Rotational Motion 1) Translatory Motion: - If a body moves in such a way that all its
Centre of mass: - Centre of mass of a system is the point where total mass
of the body can be assumed to be concentrated.
Or
Centre of mass of a system is a point which moves in the same way in
which a single particle having the total mass of the system would move.
Centre of mass is an imaginary point which is defined mathematically for
sake of convenience. It is not necessary that total mass of the system be
actually present at the centre of mass. There may not be any mass present
at the centre of mass e.g. centre of mass of a ring.
Centre of mass for a n particles system: -
 position vector r of each particle is different so according to v = r  , the
  
 m r 1  m2 r2  m2 r2      mn rn
R cm  1
m1  m2  m3      mn
For 2 particles: Rcm = (m1r1 + m2r2) / (m1+m2)
If m1 = m2  Rcm = (r1 + r2) / 2
velocity of centre of mass
Vcm = (m1v1 + m2v2) / (m1+m2)
If a part of the system is removed Rcm = (m1r1 - m2r2) / (m1 - m2)
(Same equations for Cartesian system)
Centre of mass of rigid body: -
Centre of mass is a fixed point for a rigid body. It does not change with
time because in rigid body position of particles are fixed.
Centre of mass of a rigid body may lie within the body depends on-
A) Distribution of mass throughout the volume of the body.
B) Shape of the body.
Symmetrical rigid body having uniform distribution of mass Centre of mass
is geometrical centre. e.g. uniform solid rod, uniform solid disc uniform
solid sphere, cube, uniform cylinder.
In case of circular ring and hollow sphere the centre of mass is at geometric
centre and lies outside the material of the body.
In solid cone the centre of mass lies at a point which is at ¾ L to the vertex,
where L is height of cone.
Centre of gravity: - Centre of gravity of a body is defined as the point
where the whole weight of the body can be supposed to be concentrated.
For ordinary bodies, the centre of mass and centre of gravity coincide with
each other because ‘g’ is same.
For a large body (continent) Centre of mass and centre of gravity will be
different.
General motion of a rigid body: - Motion of rigid bodies is of two types.
constituent particles suffer same displacement then it is called translatory
motion. In translatory motion all particle moves with same velocity and
their paths are parallel to each other (straight or curved).
2) Rotational Motion: - When a body moves (rotates) about a fixed axis
which is either inside or outside, then motion of body is called rotational
motion. It can be either in 2-dimension or 3-dimension e.g (1) Motion of
earth on its own axis (2) Motion of a fan (3) Motion of a gramophone
record. etc. In rotational motion path of each particle is circular and
parallel to each other. Each particle form same angle with centre hence
angular velocities of particles is same for each particle.  =constant. But

linear velocities of each particle is different.
 
Let OA  r1 , OB  r2 .Since r1 > r2 so v1 > v2 .
i.e. particle near the rotation axis moves with less speed and particle away
from the axis will moves with more speed.
Torque: - (rotational analogue of force)
When a tangential force is applied on a body then body starts rotation, this
turning effect of force is called torque. It is denoted by .
Torque is measured as moment of force i.e. it is equal to product of force
and perpendicular distance of the line of action of force from the axis of
rotation.
 = Force × perpendicular distance - - - -(1)
The tangential component F Sin  can only produce rotation motion. so
 = F Sin  × r   = r F Sin  - - - -(2)
    
In vector form   r F Sin  n Hence   r  F Dimension
1 2 -2
formula of torque is [M L T ] same as to that of work and energy. SI unit
is Nm , but Torque is quite different from work because torque is a vector
quantity and work is a scalar .
Couple:-
A pair of equal and opposite forces with different lines of action is known
as a couple. A couple produces rotation without translation.
 = Magnitude of one of the Force × perpendicular distance between the
forces.
Work done: - When you exert a torque  on an object making it displace
through an angle ,
Work = Torque x Angular Displacement  W =  d
Power: -Power measures the efficiency of work transfer,
Power is defined as the rate of doing work or work done per unit time,
Power = work done / time  P =  d/ dt  P = 

Angular Momentum: -
Moment of linear momentum is called angular momentum.
OR
The quantity of rotational motion (The turning movement) posses by a
body about an axis of rotation is called angular momentum.
In rotational motion, the angular momentum L of an object is defined as
the vector product of its linear momentum and the perpendicular distance
from the axis of rotation to the line of the velocity vector.
  
L  r p
L = r p Sin  OR L = m v r Sin 
Angular momentum is a vector quantity its direction is perpendicular to the
 
direction of both r & p . Its direction is given by Fleming’s right hand
rule. SI unit: kg · m2/s
Relation between Torque and angular momentum:
L=rxP
So dL/ dt = Pxdr/dt + rxdP/dt
dL/ dt =mv x v + r x F
dL/ dt = r x F (as v x v =0)
dL/ dt = 
Rate of change of angular momentum is equal to external torque.
Physical significance of angular momentum:-
Area swept out by the line joining the particle with rotation axis per unit
time is called areal velocity. Thus Angular momentum is equal to product
of twice the mass of the body and the areal velocity. L = 2m dA/dt
MOMENT OF INERTIA:
 It is the property of the object by virtue of which it opposes
rotational motion as mass opposes linear motion.
 Moment of inertia of a particle of a rotating object is the product
of its mass and square of the distance between the particle and
rotational axis. i.e. I = miri2. SI unit is kgm2 Nature : Scalar
 Moment of inertia of a rotating object is the sum of moment of
inertia of its particles i.e. I = miri2 or m1r12 + m2r22 ....mnrn2
 Its physical significance : It opposes rotational motion so it plays
same role as mass does in linear motion
 It depends upon (a) Mass of the body, (b) Shape and size
:distribution of mass about the rotation axis and (c) the position
and orientation of the axis of rotation
RADIUS OF GYRATION:-
The radius of gyration of a body about an axis may be defined as the
distance from the axis of a mass point (CM) whose mass is equal to
the mass of the whole body and whose moment of inertia is equal to
the moment of inertia of the body about the axis
(r12  r22  r32 - - - - - - - - - - - -  rn2 )
K =
n
The root mean square distance of various particles of the body about
rotation axis is called radius of Gyration. So I = MK2
Theorem of perpendicular axis: The moment of inertia of a planar body
(lamina) about an axis perpendicular to its plane is equal to the sum
of its moments of inertia about two perpendicular axes concurrent
with perpendicular axis and lying in the plane of the body.
Iz = Iy + Ix
Theorem of parallel axis: The moment of inertia of a body about any
axis is equal to the sum of the moment of inertia of the body about a
parallel axis passing through its centre of mass and the product of its
mass and the square of the distance between the two parallel axes.
I = IG + M x 2
Relation between torque and angular momentum with Moment
of Inertia:  = I & L = I
Conservation of angular momentum:
In the absence of external torque, total angular momentum of the
system remains constant.
As rate of change of angular momentum is equal to external torque.
dL/ dt = 
In the absence of external torque i.e.  = 0  dL/ dt = 0
Hence L = Constant.
Angular Momentum L = I  = Constant.
Rotational Kinetic Energy of the system K = ½ I2 Rolling of an object:
Analogy Between Liner Motion and Rotational Motion:− Rolling of an object is the combination of two types of simultaneous
motion of an object. These motions are
Translatory motion Rotatory motion (i) Translatory: under the effect of force
Displacement / distance (s) Angle or angular (ii) Rotation: due to tangential force on object.
displacement () Hence kinetic energy of Rolling
ds d K rolling = K translatory + K rotation
Linear velocity v  Angular velocity  
dt dt = ½ mv2 + ½ I2
dv d 2 s Angular acceleration = ½ mv2 + ½ mk2(v/r)2
Linear acceleration a   d  d 2 = ½ mv2 [1 + k2/r2]
dt dt 2   2 SOLID CYLINDER ROLLING DOWN (WITHOUT SLIPPING) ON AN INCLINED
dt dt PLANE:--
Mass (m) Moment of inertia (I) Consider a cylinder of mass m and radius r rolling down on a plane inclined
Linear momentum P  mv Angular momentum L  I at an angle  to the horizontal mg weight act downward. Its component mg
Force F  ma Torque   I sin acts as pulling force and mg cos balance the normal reaction. F is
dp dL friction.
Force F  Torque  
dt dt
Translatory kinetic energy Rotatory kinetic energy
1 1 P2 1 1 L2
KT  mv 2 = Pv = K R  I 2 = Lω =
2 2 2m 2 2 2I
Work done W  F.s Work done W    d
Power P  Fv Power P  
Principal of conservation of linear Principal of conservation of
momentum – linear momentum angular momentum –
of system is conserved when no angular momentum of a
external force acts on the system. system is conserved when
Equation for translatory motion
no external torque acts on
the system. mg sin - f = ma -------------- (1)
Equation of translatory motion Equation of rotatory motion equation for rotational motion (as friction act as tangential force)
(i) v  u  at (i)   0   t  = I
1 rxf = Ia/r
(ii) s  ut  at 2 (ii)
1
  0 t   t 2 so f = Ia/r2
2 2 substitute in equation 1
(iii) v  u  2as
2 2
(iii)  0    2
2 2
mg sin - Ia/r2 = ma
a
(iv) s n  u  (2n  1)  mg sin = ma + Ia/r2
2 (iv)  n  0  (2n  1)
2 a (m + I/r2) = mg sin
or a = mg sin/ (m + I/r2)
or a = mg sin/ (m + mk2/r2)
or a = g sin/ (1 + k2/r2)
 Gravitation Escape Energy and Escape Velocity (Ve): →
Newton’s Law of Gravitation: - Gravitational P E of mass ‘m’ on the surface of the earth = -GMem/Re
Statement: -“The gravitation force of attraction between any two bodies is While Gravitational P E at infinity (beyond gravitational pull) is Zero.
directly proportional to product of their masses and inversely proportional
So Escape energy = +GMem/Re
to square of distance between them”.
This energy is given in the form of KE so
m1 m2
F  G ½ mv2 = GMem/Re
r2
So v = GMe/ Re or 2gRe = 11.2 km/s
Here G is proportionality constant called universal gravitation constant.
G = 6.67  10 11 Nm2/kg2 or (20/3)  10 11 Nm2/kg2 This speed is called escape velocity. It is independent of the mass and
Properties of Gravitational Force: direction of projection of the body and depends on reference body.
(1) It is always attractive in nature. (2) It is independent of the medium Presence of atmosphere at the earth:
between the particles (3) It holds good over a wide range of distances. (4) At the earth’s surface escape velocity ve = GMe/ Re or 2gRe = 11.2 km/s
It is a central and conservative force (5) It is a two-body interaction and Average velocity of gas molecules approx 8 km/s, so they cannot escape
it follows F12 = F21 (6) It is the weakest force in nature from the earth and form its atmosphere.
Acceleration due to gravity (g): → (At the moon escape velocity is approx 2 km/s so gas molecules escape
Acceleration produced in a body due to gravitational force of earth (i.e. from there hence moon has no atmosphere.)
gravity) is called acceleration due to gravity (g). Orbital Velocity: The velocity required to put a satellite into a given orbit
g = GMe/ Re2 or g = (4/3) GdRe (d is mean density of the earth) around earth is called orbital velocity. For revolution, required centripetal
Variation of acceleration due to gravity: → force is provided by gravitational force between satellite and planet
with altitude gh = gRe2/ (Re + h)2 or gh = g (1- 2h/Re) if h < < < Re
(Central body)
With depth gd = g (1 – d/Re)  gcentre = 0
Centripetal force = Gravitational force , for an earth’s satellite
Altitude gpole > g equator
mvo2/r = GMem/r2.  vo = GMe/r  vo = GMe/(Re +h)
For a close satellite (Polar satellite) Re >>>h
Gravitational field and intensity: → Force experienced by a body of units
vo = GMe/Re  gRe  7.92 km/s
mass placed at any point in gravitation field is define as gravitational field
Relation with escape velocity (2gRe) ve/vo = 2
intensity E.
It means that if the speed of a satellite orbiting close to the earth is made
E=F/m => E = GMsource/ r2, Vector Quantity – Direction towards source
mass 2 times (or increased by 41%) then it will escape from the gravitational
field.
Gravitational Potential & Potential Energy: Time period of satellite: →
Work done in bringing unit mass from infinity to any point in gravitational Time taken by the satellite to complete one revolution around earth is
called time period ‘T’.
field is equal to gravitational potential at that point. S.I. unit is Joule/kg.
T = 2r/ v0  T = 2r3/2/ GMe  T = 2(Re+h)3/2/ gRe2
Taking GPE at infinity Zero, for an object of mass ‘m’ on the earth’s surface
r r
For a close satellite Re+h  Re as Re >>>h
GMm T = 2 (Re/g)  T = (3/ Gd)
W   dW  
 
x2
dx
Energy of the satellite: -
GM m GM m Due to orbital motion it has kinetic energy. K.E. = ½ mV02 = ½ GMem/r
W   U  It has G PE (as it is in gravitational pull of the earth) U = - GMem/r
r r
So gravitational potential on the earth’s surface (V) = - GMe/Re Therefore Total Energy E = U + K  E = - GMem/r + ½ GMem/r
The negative sign shows that the potential energy is due to attraction force So E = - ½ GMem/r, so total energy of satellite is (-ve) it shows force of
exerted by earth. i.e. At r = ∞, U=0 the gravitational P.E. is maximum. On attraction between the earth and satellite (system).
earth’s surface r = R (least) so P.E. is minimum. Thus TE = -KE = 2PE, Energy of satellite is also called its binding energy.
Geostationary satellites: → the satellite which has time period of 24 hours Elasticity
and appear stationary from earth surface is called geostationary satellite. Deforming Force: - A force that can change the shape of the object without
It is also called synchronous with satellite because angular speed of any acceleration.
satellite synchronized with the angular speed of the earth about its own Internal Force:-
axis. These satellites are used for communication and T.V. broadcast.
1. These are restoring forces produced in the object on applying the
Condition for geostationary satellite: → (1) Its time period must be of 24
deforming force and oppose the action of deforming force.
hours. (2) It should revolve in an orbit concentric and coplanar with
2. These forces tend to bring the object back to their original
equatorial plane. (3) It should be at a height of nearly 36,000 km above the
configuration on removal of deforming force.
equator. (4) Its orbital velocity is nearly 3.1 km/sec and revolving from west
3. Initially the value of these forces be zero when there is no
to east. The orbit of geostationary satellite is called parking orbit.
deformation. As the deformation takes place value of internal forces
Uses: -1] In communication of Radio, TV, telephone signals.2] In weather
also increases linearly.
forecasting. 3] To study the upper region of atmosphere. 4] To study about
4. For a constant applied force, internal force becomes equal to applied
radiation of sun and outer space. 5] To know exact shape and dimensions
force ultimately. After this equilibrium there is no further deformation.
of earth. 6] As space stations. 7] Space flights are possible due to satellites.
On applying stronger deforming force, deformation takes place further
Kepler’s law of planetary motion:-
till internal force becomes equal to deforming force.
Kepler’s first law :- “All the planets revolve around the sun in nearly
5. But there is a limit of internal forces, after that internal force reduces.
elliptical orbits with sun as its one of the focus”.
Stress:-
Kepler’s second law:- “Area swept out by the line joining the planets and
the sun is equal in equal interval of time “. i.e. Areal velocity of all planets Internal force produced per unit area of cross section is called stress
is constant. It is based on law of conservation of angular momentum. produced in the substance.
Proof: Angular momentum of a system is given by L = 2m dA/dt Stress = internal force produced
As no external torque acts so angular momentum of system remains Area of cross section
constant i.e. 2m dA/dt = constant  dA/dt = constant But at equilibrium, internal force produced = deforming force applied
When a planet is close to the sun it moves faster and vice versa, Stress = deforming force applied (F)
Kepler’s third law:-“The Square of time period of each planet is directly
Area of cross section (A)
proportional to cube of the radius of orbit of planet.” T2  r3
SI Unit: Newton/ meter2 DF = [ ML-1T-2]
Proof:- Consider a planet of mass ‘m’ revolving around the sun with speed
‘V’ in circular orbit of radius ‘r’. Centripetal force required for orbital Nature: It is a scalar quantity.
motion is provided by gravitation force i.e mv2/r = GMsunm/r2 ------ (1) There are three types of stress
But v = 2r/ T substitute in eq 1 (a) Longitudinal or tensile stress (associated with stretching)
T2  r3 (b) Compressional stress or normal stress or pressure (related to
Weightlessness:The weight of a body is the force with which it is thrust)
attracted towards the centre of earth. When a body is stationary with (c) Tangential stress (related to change in shape without changing its
respect to the earth, its weight equals the gravity. This weight of the body volume)
is known as its static or true weight. Breaking Stress: For a substance, Breaking Stress = Breaking force/ area of
As we place the body on the machine, the weighing machine opposes the cross section
weight of the body. The reaction of the weighing machine to the body Strain:-
gives the measure of the weight of the body. Fractional change in dimension or ratio of change in dimension to original
The state of weightlessness can be observed in the following situations.
dimension is called strain.
(1) When objects fall freely under gravity
(2) When a satellite revolves in its orbit around the earth Strain = Change in dimension
(3) When bodies are at null points in outer space: Original dimension
(4) At the centre of the earth. It has no unit or dimensional formula.
There are three types of strain.
(a) Longitudinal strain = change in length/ original length
(b) volume strain = change in volume/ original volume
(c) Shearing strain is angle through which a plane perpendicular to the
fixed surface of the cubical body gets turned under the effect of
tangential force or it is the ratio of displacement of a surface to the
perpendicular distance of the displaced surface from the fixed
surface./ It is the angle ( in radian) through which a surface
originally perpendicular to the fixed surface gets turned on
applying tangential deforming force.
Shear strain =  = tan  = Relative displacement between two parallel planes
Distance between parallel planes
Elastic Limit: The maximum stress within which the body regains its original
configuration after removal of deforming force is called elastic limit. If
deforming force exceeds the elastic limit, the body acquires a permanent
set or deformation and is said to be overstrained.
Stress Vs Strain curve:-
1. The initial part OP of the curve is a straight line indicating stress is
proportional to the strain. The point P is called elastic limit. Up to
the point P Hooke’s law is obeyed.
2. Beyond point P, the stress is not proportional to strain and a
curved portion PE is obtained. However, on removing the
deforming force at any point between P and E, the curve is
retraced along EPO and substance regains its original
configuration. The point E is called yield point and portion OE is
called elastic region.
3. Beyond the point Q, the strain increases more rapidly than stress.
Let deforming force is removed at point C of the curve then
substance does not return to its original configuration but traces
dashed line CD i.e on removing the deforming force, a residual
strain equal to OD is left hence substance is permanently
deformed.
4. If the deforming force is increased beyond the point C, there is
large increase in the strain. In this region, the constriction ( neck
and waist ) develop at few points along the length of the wire and
ultimate it breaks at the point B called fracture point. Region EB is
called plastic region.
5. The stress corresponding to the breaking point is called tensile
strength f the material.
Ductile, brittle and elastomer material :
Ductile: Substance having large plastic range is called ductile
material. Breaking point of these substances is widely separated from the
elastic limit.
Brittle: Substance having small plastic range is called brittle
material. Breaking point of these substances is close to the elastic limit. Ex:
Cast iron, Glass, ceramics
Elastomers: Subtance having very large plastic region but they do
not obey Hookes Law. For these substances young modulus is very small.
They can be elastically stretched to large values of strain. Example: Tissue
of aorta, rubber band.
Hookes Law:- Within the limit of elasticity, stress is directly proportional to
strain i.e. stress  strain
Stress = E x strain, where E is constant and is called coefficient of electricity
of the material.. its value depends upon the material.
E = Stress/ Strain
SI Unit = NM-2 and DF = [ ML-1T-2]
Types of Elastic constant:
1. Young Modulus:- Within the limit of elastic limit, ratio of
longitudinal stress to longitudinal strain is called Young modulus of
material.
Y = longitudinal stress
Longitudinal strain
Note:- 1. Consider a wire of length ‘L’ area of cross section ‘A’ is suspended
from a rigid point and its length increases by ‘l’ on applying a force ‘f’ along
its length. Then
Longitudinal stress = F/A
Longitudinal strain = l/ L
Young Modulus = F/A
l/L
2. Bulk Modulus: Within the limit of elastic limit, ratio of normal
stress to volume strain is called bulk modulus of material.
 B= Normal stress
volume strain Properties of fluid
Note: 1. The reciprocal of the bulk modulus is called compressibility K Pressure:
2. On applying hydrostatic pressure (causes change in volume Thrust per unit area is aclled pressure i.e. P = F/A
SI Unit: Nm-2 or Pascal (Pa) and DF = [ML-1T-2]
without affecting its shape) dP let the original volume ‘V’ of the object
Pressure of Fluid P = hg
changes by dV Hydrostatic Paradox: Pressure of liquid does not depend upon shape
B = - dP of vessel in which liquid is kept.
dV/V Pascal’s Law:
3. Modulus of rigidity or shear modulus: Within the limit of elastic limit, The pressure exerted at any point on an enclosed fluid is transmitted
equally in all directions.
ratio of tangential stress to shearing strain is called modulus of rigidity
Applications:
of material.
1. Hydralluic Lift (force multiplier) 2. Hydralluic Brakes:
 = tangential stress
shearing strain Atmospheric Pressure:-
Tangential stress = F/A Pressure due to atmosphere is called atmospheric pressure
Shearing strain =  = tan  = EE’/ AE = dL/ L Its value is 1.01 x 105Nm-2 or 1 bar
( 1 torr = 1mm of Hg, 1Bar = 76 cm of Hg)
So  = F/A
 VISCOSITY
* young modulus and modulus of rigidity is only for solids while bulk It is the property of fluid by which it opposes the relative motion
modulus is for solid, liquid and gas. between its layers. Viscous force produced is given by
Elastic after effect:- The delay in regaining the original configuration by an F = - Adv/dx, where  is called coefficient of viscosity.
Units of viscosity coefficient
object on the removal of deforming force is called elastic after effect. (a) SI Unit : Kgm-1s-1 or decapoise (poiseuille)
Ex. Quartz or phosphor bronze alloy have very small value of elastic after (b) CGS Unit : gmcm-1sec-1 or poise
effect so they are used in galvanometer as suspension wire. For the glass 1 deca poise = 10 poise
fiber elastic after effect is very large. DF of viscosity coefficient – [ML-1T-1]
Effect of temperature on viscosity:
Elastic fatigue:- Loss in the strength of the material due to repeated
(i) for liquid, viscosity  1/ temperature ( due to increase in KE)
alternate strain is called elastic fatigue.
(ii) for gas, viscosity  temperature (due to increase in diffusion rate)
Elastic Potential energy in a stretched wire:- Due to the work done against
Effect of pressure :
restoring force and
(i) In low pressure region the viscosity of gases is directly
Energy density is defined as the stored energy per unit volume proportional to pressure.
Energy density = stored energy (ii) At high pressures the viscosity of gases does not depend upon
Volume pressure. (iii) The viscosity of liquids increases (except water) with
=½Fxl increase of pressure whereas the viscosity of water decreases at few
AxL hundred atmospheres.
= ½ stress x strain Stokes Law & Terminal velocity of an object in a viscous
= ½ Y x strain2 medium:-

Viscous force on an object falling freely through a viscous medium

Fv = 6πrv
Ultimate constant y1 = ½ gt2 (as uy = 0)
velocity attained by so t =  2y1/g
the object falling Range of fluid: Horizontal range = horizontal speed x time
through a viscous =vxt
medium. =  2g(y2 – y1) x  2y1/g
v = 2r2(dsolid-dliquid)g/9 = 2 (y2 – y1) y1
For maximum range y1 = y2 /2 then Rmax = y2
Other applications of Bernoulli theorems:
Nature of flow:
(i) Lift of an aircraft wing (iii) Curved path of spinning ball
(ii) Blowing off roof during wind storm (iv) Atomizer
(i) Streamline flow:- A gentle flow and fluid posses velocity less than
critical velocity.
SURFACE TENSION
(ii) Turbulent flow: If the fluid velocity is more than critical velocity,
Cohesive force: force of attraction between same kinds of molecules
velocity of particle changes haphazardly
Adhesive force: force of attraction between different kinds of
Reynold’s Number
molecules
It is a dimensionless number that determines the nature of flow of
These forces are effective for a very small distance of 10-9m. Sphere
the fluid through a tube. It is given by K = vD/ of this radius around a molecule is called sphere of influence.
 is density of fluid,  is viscosity coefficient of fluid and D is diameter Surface Tension:- It is the property of liquid due to which liquid
of tube. surface behaves as a stretched membrane to occupy minimum
If K < 2000 : fluid flow is laminar, K> 3000: fluid flow is turbulent surface area.
2000 < K < 3000 flow is changing from laminar to turbulent It is measured as force acting per unit length of an imaginary line
Equation of continuity: drawn at liquid surface. Direction of force is perpendicular to the line
For an ideal fluid (non compressible and non viscous) in laminar flow and tangential to the liquid surface. T = F/l
through a tube of non uniform cross section area A1 and A2 . SI unit : newton meter-1 and DF = [MT-2]
Volume/mass of fluid entering = Volume/ mass of fluid leaving at Effect on surface tension:
at one end per second other end per second (a) Effect of contamination: Surface tension decreases
(b) Effect of solute: Completely soluble solid increases surface
A1v1 = A2v2 or AV = constant (Av = Volume per second) tension
While a less soluble solid decreases surface tension
Bernoulli Theorem: (c) Effect of temperature: Surface tension decreases with increase in
Limitations: (i) For an ideal fluid (ii) For streamline flow (iii) No temperature. At critical temperature surface tension of liquid
source and sink becomes zero.
Principle: Energy Conservation Surface Film and surface energy:-
Statement: For an ideal fluid in streamline flow, sum of pressure A thin film of liquid near its surface having thickness equal to
energy per unit volume, kinetic energy per unit volume and potential molecular range is called surface film.
energy per unit volume remains constant. The extra energy possessed by the molecules of surface film of unit
P + ½ v2 +gh = constant area is called surface energy. It is equal to work done to increase the
Application of Bernoulli Theorem area of surface film by unit amount.
(i) Venturimeter [to measure flow of fluid i.e volume per second (av)]: Work done W = F x X
= A1 A2 [ 2gh / (A1 2 - A2 2)] = T x 2l x X
(ii)Speed of efflux or Toricelli theorem:
= T x ΔA
The word efflux means fluid outflow. Torricelli discovered that the
speed of efflux from an open tank is given by a formula identical to Surface energy = work done / change in area
that of a freely falling body. or v =  2gh = T x ΔA/ ΔA
Time taken by the fluid to strike the ground: =T
Using relation h = uyt + ½ gt2 Surface energy is numerically equal to surface tension.
Liquid Meniscus and angle of contact: THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Shape of liquid in a narrow tube is called liquid meniscus.
If a liquid wets the solid surface, meniscus will be concave and if Difference between heat and temperature:-
liquid does not wet solid surface, meniscus will be convex. Heat is a form of energy that flows from hotter object to colder object. Its
In concave meniscus, pressure is reduced by T/2R and in convex SI unit is joule
surface pressure is increased by T/ 2R (where T is surface tension Temperature is a thermal condition that determines the direction of flow
and R is Radius of curvature of liquid meniscus) of heat. Its SI unit is Kelvin
Angle of contact is the angle between tangent drawn at liquid surface Measurement of temperature-
and tangent at solid surface drawn inside the liquid. It is acute (<900) Instrument is Thermometer
for concave surface and obtuse (>900) for convex surface.
Principle of thermometer: It is based on a property of working substance.
Excess pressure inside a liquid drop:-
Property changes uniformly with temperature. Example: Expansion of
Consider a spherical drop of liquid of radius R. Due to its shape there
will be excess pressure inside the drop. Due to excess pressure mercury
inside the drop let its radius increases from R to R + dR against Calibration of thermometer:
surface tension. A thermometer has two fixed points
Work done against surface tension = change in surface energy (a) Lower fixed point I.e. ice point or 00c
(b) Upper fixed point i.e. steam point or 1000c
F x dR = T Δ A
Distance between these two points is equally divided into 100 equal parts
(Pi – Po) A dR = T [4π (R+dR)2 - 4πR2]
But ice point and steam point are not unique points they change with
(Pi – Po) 4πR2 dR = T [4π (R+dR)2 - 4πR2]
pressure so Triple point of water is taken as fixed point. Triple point of
(Pi – Po) = 2T /R [ neglecting (dR)2]
temperature is a unique condition of pressure and temperature (o.46 mm
Note : For soap bubble : (Pi – Po) = 4T /R
For air bubble inside a liquid : (Pi – Po) = 2T /R of Hg and 0.010C) at which water can co exist in all three states
simultaneously
Capillarity: Three scales of temperature:
Rise or fall in liquid level inside a capillary tube when held in a trough Sr No Name LFP UFP No of division
of liquid. 1 Celsius 00C 1000C 100
Reason: Pressure difference due to liquid meniscus 2 Kevin 273K 373K 100
h = 2T Cos / rg 3 Fahrenheit 320F 2120F 180
Conversion from one scale to another:
Temp on one scale – LFP = Temp on other scale-LFP
UFP – LFP UFP – LFP
Thermal Expansion: Expansion of matter on heating
There are three types of thermal expansion
(a) Linear Expansion (in one dimension):
Change in length dl = Ld ( - Coefficient of linear expansion)
(b) Superficial expansion (in two dimension)
Note: 1. If capillary tube is tilted with angle  with the vertical: Change in area dA = Ad ( - Coefficient of superficial expansion)
Height of liquid in capillary tube will remain same but length of liquid
(c) Cubical expansion (in three dimension)
column in capillary will increase
Change in volume dV = Vd ( - Coefficient of volume expansion)
Length of liquid in capillary tube = height of liquid column/ cos 
2. If capillary tube is of insufficient height liquid will not come out Relation between ,, 
as fountain because as liquid approaches to th surface its :: = 1:2:3
radius of curvature increases so h decreases, because Reason for thermal expansion is solids:
Rh = 2T/ g , is a constant quantity. Solids expand on heating because of their asymmetric potential energy
curve
 Specific heat: Specific heat of material of an object is the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of unit mass of material through 10C
So c= dQ/md
If Quantity of substance is one mole (m = M) then specific heat is called
Molar specific heat C = dQ/d
Dulong Petit Law: “the average molar specific heat of all metals at room
temperature is constant”. It is nearly equal to 3R = 6 cal/mole/K.
OR , for heavy solid substances (atomic weight above 35), the product of
specific heat and the atomic weight is nearly constant and has a value of 6
cal/mole/K.
Atomic weight of Element × specific heat of Element = 6 cal/mole/K.
Thermal stress: A solid, fixed at their ends, gets heated; a stress is
produced in it. As dl = Ld So dl/L = d
Strain = d
Now Young modulus (Y) = Stress/ strain
or Y = F/Ad
so F = YAd
Thermal Expansion in liquid
A liquid cannot be heated directly. It is heated when kept in a vessel. So
Latent Heat: Amount of heat required to change the state of unit mass
first heat is received by the vessel and it expands then heat is received by
matter at constant temperature. L = dQ/m
the liquid. So a liquid has two expansion coefficients
Latent heat of ice = 80 cal/gm = 336 J/gm
(i) Real cubical expansion coefficient:
Latent heat of steam = 536 cal/ gm = 2236 J/gm
r = Real expansion in liquid only
Transfer of heat
Original Volume x d
In solid :- By Conduction. In this mode, Heat is transferred from hotter part
(ii) Apparent cubical expansion coefficient:
to colder part of body through molecular collision without actual flow of
a = Apparent expansion in liquid only matter. Heat can be transferred in all directions
Original Volume x d In Fluids: By Convection . In this mode, Heat is transferred from hotter part
Anomalous expansion of water: to colder part of body through actual flow of matter. Heat can be
Water shows anomalous behavior when heated from 00C to 40C. When transferred in upward direction only.
water heats from 00C to 40C, it shows contraction instead of expansion. So In vacuum: By radiation, no need of medium
water has maximum density at 40C. CONDUCTION
This anomalous expansion of water causes survival of aquatic life in polar Steady State and variable state: As a solid is heated, its temperature tends
region. to raise this is called variable state. When all molecules are saturated with
heat, temperature of object becomes constant, this is called steady state.
At this condition there is no absorption of heat by matter of solid.
Isothermal surface:
A two dimension surface of which all the points are at same temperature.
This surface is perpendicular to heat propagation.
Temperature Gradient
Rate of change of temperature with respect to distance from source is
called temperature gradient. Temperature gradient = - d/dx
Thermal Conductivity: Heat transferred through a solid is
(i) directly proportional to temperature gradient Qd/dx
(ii) directly proportional to area of cross section QA
THERMODYNAMICS
(iii) directly proportional to time Qt Thermodynamic Variable: Physical quantities in terms of which a
So Q  A(d/dx)t thermodynamic system can be described. Ex. Pressure, Volume,
or Q = K A(d/dx)t, K is called thermal conductivity of matter. Temperature, Internal energy, Entropy etc
SI unit of thermal conductivity = wattm-1K-1
Thermodynamic Process: Process in which a thermodynamic
DF of thermal conductivity = [MLT-3K-1]
Rate of flow of heat (H) = Q/t = K A(d/dx) variable/ variables of the system gets changed.
Thermal resistance: R = d/H = dX/KA or L/KA Isothermal A thermodynamic process at constant temperature.
Temperature of interface: Adiabatic A thermodynamic system in which there is no
Consider two cuboids of same area of cross section (A) are kept side by exchange of heat from system
side Isochoric: A thermodynamic process at constant volume
Heat is transferred from left to right. At steady state temperature of
Isobaric A thermodynamic process at constant pressure
extreme left surface is 1 and extreme right surface is 2. Let the
Indicator diagram: Graph to show variation between any two
temperature of interface is 
So for first object rate of heat flow (dQ/t) = K1A(1-)/l1 thermodynamic variable.
for second object rate of heat flow (dQ/t) = K2A(-2)/l2 Ex. Variation between pressure and volume. Area enclosed by the
But at steady state: K1A(1-)/l1 = K2A(-2)/l2 curve and pressure axis represents work done to change the volume
or K1(1-)/l1 = K2(-2)/l2 from V1 to V2
or (K11-K1)/l1 = (K2- K22)/l2
Zeroth Law of thermodynamics: It states that if two systems A and B
or  (K1/l1 + K2/l2) = (K11/l1)+ (K22/l2)
or  = (K11/l1)+ (K22/l2)/ (K1/l1 + K2/l2) are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third system C, then A
Newton’s Law of cooing: and B are also in thermal equilibrium.
Rate of cooling of an object is directly proportional to temperature First Law of thermodynamics:
difference between the object and the surroundings (for small temp
If some heat is given to a system, then a part of given heat is used as
difference)
Mathematical expression for Newton’s law of cooling: work done by the system and remaining part is used to increase the
Rate of cooling of an object  temperature difference between the object internal energy of the system.
and the surroundings dQ = dU + dW
-dQ/dt  (object -surroundings) Qf – Qi = (Uf – Ui ) + P(Vf –Vi)
or dQ/dt =-k(object -surroundings)
but dQ = mcd
It is based on Energy Conservation Law.
so mcd/dt =- k(object -surroundings) (heat given to a system means +Q and heat taken from system
or d/dt =- (k/mc )(object -surroundings) means –Q and work done by system is +W and work done on system
or d/dt =- K(object -surroundings) is -W)
or d/ (object -surroundings) = -Kdt Application of Ist law of thermodynamics:
on integration
log (object -surroundings) = -Kt +c (1) For isothermal/ Boiling/ Melting or Cyclic process: For these
(object -surroundings) = e-Kt+c process Δ = 0, as process takes place at constant temperature so Δ
(object -surroundings) = ece-KT U = 0 (Because for a thermodynamic system U = 3/2 KT)
(object -surroundings) = Ce-Kt Hence using first law : dQ = dU + dW
So temperature of object decreases exponentially. Or dQ = dW
So heat given to the system is used for work done by the system. 2 Equation: PV = Constant Equation: PV= constant
(2) For adiabatic Process: or TV-1 = constant
or P1-T= constant
For an adiabatic process no transfer heat with the system i.e. Δ Q = 0 where  = Cp /Cv [air = 1.4]
So from first law of thermodynamics dQ = dU + dW 3 Favourable conditions: Favourable conditions:
0 = dU + dW (i) Quasi static process (i) rapid process
Or dW= -dU (ii) In a perfectly conducting (ii) In a perfectly insulating vessel
vessel
So work is done by the system is at the cost of its internal energy or 4 Indicator diagram: Indicator diagram:
work done on the system will increase internal energy of the system. P P
(3) For isochoric system:
A thermodynamic process in which no change in volume of the
V V
system so Δ V = 0 so W = 0 (as W = PΔV) Slope of adiabatic =  (slope of
Hence dQ = dU isothermal)
So given energy to the system is used for change in internal energy 5 Work done: Work done:
of the system. W =  PdV (limit V1 to V2) W =  PdV (limit V1 to V2)
or W = RT loge(V2/V1) W = RΔT/ 1-
Specific Heats of gas:
There are two specific heats of gas 6 Example: (i) Sudden expansion of gas
State change (Boliing, Melting (ii) Propagation of longitudinal waves in
(1) Molar Specific heat at constant volume: Amount of heat
etc) gas medium
required to raise the temperature of one mole of gas through
Limitation of first law of thermodynamics:
10C at constant volume. It is given by Cv = dU/ dT
First law of thermodynamics does not tell
(2) Molar Specific heat at constant pressure: Amount of heat
1. about direction of transfer of heat.
required to raise the temperature of one mole of gas through
2. under what conditions heat can be converted into work.
10C at constant pressure. It is given by Cp.
3. Upto what extent heat can be converted into work.
Cp is greater than Cv:
Second Law of thermodynamics:
As gas is heated at constant volume, Δ V = 0 or W = 0 (as W = PΔV) Clausius Statement: It is impossible for a self acting machine to
so given heat is used for increasing the temperature only. transfer heat from a system at lower temperature to another at
While at constant pressure, gas expands also due to rise in higher temperature without help of external agency.
temperature. So given heat is used (i) for work done in thermal Kelvin Planck’s Statement:
expansion against pressure (ii) increase in temperature It is impossible for a self acting machine to convert total heat
Thus CP > Cv. absorbed into useful work. (i.e. 100% efficient)
Relation between CP and Cv:- Reversible and irreversible process:
CP – Cv = work done in thermal expansion against pressure A process that can be made to A process that cannot be exactly
= PΔV = R proceed in the reverse direction retraced in the reverse direction
such that any change occurring exactly is called irreversible
Comparison between isothermal and adiabatic process: in the direct process can be process.
SN Isothermal Adiabatic exactly reversed in reverse
1 A thermodynamic process at A thermodynamic process in which no process
constant temperature so exchange of heat with system so ΔQ = 0 Free from dissipative force Involvement of dissipative
ΔT= 0 forces.
HEAT ENGINE
It is device that converts heat into mechanical work.
A heat engine absorbs heat Q1 from the source (heat reservoir) at
high temperature T1 performs work W and rejects heat Q2 to sink at
lower temperature T2. So W = Q1 – Q2
Hence efficiency of a heat engine is given by
 = useful work done/ heat absorbed
= (Q1 – Q2)/ Q1
= 1- (Q2/ Q1)
Heat pump (Refrigerator): It t transfers heat from an object at lower
temperature to another at higher temperature with the help of
external agency.
A heat pump absorbs heat Q2 from an object at lower temperature
T2 with the help of external agency and transfer heat Q1 to the object
at higher temperature T1. If W is the work done by external agency
then Q1 = Q2 + W
So coefficient of performance
 = Heat taken from colder object/ work done by external agency
 = Q2/ W or  = Q2/ (Q1 – Q2)
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES
Boyle’s law: At constant temperature, for a given mass of gas volume is
inversely proportional to pressure of gas.
Volume (V)  1/pressure (P) so PV = constant (K) or P1V1= P2V2
Charle’s law:At constant pressure, for a given mass of gas volume is
directly proportional to absolute temperature of gas.
Volume (V)  Temperature (T) so V/T = constant (K) or V1/ T1 = V2/ T2
Gay Lussac Law
At constant volume, for a given mass of gas pressure is directly
proportional to absolute temperature of gas.
pressure (V)  Temperature (T) P/T = constant (K) or P1/ T1 = P2/ T2
Ideal/Perfect gas equation
For  mole of gas PV = RT
Value of R = 8.31 J/mol – Kelvin or R = 2 Cal/ mol – K
Ideal Gas
A gas is said to be ideal gas if
(i) There is no force of attraction amongst its molecules.
(ii) Size of molecule is negligibly small
An ideal gas follows Gas Laws at all conditions.
Real gases do not follow gas laws at ordinary conditions but at high
temperature and low pressure behavior of gases approaches to ideal gas.
Postulates of kinetic Theory of gas:
(i) All gases consist of molecules. These molecules are rigid and elastic.
(ii) Molecules of a gas are identical in all respect and different for different gas.
(iii) The size of molecules is negligible as compared to volume occupied by the gas
(iv) The molecules perform random motion in all directions with all possible
velocities.
(V) During their random motion molecule collide with one another as well as with
the wall of the vessel. After collision their velocities change.
(vi) The collision is perfectly elastic i.e. no loss of Kinetic energy.
(vii) Between two collisions molecules move on straight path with uniform
velocity. This path is called free path. Mean free path is the average distance
travelled by the molecule between two successive collisions  = KBT/2d2P
(viii) The collision is almost instantaneous.
(ix) Density of gas is same throughout the vessel.
Pressure of the gas:: According to kinetic theory of the gas molecules are
in motion continuously and they collide with each other as well as with the
wall of the vessel. As they collide with the wall of the vessel their
momentum change, it also changes momentum of the wall. Rate of change
of momentum of the wall is called force and force per unit area is called
pressure of the gas.
Expression of pressure:
P = ⅓ mNv2 or P = 2E/3
V
so pressure of gas is 2/3 of kinetic energy of the gas.
Kinetic energy of one mole and one molecule of gas:
Kinetic Energy of one molecule of gas E = 3/2 KB T
Kinetic Energy of one mole of gas E = 3/2 R T,
Thus kinetic energy of gas depends only upon temperature of the gas.
Kinetic interpretation of temperature: (i) Mechanical waves: Required material medium for their propagation.
½ mv2 = 3/2 KB T  v2 = 3KBT/2m  v2 = 3KBT/2m  VrmsT Example: Sound waves, sesmic waves, water waves. Speed is less.
(ii) em waves: do not require medium for propagation. Example- Gamma,
Thus faster the motion of the molecule of the gas, higher will be the kinetic
X ray, UV, Light, IR , microwaves, radio waves Speed is 3 x 108 m/s.
energy and hence higher will be the temperature. Hence temperature of (iii) Matter waves: Waves associated with fast moving microscopic particles.
gas is the measure of kinetic energy of the molecules. Also at T = 0, vrms = 0 Also known as de Broglie waves
Hence absolute zero is the temperature at which all molecular motion (b) on the basis of vibration of particles:
stops. S N Transverse Longitudinal
Degrees of freedom 1 Particles vibrate perpendicular to Particles vibrate Parallel to the
Degrees of freedom of a dynamical system are defined as the total number the propagation of wave propagation of wave
2 travel in the form of crest and travel in the form of compression
of coordinates or independent quantities required to describe completely trough and rarefaction
the position and configuration of the system. It is given by f = 3N – K 3 No variation in pressure and Pressure and density increases
Where N is number of particles in the system and k is number of density during compression
independent relations between particles 4 Can propagate through medium Can propagate through medium
Monoatomic gas N = 1, k=0 f=3 having shearing stress. Ex Solids, having compressive stress So it
Diatomic gas N=2, K =1 f=5 Liquid surface, strings can travel solid liquid & gas
5 Can be polarised Can not be polarised
Triatomic gas N = 3, K = 2 (linear arrangement) f=7
Speed of transverse waves:
N = 3, K = 3 (non linear arrangement) f=6 (i) In a stretched string
Law of equiparition of energy: V = [Tension in the string (T)/mass per unit length ()]
It states that at thermal equilibrium the energy of a system is equally (ii) in a solid: v = [modulus of rigidity ()/ density (d)]
divided amongst its various degrees of freedom and energy associated with Speed of longitudinal waves:
each degree of freedom per molecule is ½ KB T where KB is Boltzman (i) in solid : v = [young modulus(Y)/ density (d)]
Constant. (ii) in liquid: v = [Bulk modulus(B)/ density ()]
Speed of longitudinal waves in gas:
So total energy of a system = ½ KBT x f x N
According to Laplace phenomenon of propagation of sound waves in air is
Specific heat of gas an adiabatic phenomenon. So v = [Badiabatic/ density ()]
Total energy of a system (U) = ½ KBT x f x N  U = ½ fRT v = k P/ or v = RT/M
Now specific heat at constant volume will be CV = dU/ dT Factors affecting speed of sound:
= d/dt (½ fRT) = ½ fR (i) Effect of pressure: No effect
Also CP = CV + R  = ½ fR + R = R( ½ f +1) (ii) Effect of temperature: v T (directly proportional to square root of
absolute temperature. For 10C rise in temp speed increases by 0.61m/s)
Now  = Cp/ CV = R( ½ f +1)/ ½ fR =1+2/f
(iii) Effect of humidity: Humid air is less denser as compare to dry air (dry
For monoatomic gas f =3 so  = 5/3, For diatomic gas f = 5 so  = 7/5
air = 1.293 kg/m & (humid air = 0.8 kg/m ) as v  1/ So v in humid air is
3 3

more than that in dry air

WAVES (iv) Effect of air: Favorable direction of wind increases speed of sound in
Wave motion : A disturbance that travels through the medium in the form of air and opposite direction decreases the speed.
repeated vibrations of the particles of the medium about their mean position. (vi) No effect of frequency & amplitude
The disturbance is handed over from one particle to the next. Progressive wave
Characteristics: A wave that propagates through medium is called progressive wave. If
1. The disturbance or energy propagates through the medium while particles of medium perform SHM then progressive wave is called Plane
particles vibrate about their mean position. (without motion of matter.) progressive harmonic wave.
2. Wave performs translatory motion and particles perform SHM. So wave
Equation: y= A sin [2(t/T – x/)] or y= A sin [2t/T - 2x/]
velocity is constant and different from particle velocity.
y= A sin [t – kx] [= 2/T & k = 2/]
4. There is phase difference between two successive particles. There is
always phase lag in the direction of propagation. also y = A sin [2/(t/T – x)] or y = A sin [2/(vt – x)]
Types of waves: Phase and phase difference
(a) on the basis of requirement of medium for propagation: Phase of a vibrating particle represents position and direction of motion of
the particle. It is given by  = 2(t/T – x/), It depends upon ‘t’ and ‘x’
(a) Phase difference between two particles at a distance x 1 and x2 from Stationary wave in a stretched string:-
origin at same time t  = 2x/ When a string is tied at its ends and plucked in the middle, a plane
(b) Phase difference between two positions of same particle at time t1 and t2 progressive wave is produced that moves from one end to another. End of
= 2t/T the string reflects the wave. Thus there are two waves in the string moving
Reflection of wave: in opposite direction. These waves superimposed on each other and
For a plane progressive wave y= A sin [2(t/T - x/)] produce stationary wave in the string. As the ends of string are tight,
equation of reflected wave is particles have no freedom to vibrate so there will be nodes.
(a) As a wave is reflected from a free surface, the equation will be
y= A sin [2(t/T + x/)]
(b) As a wave is reflected from a rigid surface, the equation will be
y= A sin [2(t/T + x/)+]
y= - A sin [2(t/T + x/)]
Principle of superposition:
When two or more waves propagate through same medium then net
displacement of a particle is vector sum of the displacements produced by
the waves Y = Y1 + Y2 ………….
Phenomenon based on superposition:
(1) Stationary waves (2) Beats (3) Interference
Stationary Wave
When two identical plane progressive waves propagate through same
medium but in opposite direction, they superimpose on each other and Expression for fundamental frequency:-
produce a new wave in the medium. This new wave stretch and shrink in When a string of length vibrates in one loop only
the same medium and does not propagate in forward direction. This wave is 1/2 = l
called stationary wave. Example: vibration in stretch string & vibration of air 1 = 2l
column in organ pipe. So frequency f1 = v/1
Necessary condition for producing stationary wave is medium must be f1 = v/2l
finite. This is called fundamental frequency or first overtone produced by a string.
Equation of stationary wave: Y = 2A sin (2t/T)cos(2x/) Expression for overtones and harmonics:
Y = A’ sin (2t/T) where A’ = 2A cos (2x/) If string vibrates in 2 loops
Difference between progressive and stationary wave: 2/2 + 2/2 = l
2 = l
SN Point of difference Progressive wave Stationary wave Hence f2 = v/2
1 Propagation through Yes No f2 = v/l i.e 2f1 (second overtone/ first harmonic)
medium Similarly for 3 loops
2 Energy transfer Yes No f3 = 3f1 (third overtone/ second harmonic)
3 Vibration of particles All particles Nodes do not vibrate hence f1: f2:f3 ……… = 1:2:3……
vibrate Both even and odd harmonics can be produced by a stretched string.
4 Amplitude of Same for all Nodes have zero and Case 2:
vibration antinodes have Organ Pipe: As we blow air in organ pipe, a progressive wave move from
maximum amplitude one end to another. Other end reflects the wave (as rigid end in closed
5 Formation of straight Never Two times in one time organ pipe and free end in open organ pipe)
line period Closed organ pipe Open organ pipe
6 Phase difference Phase difference Between two nodes all As we blow air in organ pipe, a As we blow air in organ pipe, a
between two occurs particles have same progressive wave move from one progressive wave move from one end
consecutive particles phase while there is end to another. Other end reflects to another. Other end reflects the
phase difference of 1800 the wave as rigid end and wave as free end and stationary wave
on either side of a node. stationary wave is produced due to is produced due to super position of
super position of the waves in the waves in organ pipe
organ pipe At the open ends particles have
At the close end particles have no maximum freedom to vibrate so there
freedom to vibrate so there will be
nodes while at the open ends
particles have maximum freedom
to vibrate so there will be
antinodes
When air is blown lightly formation
of stationary wave is shown in
figure
1/4 = l
1= 4l
So frequency f1 = v/1
f1 = v/4l
this frequency is called
fundamental frequency or first
overtone
If air is blown hard, stationary
wave will be as shown in figure
Now 2/4 + 2/2 = l
32/4 = l
or 2 = 4l/3
thus f3 = v/ 2
= 3v/4l = 3f1
this frequency is called first
harmonic or third overtone
similarly
f5 = 5f1
this frequency is called second
harmonic or fifth overtone
thus f1 : f3: f5 …. = 1:3:5….
So only odd harmonics can be
produced using close organ pipe
Beats:
When two sound waves of nearly same frequency ( f<10hz) travel through
same medium, due to superposition intensity of sound rises and falls at the
same point. This rise and fall is called beat and number of beats per second
is called beat frequency.
Expression for beat frequency:
Consider two sound waves
Y1 = A sin 2f1t &
Y2 = A sin 2f1t are propagating through same medium.
will be antinodes
When air is blown lightly formation of
stationary wave is shown in figure
1/2 = l
1= 2l
So frequency f1 = v/1
f1 = v/2l
this frequency is called fundamental
frequency or first overtone
If air is blown hard, stationary wave
will be as shown in figure
Now 2/2 + 2/2 = l
2= l
thus f2 = v/ 2
= v/l
= 2f1
this frequency is called first harmonic
or second overtone
similarly
f3 = 3f1
this frequency is called second
harmonic or third overtone
thus f1 : f2: f3 …. = 1:2:3….
So both even & odd harmonics can be
produced using open organ pipe
(reason for sound produced by open
organ pipe is more sweet)
Due to superposition
Y = Y2 + Y1
Y = A sin 2f1t + A sin 2f2t
Y = A[sin 2f1t + sin 2f2t]
Y = A[2sin {(2f1t + 2f2t)/2} cos {(2f1t - 2f2t)/2}
Y = 2A sin (f1 + f2)t cos(f1 - f2)t
or Y = A’ sin (f1 + f2)t where A’ = 2A cos(f1 - f2)t
Case 1 : for max intensity amplitude Case 2 : for min intensity amplitude
must be maximum must be minimum
So cos(f1 - f2)t = + 1 So cos(f1 - f2)t = 0
i.e. cos(f1 - f2)t = cos n i.e. cos(f1 - f2)t = cos (2n+1)/2
(where n = 0,1,2……..) (where n = 0,1,2……..)
(f1 - f2)t= n (f1 - f2)t= (2n+1)/2
t = n/(f1 – f2) t = (2n+1)/2(f1 – f2)
thus intensity of sound becomes thus intensity of sound becomes
maximum at time 0, 1/(f1 – f2), 2/(f1 – minimum at time 1/2(f1 – f2), 3/2(f1–
f 2) … f2) …
and time duration between two and time duration between two
maximum = 1/(f1 – f2) minimum = 1/(f1 – f2)
So intensity of sound becomes maximum after each 1/(f 1 – f2) and minimum
after each 1/(f1 – f2) Thus beat frequency = (f1 – f2)
Doppler Effect
Apparent increase or decrease in the frequency of the source due to relative
motion between source and observer is called Doppler Effect.
To observe Doppler Effect speed of source or observer must not be more
than speed of sound
Doppler effect is asymmetric as it depends upon relative motion between
source and observer as well as on the facts which is moving source or
observer.
Case 1: - only Source is moving Case 1: - only Source is moving
Consider a sound source having Consider a sound source having
frequency ‘f’ is at a distance ‘v’ (speed frequency ‘f’ is at a distance ‘v’ (speed
of sound) from stationary observer. of sound) from stationary observer.
‘f’ waves emitted by the source will be ‘f’ waves emitted by the source will be
uniformly distributed between source uniformly distributed between source
and observer. and observer.
So wave length  = v/f ------- (1) So wave length  = v/f ------- (1)
Let source is moving with speed vs Let observer is moving with speed vo
towards the observer. towards the source
Now waves emitted by the source will Now observer will receives the waves
be distributed in distance (v-vs) of distance vo in addition to f waves
So new wave length ’= (v – vs)/f So f’ = f + waves of distance vo
Hence new frequency f’ = v/ ’ f’= f + vo/
or f’ = vf/ (v – vs) f’ = f + vo f/v
so f’ > f f’ = f(1+vo/v)
similarly if source is moving away from f’ = f (v+v0)/v
observer f’ = vf/ (v + vs) so f’> f
so f’ < f similarly if source is moving away from
observer f’ = f (v-v0)/v