GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT

Man and woman are a peerless pair; being supplementary to one another; each helps the other, so that without the one, the existence of the other
cannot be conceived and, therefore, it follows that anything that impairs the status of either of them will involve the equal ruin of them both.

– Mahatma Gandhi

INTRODUCTION :

Gender development is a fundamental issue because some of the most important aspects of
people’s lives, such as the talents they cultivate, the conceptions they hold of themselves and
others, the socio structural opportunities and constraints they encounter, and the social life and
occupational paths they pursue are heavily prescribed by societal gender-typing. It is the primary
basis on which people get differentiated with pervasive effects on their daily lives.

Gender refers to the socially determined ideas and practice as to what it means to be female or
male. In different societies, there are different sets of rules, norms, customs and practices by
which differences between males and females are translated into socially constructed differences
between women and men, boys and girls. These culturally determined gender identities define
rights and responsibilities and what is ‘appropriate’ behaviour for women and for men. This
often results in the two genders being valued differently, often reinforcing the idea that women
are inferior and subordinate to men.

Gender equality means equal opportunities, rights and responsibilities for women and men, girls
and boys. Equality does not mean that women and men are the same but that women’s and men’s
opportunities, rights and responsibilities do not depend on whether they are born female or male.
It implies that the interests, needs and priorities of both women and men are taken into
consideration.

Gender mainstreaming has been defined by the United Nations as “the process of assessing the
implications for women and men of any planned action, including legislation, policies or
programmes, in any area and at all levels. It is a strategy for making the concerns and
experiences of women as well as of men an integral dimension of the design, implementation,
monitoring and evaluation of policies and programmes in all political, economic and societal
spheres so that women and men benefit equally and inequality is not perpetuated. The ultimate
goal (of mainstreaming) is to achieve gender equality”. - Sources: UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs,
Statistics Division, 2006, The World’s Women 2005: Progress in Statistics, UN: UNDP, 2000, “Women’s Political Participation and Good
Governance: 21st Century Challenges
Development and demography – why gender matters

The relative power held by men and women and the dynamics of the relations between them
directly affects the demographic process and gender issues and norms affect fertility in many
ways:

The relationship is more complex in low-fertility countries and seems to vary with employment
opportunities and with social ideas and practices about men’s participation in homemaking and
childbearing. In general, women who work outside the home have fewer children than mothers
who do not work outside.

Gender inequality affects the health of women and girls, especially in countries with relatively
low life expectancy and widespread poverty. Where men are valued more than women, girls and
women tend to receive less nutrition and health care than men and boys when resources are
scarce. An estimated one-half million mothers die from pregnancy-related causes each year; at
least 8 million suffer lifelong health problems linked to pregnancy and childbirth.

Women are more likely than men to be illiterate, although the picture is much brighter among
children and young adults. Keeping girls in school longer has become a high priority in
development because girls with a secondary education wait longer to marry, have fewer and
healthier children, and have higher incomes. - Source: Population Bulletin, Vol. 60, No. 4, 2005: 22

The Gender and Development approach came about in the 1980s and represents a coming
together of many feminist ideas. It very obviously looks at the impact of development on both
men and women – supporting the equal participation of both women and men in development
and emphasising equality of benefit and control in everyday events. GAD is not concerned with
women exclusively, but with the way in which gender relations allot specific roles,
responsibilities and expectations between men and women, often to the detriment of women.

GAD focuses on the social or gender relations (division of labor etc.) between men and women
in society and seeks to address issues of access and control over resources and power. It
emphasis both the reproductive and productive role of women and argues that it is the state’s
responsibility to support the social reproduction role (mostly played by women) for caring and
nurturing of children. GAD treats development as a complex process that is influenced by
political, social and economic factors rather than as a state or stage of development. This
approach is about empowering those who are disadvantaged in a community and enhancing and
changing their lives for the better.

In addition, recent work has focused on the Gender, Law and Development (GLAD) approach,
which takes a rights-based approach to development and brings law and development together to
support a more equal access to resources and equal rights in law. In many countries/societies, the
economic, social and legal system is run by law that has historically supported men. This is to be
expected given the traditional absence of women from active public participation (voting,
political leadership etc.) and political structure formation where their original role had been
perceived to be one of homemaker as opposed to decision maker and policy former.

The GLAD approach sets out to ensure legal changes to laws that discriminate against women‘s
rights. Inheritance and property rights, for example, have changed in some countries (though not
all) where women are now allowed to inherit land or are as entitled to property as their husbands,
brothers or sons. Customary and religious laws, however, still dominate in many countries
throughout the world and these laws usually discriminate against women’s rights.

DISCUSSION:

Theoretical Perspectives

Over the years several major theories have been proposed to explain gender development. The
theories differ on several important dimensions. One dimension concerns the relative emphasis
placed on psychological, biological, and socio structural determinants.

Gender conceptions and role behavior are the products of a broad network of social influences
operating both families and many societal systems encountered in everyday life. Thus, it favors
a multifaceted social transmission model rather than mainly a familial transmission model.
Gender role development and functioning are not confined to childhood but are negotiated
throughout the life course. While most theories of gender development have been concerned with
the early years of development (Freud, 1916/1963; Kohlberg, 1966) or have focused on adults
(Deaux & Major, 1987), socio cognitive theory takes a life-course perspective.

Biological Theories

Biologically-oriented theories have also been proposed to explain gender development and
differentiation. Evolutionary psychology is one such theory that views gender differentiation as
ancestrally programmed (Archer, 1996; Buss, 1995; Simpson & Kenwick, 1997). The ancestral
origin of differences in gender roles is analyzed in terms of mate preferences, reproductive
strategies, parental investment in offspring, and the aggressive nature of males. Viewed from this
perspective, contemporary gender differences originated from successful ancestral adaptation to
the different reproductive demands faced by men and women. Men contributed less to their
offsprings’ chances of survival so they sought multiple partners and were less choosy with whom
to mate. In addition, uncertainty of paternity raised the risk of investing resources in children
who were not their own. In contrast, women have to carry the fetus and care for their offspring
years after their birth. Women adapted to their greater imposed role in reproduction and
parenting by preferring fewer sexual partners and favoring those who would be good long-term
providers of the basic necessities of life for themselves and their offspring. Men, in contrast,
attempted to maximize the likelihood of paternity by reproducing with numerous young and
physically attractive females, suggestive of high fertility. According to evolutionary psychology,
many current gender differences, such as the number of sexual partners preferred, criteria for
selecting sexual partners, aggression, jealousy and the roles they fulfill originated from the
ancestral sex differentiated reproductive strategies (Buss, & Schmitt, 1993).

Sociological Theories

The sources of gender differentiation lie more in social and institutional practices than in fixed
properties of the individual. Drawing on diverse bodies of research, Geis (1993) documents
masterfully the social construction and perpetuation of stereotypic gender differentiation. Gender
stereotypes shape the perception, evaluation and treatment of males and females in selectively
gendered ways that beget the very patterns of behavior that confirm the initial stereotypes. Many
gender differences in social behavior are viewed as products of division of labor between the
sexes that get replicated through sociostructural practices governed by disparate gender status
and power (Eagly, 1987.With social changes in opportunity structures and constraining
institutional arrangements, gender differences have declined over time (Eagly, 1987b). Gender is
not a unitary monolith. The homogeneous gender typing disregards the vast differences among
women and the similarly vast differences among men depending on their socioeconomic class,
education, ethnicity, and occupation. Not all people of the same socioeconomic status, and who
live under the same opportunity structures, social controls, familial, educational and community
resources and normative climate, behave in the same way.

Social Cognitive Theory

Social cognitive theory acknowledges the influential role of evolutionary factors in human
adaptation and change, but rejects one-sided evolutionism in which social behavior is the product
of evolved biology, but social and technological innovations that create new environmental
selection pressures for adaptiveness have no effect on biological evolution (Bandura, 1999). In
the bidirectional view of evolutionary processes, evolutionary pressures fostered changes in
bodily structures and upright posture conducive to the development and use of tools, which
enabled an organism to manipulate, alter and construct new environmental conditions.
Environmental innovations of increasing complexity, in turn, created new selection pressures for
the evolution of specialized biological systems for functional consciousness, thought, language
and symbolic communication. Social cognitive theory addresses itself to a number of distinctive
human attributes (Bandura, 1986). The remarkable capability for symbolization provides a
powerful tool for comprehending the environment and for creating and regulating environmental
conditions that touch virtually every aspect of life. Another distinctive attribute is the advanced
capability for observational learning that enables people to expand their knowledge and skills
rapidly through information conveyed by modeling influences without having to go through the
tedious and hazardous process of learning by response consequences.

Environmental Structures

The environment is not a monolithic entity disembodied from personal agency. Social cognitive
theory distinguishes among three types of environmental structures (Bandura, 1997). Some of the
environmental impositions involve constraints, as when women were disenfranchised and
prohibited from certain social, educational, and occupational pursuits or membership in certain
social organizations. There is a major difference between the potential environment and the
environment people actually experience. For the most part, the environment is only a potentiality
with different rewarding and punishing aspects that do not come into being until the environment
is selected and activated by appropriate courses of action. The choice of associates, activities,
and educational pursuits are examples of environmental selectivity that affect developmental
pathways (Bandura & Walters, 1959; Bullock & Merrill, 1980; Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 1994).
The environments that are created do not exist as a potentiality waiting to be selected and
activated. Rather, people construct social environments and institutional systems through their
generative efforts.

Sociocognitive Modes of Influence

Gendered roles and conduct involve intricate competencies, interests and value orientations. A
comprehensive theory of gender differentiation must, therefore, explain the determinants and
mechanisms through which gender-linked roles and conduct are acquired. In social cognitive
theory, gender development is promoted by three major modes of influence and the way in which
the information they convey is cognitively processed. The first mode is through modeling. A
great deal of gender-linked information is exemplified by models in one's immediate
environment such as parents and peers, and significant persons in social, educational and
occupational contexts. In addition, the mass media provides pervasive modeling of gendered
roles and conduct. The second mode is through enactive experience. It relies on discerning the
gender-linkage of conduct from the outcomes resulting from one's actions. Gender-linked
behavior is heavily socially sanctioned in most societies.

Therefore, evaluative social reactions are important sources of information for constructing
gender conceptions. People have views about what is appropriate conduct for each of the two
sexes. The third mode of influence is through direct tuition. It serves as a convenient way of
informing people about different styles of conduct and their linkage to gender. Moreover, it is
often used to generalize the informativeness of specific modeled exemplars and particular
behavioral outcome experiences. The relative impact of the three modes of influence varies
depending on the developmental status of individuals and the social structuring of experiences.

Modeling Influences in Gender Development

Modeling is one of the most pervasive and powerful means of transmitting values, attitudes, and
patterns of thought and behavior (Bandura, 1986; Rosenthal & Zimmerman, 1978). Modeling is
not simply a process of response mimicry as commonly believed. Modeled activities convey the
rules and structures embodied in the exemplars for generative behavior. This higher level of
learning is achieved through abstract modeling. Rule-governed action patterns differ in specific
content and other details but they embody the same underlying rule. Once observers extract the
rules and structure underlying the modeled activities they can generate new patterns of behavior
that conform to the structural properties but go beyond what they have seen or heard. Hence,
social cognitive theory characterizes learning from exemplars as modeling rather than imitation,
which has come to mean just mimicking the particular action exemplified. Modeling serves a
variety of functions in gender development. Consider first the vicarious acquisition function.

Parental Impact on Subsequent Gender Development

Parental conversations with children are extended to emotions, and these discussions take
different forms for sons and daughters (Dunn, Bretherton, & Munn, 1987). Not only do mothers
talk more to their daughters than to their sons, but they use more supportive forms of speech with
their daughters than with their sons. In addition, they are more likely to encourage daughters
when they make affiliative and supportive remarks to others (Leaper, Leve, Strasser, &
Schwartz, 1995; Leaper, Anderson, & Sanders, 1998). In contrast, mothers are more likely to
encourage autonomy and independence in their sons than their daughters (Pomerantz & Ruble,
1998). Mothers rarely discuss anger with their daughters but often do so with their sons and are
quick to attribute this emotional state to them (Fivush, 1989). It is interesting to note in passing
that emotiveness is regarded as a prime characteristic of women but anger, which men emote
freely quite often, gets ignored in the gender comparisons of emotional proneness. We have seen
in the previous analysis that parents promote sharper differentiation of gendered conduct with
boys than with girls. This gender dichotomization is stronger for fathers, who continue this
differential treatment throughout childhood (Bradley & Gobbart, 1989; Fagot & Hagen, 1991;
Langlois & Downs, 1980; Maccoby, 1998; Siegel, 1987).

APPROACHES IN GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT

The GAD approach seeks to correct systems and mechanisms that produce gender inequality by
focusing not only on women, but also by assessing the social status of both women and men.
Moreover, it emphasizes the role of men in resolving gender inequality, and places importance
on the empowerment of women, who are placed in a socially and economically weaker position
than men. The goal of gender mainstreaming is to achieve gender equality in all fields of society.
It seeks to identify men’s and women’s development issues and needs, as well as development
impacts on men and women at all stages of development, through planning , implementation,
monitoring, and evaluation of development policies and measures and projects, on the premise
that all development policies, measures, and projects have different impacts on men and women.
The United Nations Millennium Summit held in 2000 adopted the Millennium Declaration,
which included, among the eight goals to be achieved by 2015, the promotion of gender equality
and empowerment of women. The declaration also acknowledged the importance of
mainstreaming the gender perspective in all initiatives undertaken by the international
community toward achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).

Indicators reflecting the status of gender equality in developing countries show that women are
more often placed in socially, politically, and economically disadvantaged positions than men.
With respect to the progress in achievement of the goal of gender equality established in the
MDGs, the 2005 Human Development Report of the United Nations Development Program
(UNDP) revealed that the goal of eliminating gender disparity in primary and junior high school
enrolment by 2005 has not been met. Had the goal been attained, there would now be 14 million
more girls receiving primary education, including 6 million girls in South Asia (India and
Pakistan) and 4 million girls in sub-Saharan Africa. Moreover, there are 20 million girls not
attending school in 41 countries. In these countries, the gender gap is growing wider or is
narrowing so slowly that gender equality cannot be expected to be reached before 2040.

Other gender-based issues of increasing concern include the feminization of poverty, as observed
from the fact that 70% of the world’s poor are women, and the spread of HIV/AIDS. According
to the Joint United Nations Program on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), 1.3 times more women than men
are infected by HIV in sub-Saharan Africa, which is the most severely affected region in the
world. In the 15 to 24 year-old age group, HIV prevalence is 3 times greater among women than
men, a situation that is said to be attributed to gender inequality. There have been calls for the
incorporation of gender perspectives in responding to those disasters. As seen above, the issue of
gender and development is extremely wide-ranging. In addition to continued efforts in
conventional activities centered on education, healthcare, and socio-economy, there is also an
increasing need to promote the gender perspective in addressing issues in various other fields,
such as global-scale issues and others whose relationship to gender may be invisible.

According to a report on the progress of the Gender Mainstreaming Strategy, gender perspectives
have come to be incorporated in 90% of projects in the healthcare and education sectors.
However, sufficient achievements have yet to be attained regarding women’s participation in
economic activities. Underlying the Gender Action Plan is the rationale that women’s economic
empowerment is closely related to poverty reduction and economic growth, and that it would
benefit not only women, but also society in general, including men and children. The primary
objective of the Gender Action Plan is to empower women in the economic sector, with a
particular focus on the areas of infrastructure, agriculture, private sector development, and
finance.
 According to AusAID’s Corporate Plan 2006-2010, gender equality is given as one of the
principles of its aid program strategies. AusAID maintains that gender-based aid programs must
give due consideration to the different needs and priorities of women and men at all stages of
development. Its principle goals for gender equality include (1) addressing violence against
women and children (including trafficking) and assisting peacebuilding initiatives to firmly
establish women’s roles and status in society, and (2) reinforcing women’s economic
empowerment.

Domestically financed GAD budget The Implementing Rules and Regulations (IRR) of RA 7192
provides for a GAD budget allocation from the regular budgets of government departments and
agencies. The first GAD budget call came out in 1994 for national government agencies; it was
followed a few years later for local government units. Beginning in 1995, the General
Appropriations Act (GAA) included a GAD budget provision. During the 15 years or more of
implementation and sustained advocacy, compliance with the GAD budget policy has been
consistently low, averaging less than 40 percent of national government agencies. In recent
years, the GAD budget has usually ranged between P0.84 billion (in 2002) and P2.16 billion(in
2007), while utilization averaged about 36 percent.13 An analysis of the agency GAD plans and
accomplishment reports suggest that the GAD budget has been used primarily to fund various
capacity development or training programs on GAD, usually in the form of gender sensitivity
training; advocacy, dissemination of information and education on gender issues; setting up or
improving facilities for women employees; establishment of sex-disaggregated database;
promotion of the use of nonsexist language; and agency-specific gender mainstreaming
activities. It is not clear whether GAD budgets and plans have led to increased consciousness on
gender and development in an entire organization. With a possible exception of a few agencies,
there is little to suggest that the GAD budget has been successfully used as leverage for making
the whole agency budget more responsive to gender-related concerns.

ODA-funded projects The National Economic Development Authority (NEDA) monitors the
ODA-related GAD budget policy. Before 2006, NEDA classified foreign-assisted projects into
whether these are women-specific projects, have a component for women, or have “integrated”
women’s concerns. Monitoring, however, has been difficult as there was no mechanism for ODA
donor reporting. The third category was also ambiguous, making it hard to ascertain whether or
not ODA projects have indeed allotted 20 percent of their budget to women’s concerns. In 2006,
NEDA began to use the Harmonized GAD Guidelines, a tool it developed with the NCRFW and
the ODA-GAD Network15 to guide the review of project proposals and the monitoring of ODA
portfolios. The design checklists determine the gender responsiveness of projects at entry, while
the project implementation, management, and monitoring and evaluation (PIMME) checklists
help measure the gender responsiveness of projects at implementation. Instead of just focusing
on women’s concerns, the guidelines force all projects to confront relevant gender issues. In
2009, NEDA requested 21 bilateral aid agencies, embassies, and multilateral agencies that
provide assistance through loans or grants to submit their GAD monitoring report using the
Harmonized GAD Guidelines and a prescribed GAD monitoring template.

In all, 20 organizations responded. Their combined ODA portfolio amounted to $9.5 billion. Of
this, 35 percent reportedly support projects that are, by design, gender-responsive or gender-
sensitive (that is, are set up to address key GAD issues and to involve women in significant
ways), while 65 percentwent to projects that have not been designed to respond to gender issues
or that have not even identified any gender issue [NEDA 2009]. Not surprisingly, the gender-
blind projects consisted mainly of infrastructure projects.

These attempts to track regular domestic and ODA GAD budget allocations and execution are
important and need to be sustained. So must the conduct of audit by the Commission on Audit
(COA) of the GAD budget utilization. However, NEDA and the NCRFW have to scrutinize
more carefully the GAD monitoring reports (ODA) and GAD plans, budgets and
accomplishment reports (regular budget) that they receive.
REFLECTION: (LEAH APRIL A. ESGUERRA)

COMPREHENSIVE DANGEROUS DRUGS ACT OF 2002

(REPUBLIC ACT .9165)

Drugs kill everyone who use it, it cause unhealthy mind. Drugs have so many type like
marijuana, opium and etc.

In this law, we need to know what is important to having a law for drugs. Drugs is a cancer that
we can’t cure until we make an action slowly to kill it. In this act, we need to know what is use
of drugs and what is effect in our body and mind.

In the Philippines, so many case of using drugs and killing each other for a little pack of drugs.
Drugs is big time money that everyone attempt to make a business but this is a bad thing to do it.

But so many dealer that they use children for making the drugs to deliver to another user this is a
serious problem in PDEA and DSWD, that’s why we need a law for the children who also use a
drugs or delivery for guide them for a better future and choices for their life. The user is a victim
that they want to escape from there problem in their life.

All suspect or victim of drugs need to pay what they have done , this is their choice to enter drug
world. Life is not permanent, need to choose what is better for our lifetime. Time is not stopping
it slowly move and make a good sound of every move that time pass. Drugs is a not permanent
happiness it cause life and time wasting for a non-sense action but it also a lesson for all the
victim of drugs.

There are no territory to create drugs is illegal to kill every people who use it. That’s why our
latest President make an action on it to kill drugs but is not easy ,it takes time and effort ,our little
help is also a big help for them.

Our knowledge to know this law is also uses to avoid drugs. We need law for helping other
people for making a better life.
REFLECTION: (LEAH APRIL A.ESGUERRA)

GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT

Gender is the state of being male or female. Development is the process of starting to experience
or suffer from an ailment or feeling.

Gender Development is a process of being a man and woman.

Developing is need for everyone who wants to be a great person. Great is the best we hear for
everyone but great is not the best for me because if we want to be a great we need to respect
other people or nationality. Discrimination is the one who kill equality in this world that’s why
so many approach to develop every individual to know what are we gonna do. This is not also
for man and woman also in lesbian and gay because equality is for everyone.

So many approaches for gender development and I’m so happy to hear that they help everyone
who abuse to fight and to support for them. I’m the one who respect all people because I respect
myself to develop who I am like now for making myself fight this life.

Be a model to our students in this word, model is not only for a good appearance but in also good
relationship to everyone and give them a lesson in life. Our parents is our model they give a
lesson and support of what are we going to do in life.

In every theories we see the differences between man and woman like in biological woman
produce to give birth. In social aspects man is more sociable than woman but social cognitive
theory our knowledge and emotional aspects are the best to develop our mind and body.In
environmental theories ,our surroundings is the one who change and develop individual person.
All theories of gender development are correct both aspects need to take the responsibility to be a
model for everyone and be who you are.
REFLECTION: ( LEAH APRIL A. ESGUERRA)

RA. 10627 : THE ANTI-BULLYING ACT

Bullying is use superior strength or influence to intimidate a person, typically to force him or her
to do what one wants.

The case of bullying is not normal all schools all over the world.

Strength is not also in strength in physical attribute or being famous in school but it in spiritual
and mental strength. Bullying is not a case that we can’t pass on it or leave because this is the
cause of the person kill their lives or attempt suicide.

In this law, we learned what are we going to do when we teaching and seeing a situation like
bullying for making a decision right for the children and also for everyone who experience it.
Students is the one who the most victim of bullying that’s why they create a law for students who
bullied. As a future teacher ,I need to think what is the best for my future students who
experienced bullying not also in bullied person but who also all my students and to valuing them
,what is not good for bullying and what is the cause of it if they bullied their classmates. But we
need to give them strength to fight not in physical but in their life also because life is not easy to
fight we need a strength to fight for life. This is not also for my students but it also for me as a
teacher I need to valuing myself before anyone else because we didn’t know how to valuing my
students if we didn’t know who we are.

Bullying is the first stage that we fight in our life ,we need to strong and make a strength ,this our
challenge to know what is real situation we are.
REFERENCES:

https://www.jica.go.jp/english/our_work/thematic_issues/gender/background/pdf/report4.pdf

http://www.developmenteducation.ie/teachers-and-educators/transition-year/extra-
resources/Resources/8020-additional-resources/10.PDF

www.polsci.chula.ac.th/pitch/urbansea12/moser1993.pdf

https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/aac7/97414129d5c51c528e402a94d60a5786387d.pdf