UNDERGRADUATE  B.  A.  Honours  

SUBJECT:  Psychology  
PAPER:  V,  Human  Development  
TOPIC:  An  Introduction  to  Lifespan  Development    
LESSON:  Developmental  Tasks    
LESSON  MAP:  5.1.3.C.1  
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
 
Developmental  Tasks  
 
• Develop  adult  leisure  time  activities  
• Relate  oneself  to  one’s  spouse  as  a  person    
• Accept  and  adjust  to  the  physiological  changes  of  middle  age    
• Adjust  to  ageing  parents    
 (60  and  over)  Later  maturity  
Adjust  to  decreasing  physical  strength  and  health  Society  plays  an  important  role  
in   the   overall   development   of   its   individuals.   Each   society   has   its   own   demands  
and  expectations  from  children  at  different  stages  of  development.  The  codes  and  
expectations  vary  from  culture  to  culture,  and  the  child  learns  these  at  different  
stages   of   development.   The   society   aims   to   transmit   its   expectations   to   all   its  
members.   These   social   expectations   are   known   as   developmental   tasks.   Some  
tasks   are   the   same   for   everyone,   regardless   of   where   we   live,   due   to   human  
biology.   E.g.   crawling   and   walking   are   the   same   across   all   societies.   Some   tasks  
vary  across  cultures.  E.g.  the  task  of  enrolling  the  child’s  name  in  school  varies  in  
different  countries.  The  idea  of   "developmental  task"  is  generally  credited  to  the  
work  of  Robert  Havighurst  (1972).  Havighurst  defined  developmental  task  as  “…a  
task  which  arises  at  or  about  a  certain  period  in  the  life  of  an  individual,  successful  
achievement   of   which   leads   to   his   happiness   and   success   with   later   tasks,   while  
failure  leads  to  unhappiness  in  the  individual,  disapproval  by  society,  and  difficulty  
with   later   tasks.”   From   this   definition   we   understand   that   developmental   tasks  
have  a  profound  impact  on  the  person’s  adjustment  and  success.  
 
Purposes   of   developmental   tasks   –   The   three   main   useful   purposes   of  
developmental  tasks  are  discussed  below:  
1.   They   act   as   guidelines   to   make   parents   and   teachers   aware   of   what   children  
should   learn   at   a   given   age   and   what   will   be   expected   of   children.   Knowing   that   a  
youngster   of   a   certain   age   is   encountering   one   of   the   tasks   of   that   period  
(learning  an  appropriate  sex  role)  helps  adults  to  understand  a  child's  behaviour  
and  establish  an  environment  that  helps  the  child  to  master  the  tasks.  
2.   They   serve   as   motivating   forces   for   children   to   learn   what   the   social   group  
expects  them  to  learn  at  that  age.  
  
 
3.   They   reveal   to   the   individual   about   what   happens   in   the   further   stages   and  
hence  the  person  is  prepared  to  act  accordingly.  
Children  who  are  quick  at  mastering  developmental  tasks  are  rewarded  by  social  
approval   (i.e.,   their   achievements   put   such   children   in   line   for   leadership  
roles).and  self  approval.  They  also  benefit  from  self  approval  as  they  develop  self  
confidence  and  strong  motivation  to  live  up  to  social  and  self  expectations.  On  the  
other  hand,  failure  to  complete  developmental  tasks  has  three  consequences:  
1.  It  makes  the  child  feel  inferior,  and  this  leads  to  unhappiness.  
2.   It   results   in   social   disapproval,   which   is   accompanied   by   social   rejection  
(immature  and  babyish).  
3.  It  can  also  make  the  mastery  of  new  developmental  tasks  difficult.  
 
Robert  Havighurst’s  developmental  task  theory:  
Robert   Havighurst’s   developmental   task   theory   talks   about   different   problems  
faced   by   people   in   all   stages   of   life   and   he   explains   them   really   well.   We  are   all  
aware   that   biological   aspects   have   some   kind   of   effects   in   our   development.  
Similarly,   psychological   factors   and   society   also   play   a   role.   According   to   our  
biopsychosocial   model,   the   first   source   corresponds   to   the   "biological"   factors,  
the  second  to  the  "psychological",  and  the  third  to  the  "social"  aspect.  

 
 
Havighurst’s   framework   takes   into   account   these   multiple   dimensions   and  
accordingly  identifies  three  sources  of  developmental  tasks:    
1.  Tasks  that  arise  from  physical  maturation:  These  include  learning  to  walk,  
talk,  control  of  bowel  and  urine,  behaving  in  an  acceptable  manner  to  the  
opposite  sex  and  adjusting  to  menopause.    
  
 
2.   Tasks   that   arise   from   personal   values:   Examples   include   choosing   an  
occupation  and  figuring  out  one’s  philosophical  outlook.    
3.   Tasks   that  have   their   source   in  the  pressures  of  society:   For   instance,   we  
are  required  to  learn  to  read  and  learn  to  be  a  responsible  citizen.    
Havighurst   categorised   developmental   tasks   into   two   categories:   in   the   first   are  
the   tasks   which   have   to   be   completed   in   a   certain   period,   and   the   second  
category   includes   the   tasks   that   continue   for   a   long   period   perhaps   even   for   a  
lifetime.   Therefore,   it   is   critical   that   the   tasks   should   be   completed   during   the  
appropriate   stage;   otherwise   it   would   result   in   the   failure   to   achieve   success   in  
future  tasks.  
 
 Six  major  stages  in  human  life  identified  by  Havighurst  are:    

 
1.  Infancy  &  early  childhood  (Birth  till  6  years)    
2.  Middle  childhood  (6-­‐12  years)    
3.  Adolescence  (13-­‐18  years)    
4.  Early  Adulthood  (19-­‐30  years)    
5.  Middle  Age  (30-­‐60  years)    
6.  Later  maturity  (60  years  and  over)    
Havighurst   has   given   the   following   list   of   developmental   tasks   occurring   in   each  
stage  of  human  development.    
(Ages  0-­‐6)  Infancy  &  early  childhood  
• Learn  to  walk    
• Start  to  crawl    
• Learn  to  take  solid  food    
• Start  to  talk    
  
 
• Learn  to  control  the  elimination  of  body  wastes    
• Understand  sex  differences  and  sexual  modesty    
• Get  ready  to  read,  and    
• Form  concepts  and  learn  language  in  order  to  describe  social  and  physical  
reality    
(Ages  6-­‐12)  Middle  childhood  
• Learn  physical  skills  necessary  for  ordinary  games    
• Learn  to  get  along  with  age  mates    
• Build  wholesome  attitudes  toward  oneself  as  a  growing  organism    
• Understand  the  appropriate  masculine  or  feminine  social  role    
• Develop  concepts  necessary  for  everyday  living  
• Develop  conscience,  morality  and  a  scale  of  values    
• Achieve  personal  independence,  and    
• Develop  attitudes  toward  social  groups  and  institutions    
(Ages  12-­‐18)  Adolescence  
• Achieve  new  and  more  mature  relations  with  age  mates  of  both  sexes    
• Develop  a  masculine  or  feminine  social  role    
• Accept  one’s  physique  and  using  the  body  effectively    
• Achieve  emotional  independence  from  parents  and  other  adults    
• Prepare  for  marriage  and  family  life    
• Acquire  a  set  of  values  and  an  ethical  system  as  a  guide  to  behaviour,  and    
• Desire  and  achieve  socially  responsible  behaviour    
(Ages  18-­‐30)  Early  Adulthood  
• Select  a  mate    
• Learn  to  live  with  a  partner    
• Start  a  family    
• Bring  up  children  
• Manage  one’s  home    
• Get  started  in  an  occupation    
• Take  on  civic  responsibility,  and    
• Find  a  congenial  social  group    
(Ages  30-­‐60)  Middle  Age  
• Assist  teenage  children  in  becoming  responsible  and  happy  adults    
• Achieve  the  adult  social  and  civic  responsibility    
  
 
• Reach  and  maintain  satisfactory  performance  in  one’s  occupational  car  
• Cope  with  retirement  and  reduced  income    
• Adjust  to  the  death  of  a  spouse    
• Establish  an  explicit  affiliation  with  one’s  age  group    
• Adopt  and  adapt  to  social  roles  in  a  flexible  way,  and    
• Establish  satisfactory  physical  living  arrangements    
 
Nature  of  developmental  stages:  
We   will   now   examine   how   the   characteristics   of   different   developmental   stages  
influence  the  achievement  of  developmental  tasks.  To  do  so,  we  will  look  at  three  
principal  stages:  Infancy  and  childhood,  Adolescence,  and  Adulthood.  
Infancy  and  childhood:  During  infancy  (birth  to  18  months),  babies  are  dependent  
upon   adults   for   meeting   all   their   needs.   They   do   not   differentiate   themselves  
from   their   parents,   and   they   gain   a   sense   of   themselves   by   taking   in   their  
caretakers’   feelings   about   them.   Children   (18   months   –   3   years)   are   very   active  
and   move   back   and   forth   between   wanting   to   be   independent   and   wanting   the  
security   of   their   parents.   They   become   frustrated   easily,   and   their   frequent  
tantrums   are   an   expression   of   that   frustration   as   well   as   their   lack   of  
communication   skills   and   abilities.   They   do   not   want   to   share   things.   Children  
(aged  4-­‐5  years)  are  active  and  ask  a  lot  of  questions  (how,  why,  when,  how  long)  
as   they   try   to   understand   the   world.   They   can   be   resistant   to   their   parents’  
instructions  as  they  experiment  with  power  in  relationships.  They  also  like  to  be  
involved  in  many  different  activities  and  they  begin  to  be  quite  social.  Children  (6-­‐
11  years)  also  ask  a  lot  of  questions  as  they  gather  information  about  the  world  
and  how  it  works.  They  are  very  interested  in  rules  and  why  they  exist.  They  want  
people   to   obey   rules   even   though   they   do   not   necessarily   abide   by   them.   They  
may  test  rules,  disagree  with  them,  break  them  or  try  to  set  them  as  they  learn  to  
internalise   them.   They   use   their   more   mature   reasoning   abilities   to   understand  
the  values  that  underlie  the  rules  and  to  differentiate  between  wants  and  needs.  
Along  with  exploration  of  rules  and  the  beginnings  of  a  cooperative  spirit,  games  
become   prominent   in   their   play.   Six   to   eleven   year-­‐olds   are   eager   to   learn   new  
skills,  including  social  skills.  
  
 

 
 Adolescence:  The  major  task  during  adolescence  is  to  create  a  stable  identity  and  
become   complete   and   productive   adults.   Adolescents   find   their   role   in   society  
through  active  searching  which  leads  to  discoveries  about  themselves.  Following  
are  the  developmental  tasks  that  enable  adolescents  to  create  an  identity.  

 
i. Achieving   new   and   more   mature   relations   with   others-­‐   Physical   maturity  
plays  an  important  role  in  peer  relations.  Adolescents  who  mature  at  a  
slower  or  faster  rate  than  others  will  be  dropped  from  one  peer  group  
and   generally   will   enter   a   peer   group   of   similar   maturity.   For   early-­‐
maturing   girls,   entering   into   a   peer   group   of   similar   physical   maturity  
can  mean  a  greater  likelihood  of  early  sexual  activity.    
ii. Achieving   a   masculine   or   feminine   social   role-­‐   Adolescents   develop   their  
own   definition   of   what   it   means   to   be   male   or   female.   However,   most  
adolescents   conform   to   the   sex   roles   of   our   cultural   view   of   male  
(assertive  &  strong)  and  female  (passive  &  weak)  characteristics.    
iii. Accepting  one's  physique-­‐  The  beginning  of  puberty  and  the  rate  of  body  
changes   for   adolescents   varies   tremendously.   How   easily   adolescents  
deal   with   those   changes   will   partly   reflect   how   closely   their   bodies  
  
 
match   the   well-­‐defined   stereotypes   of   the   "perfect"   body   for   young  
women  and  young  men.  
iv. Achieving   emotional   independence   from   parents   and   other   adults-­‐  
Adolescents   deal   with   their   emotions   independently   and   move   toward  
self-­‐reliance.   Children   derive   this   strength   from   internalising   their  
parents'  values  and  attitudes.    
v. Preparing   for   marriage   and   family   life-­‐   Sexual   maturation   is   the   basis   for  
this   developmental   task   and   it   is   usually   not   achieved   until   late  
adolescence  or  early  adulthood.  
vi. Preparing   for   an   economic   career-­‐   In   our   society,   an   adolescent   reaches  
adult  status  when  he  or  she  is  financially  independent.    
vii. Acquiring  a  set  of  values  and  an  ethical  system  as  a  guide  to  behaviour  -­‐-­‐  
developing   an   ideology-­‐   Adolescents’   abstract   thinking   and  
hypothetico-­‐deductive  reasoning  help  them  to  develop  their  own  set  of  
values  and  beliefs.  
viii. Desiring   and   achieving   socially   responsible   behaviour  –   An   adolescent  
defines   the   world   from   her/his   new   social   role   once   s/he   becomes   a  
member   of   the   larger   community   through   employment   (financial  
independence)   and   emotional   independence   from   parents.   As  
adolescents  become  independent  they  must  learn  to  be  responsible.  
 
Adulthood-­‐  The  six  adult  life  tasks  are  as  follows:  
Identity:   Prior   to   entering   the   adult   world   it   is   important   that   the   adolescent  
achieves   a   sense   of   what   Erik   Erikson   termed   as   Identity:   a   sense   of   one’s   own  
self.  
Intimacy:   The   task   of   living   with   another   person   in   an   interdependent,   reciprocal,  
committed,   and   contented   fashion   for   a   decade   or   more,   often   seems   neither  
desirable  nor  possible  to  the  young  adult.      
Career   consolidation:   Mastery   of   this   task   involves   expanding   one’s   personal  
identity   to   assume   a   social   identity   within   the   world   of   work.   This   permits   the  
adult  to  find  a  career  that  is  both  valuable  to  society  as  well  as  to  him/  her.  
Generativity:   Generativity   involves   a   broader   social   circle   through   which   one  
manifests  care  for  the  next  generation.  It  reflects  a  different  sort  of  capacity  –  to  
be   in   relationships   where   one   “cares”   for   those   younger   than   oneself   and,  
  
 
simultaneously,  respects  the  autonomy  of  others.  Research  reveals  that  between  
the  age  of  30  and  45  years  the  need  for  achievement  declines  and  the  need  for  
community  and  affiliation  increases.      
Keeper   of   the   meaning:   This   task   involves   passing   on   the   traditions   of   the   past   to  
the  next  generation.  It  is  epitomised  by  the  role  of  the  wise  judge  as  the  focus  of  a  
Keeper   of   the   Meaning   is   on   conservation   and   preservation   of   the   collective  
products  of  mankind  –  the  culture  in  which  one  lives  and  its  institutions  –  rather  
than   on   just   the   development   of   children.   Becoming   a   Keeper   of   the   Meaning  
allows  one  to  link  the  past  with  the  future.  
Integrity:   This   is   the   last   of   life’s   developmental   tasks.   It   entails   the   task   of  
achieving  some  sense  of  peace  and  unity  with  respect  both  to  one’s  own  life  and  
to   the   whole   world.   The   virtue   of   Integrity   is   wisdom.   Erik   Erikson   described  
Integrity  as  “an  experience  which  conveys  some  world  order  and  spiritual  sense”.  

 
Factors   influencing   mastery   of   developmental   tasks:   There   are   a   number   of  
factors  that  aid  the  mastery  of  developmental  tasks  that  are  discussed  below:  
(a)Accelerated  physical  development-­‐  Faster  development  of  physical  ability  than  
normal  allows  the  child  to  engage  in  advanced  tasks.    
(b)Strength  and  energy  above  average  for  age-­‐  Having  higher  level  of  strength  and  
energy   compared   to   children   of   same   age   will   be   useful   to   undertake   a   wider  
range  of  activities.    
(c)Above  average  intelligence-­‐  High  intelligence  equips  one  with  the  potential  to  
develop   skills,   traits   and   abilities   faster   and   more   effectively   than   should   be  
possible.    
  
 
(d)An   environment   that   offers   opportunities   for   learning-­‐   An   enriched  
environment   which   provides   all   types   of   facilities   will   be   a   strong   motivator   to  
achieve  and  master  the  developmental  tasks.    
 (e)Guidance  from  parents  and  teachers  in  learning-­‐  Guidance  and  all  sorts  of  help  
from  parents  and  teachers  will  aid  the  child  in  learning  novel  things  and  difficult  
skills.    
(f)A   strong   motivation   to   learn-­‐   A   desire   to   learn   will   instigate   the   child   to   do  
something  and  explore  new  areas.    
(g)Creativity   accompanied   by   a   willingness   to   be   different-­‐   Producing   something  
that  is  both  original  and  worthwhile  and  having  the  courage  to  be  different  adds  
the  winning  streak  to  the  child.    
 
Obstacles   to   mastery:   Likewise,   some   factors   hinder   the   mastery   of  
developmental  tasks  and  they  are  as  follows:  
(a)Retardation   in   developmental   level,   whether   physical   or   mental-­‐   Problems  
during   the   critical   period   of   development   or   growing   up   in   an   impoverished  
environment  hinders  holistic  development.    
(b)Poor   health   resulting   in   low   energy   and   strength   levels-­‐   A   child   with   a   lot   of  
health  problems  will  experience  lowered  strength  and  energy  level.    
(c)A   handicapping   physical   defect-­‐   A   handicap   in   physical   development   has   a  
negative  effect  on  physical  as  well  as  mental  growth.    
 (d)Lack  of  opportunity  to  learn  what  the  social  group  expects-­‐  A  child  who  lacks  
facilities   and   exposure   to   different   skills   and   concepts   may   not   be   able   prove  
himself/herself  according  to  the  expectations  of  others.    
(e)Lack   of   guidance   in   learning-­‐   No   proper   guidance   from   elders   will   delay  
learning.    
(f)Lack   of   motivation   to   learn-­‐   Children   who   have   to   be   constantly   forced   to   learn  
may  not  be  sufficiently  motivated  and  this  may  be  due  to  environmental  factors  
such  as  lack  of  support  or  may  be  resulting  from  learning  difficulties.  
 (g)Fear   of   being   different-­‐   In   order   not   to   be   separated   from   one’s   group,  
children  may  not  display  their  unique  skills  and  abilities.    
In   conclusion,   it   is   important   to   ensure   that   positive   forces   of   development   are  
facilitated  and  negative  factors  are  reduced.