using two new equations, in
addition to the two equations for turbulence kinetic energy (k) and
dissipation rate (ε). The first equation describes the transport of turbulent
velocity fluctuations normal to the streamlines. The second equation
accounts for nonlocal effects such as the wall-induced damping of the
redistribution of turbulence kinetic energy between the normal and
parallel directions.

You should use this model for enclosed flows over curved surfaces, for
example, to model cyclones.

Meshing Considerations for CFD Problems

Solving for any kind of fluid flow problem — laminar or turbulent — is
computationally intensive. Relatively fine meshes are required and there
are many variables to solve for. Ideally, you would have a very fast
computer with many gigabytes of RAM to solve such problems, but
simulations can still take hours or days for larger 3D models. Therefore, we
want to use as simple a mesh as possible, while still capturing all of the
details of the flow.

Referring back to the figure at the top of this blog post, we can observe
that for the flat plate (and for most flow problems), the velocity field
changes quite slowly in the direction tangential to the wall, but quite
rapidly in the normal direction, especially if we consider the buffer layer
region. This observation motivates the use of a boundary layer mesh.
Boundary layer meshes (which are the default mesh type on walls when
using our physics-based meshing) insert thin rectangles in 2D or triangular
prisms in 3D at the walls. These high-aspect-ratio elements will do a good
job of resolving the variations in the flow speed normal to the boundary,
while reducing the number of calculation points in the direction tangential
to the boundary.

The boundary layer mesh (magenta) around an airfoil and the surrounding
triangular mesh (cyan) for a 2D mesh.
The boundary layer mesh (magenta) around a bluff body and the surrounding
tetrahedral mesh (cyan) for a 3D volumetric mesh.

Evaluating the Results of Your Turbulence Model

Once you’ve used one of these turbulence models to solve your flow
simulation, you will want to verify that the solution is accurate. Of course,
as you do with any finite element model, you can simply run it with finer
and finer meshes and observe how the solution changes with increasing
mesh refinement. Once the solution does not change to within a value you
find acceptable, your simulation can be considered converged with respect
to the mesh. However, there are additional values you need to check when
modeling turbulence.

When using wall function formulations, you will want to check the wall
resolution viscous units (this plot is generated by default). This value tells
you how far into the boundary layer your computational domain starts and
should not be too large. You should consider refining your mesh in the wall
normal direction if there are regions where the wall resolution exceeds
several hundred. The second variable that you should check when using
wall functions is the wall liftoff (in length units). This variable is related to
the assumed thickness of the viscous layer and should be small relative to
the surrounding dimensions of the geometry. If it is not, then you should
refine the mesh in these regions as well.

The maximum wall liftoff in viscous units is less than 100, so there is no need
to refine the boundary layer mesh.

When solving a model using low Reynolds number wall treatment, check
the dimensionless distance to cell center (also generated by default). This
value should be of order unity everywhere for the algebraic models and
less than 0.5 for all two-equation models and the v2-f model. If it is not,
then refine the mesh in these regions.

Concluding Thoughts
In this blog post, we have discussed the various turbulence models
available in COMSOL Multiphysics, highlighting when and why you should
use each one of them. The real strength of the COMSOL® software is
when you want to combine your fluid flow simulations with other physics,
such as finding stresses on a solar panel in high winds, forced convection
modeling in a heat exchanger, or mass transfer in a mixer, among other
 possibilities.

CONTACT COMSOL TO EVALUATE THE SOFTWARE

If you are interested in using the COMSOL® software for your CFD and
multiphysics simulations, or if you have a question that isn’t addressed
here, please contact us.

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COMMENTS (12)

LEAVE A COMMENT
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Nagi Elabbasi
September 18, 2013

That was very informative, thank you. Modeling turbulence accurately is

not easy, so it’s good to see the COMSOL features and capabilities
available for that purpose.

Franco Cerna
October 5, 2013

Someone could hang a video tutorial on turbulent flows?

Mustafa Abd El-Mageed

November 9, 2013

Can we use turbulent model type in FSI Physics in comsol 4.2a ? as the
turbulent model consider the solid domain belong to the fluid and makes
error message

Failed to evaluate variable.

– Variable: mod1.epx
– Geometry: 1
– Domain: 2 3 4 5

and all domains 2 3 4 5 are solids ?

Zaid B. Jildeh
December 2, 2014

Thank you, this post helped me a lot to understand the nature of my

system.
Thank to Comsol for updating the turbulent models, the new models in
v.5.0 are very stable and fast to solve time-dependent response.

Angelo Fonseca
January 25, 2017

How can you determine if the boundary layer mesh has the correct total
thickness to resolve all the velocity profile from the no-slip wall to the
freestream velocity?

Walter Frei
February 2, 2017

Hello Angelo,

I believe that what you’re asking about here is a mesh refinement study:
https://www.comsol.com/multiphysics/mesh-refinement

Rami Hosseini
November 16, 2017

Hello Walter thanks for your helpful topics.

I want to simulate lightning induced voltages on power systems by Comsol
can you guide me that how can i do that?
Abdelrahman Hussain

December 2, 2017

Thanks Walter for the nice illustration.

I want to analyze a flow in a geometry exactly the same as one shown in

the last figure that shows the wall lift-off in a viscous unit.

What is the name (or defining terms) of that geometry or the type of flow
that can be searched for in research articles?

thanks,

Dheeraj Kumar

February 6, 2018

Thanks for keeping this updated.

Basil Srayyih
May 31, 2018

Hi Walter,
Would you mind if I ask you about the turbulent natural convection inside
a cavity filled by a pure fluid (air). Could you help me please how can I
write the turbulent dynamic viscosity of the k-e model in the thermal
conductivity place of the heat equation by using the user defined?

Thanks and best wishes.

Basil Srayyih.

Ryan Robinson
February 25, 2019

Walter, I would like to use (and cite with permission) the boundary layer
flow diagram in this post in a thesis regarding Tuberculosis antigen
detection. What is the best way to go about getting this permission (if it is
okay with you/Comsol)?

Srinivas P Regalla
May 22, 2019

Walter:
That is an excellent summative treatment on modeling turbulence in
COMSOL. Extremely useful and thank you for authoring it.

Could you please suggest the best textbook title on Turbulent Fluid
Mechanics that can best complement while using COMSOL’s CFD
treatment of turbulence.
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