From the Beginning of Space and Time: Modern Science and the Mystic Universe

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From the Beginning of Space and Time:

Modern Science and the Mystic Universe

Manjunath.R

manjunath5496@gmail.com

Copyright © 2019 Manjunath.R

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I dedicate this book to everyone who has contributed significantly to our understanding of the universe as a whole, why it is the way it is, and why it even exists.

My goal is simple. It is a complete understanding of the universe, why it is as it is and why it exists at all.

- Stephen Hawking

Contents

Title Page

Copyright

Dedication

Epigraph

Introduction

Chapter 1

Chapter 2

LONG STANDING QUESTIONS

Chapter 3

Chapter 4

Chapter 5

Conclusion

Glossary

Acknowledgement

One final thought

The universe's imagination always remains wider than our human imaginations.

– Julie J. Morley

Introduction

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We human beings − who are ourselves mere collections of fundamental particles of nature and the product of quantum fluctuations in the very early universe – unsure of the existence of more than one universe, dark matter, or dark energy, as well as other exotic conceptions − try to wonder, seek answers and gazing at the immense heavens above, we have always asked a multitude of questions: Which came first, the galaxy or the stars? What is Dark Matter? What is Dark Energy? What Came Before the Big Bang? What's Inside a Black Hole? Are We Alone? How old is the Universe? What is the currently most accepted model for the Universe? What is the origin of the universe? How did it come into existence, and what was the state of the universe in its earliest moments?Does gravity travel at the speed of light? Does the graviton have mass? Is the Big Bang a Black Hole? What is the structure of space-time just outside astrophysical black holes? Do their space times have horizons? What happens in a black hole? Where did the Big Bang happen? What is the evidence for the Big Bang? How did life come to exist on Earth? What conditions were necessary for the evolution of life, and is life unique to our planet or common throughout the universe? What is the nature of time and space? How does the fabric of space-time behave, and what are the implications of this for our understanding of the universe? How did the structure of the universe form and evolve over time? What role did dark matter and dark energy play in the formation of galaxies and galaxy clusters?If the production of microscopic black holes is feasible, can the LHC create a black hole that will eventually eat the world? Many others! These questions continue to trouble scientists despite the massive amounts of data coming in from observatories around the globe and from particle physics experiments like the Large Hadron Collider in Switzerland, as well as despite the countless hours that astronomers and physicists spend in front of a chalkboard or running computational simulations.

Cosmology is the scientific study of the universe as a whole, including its origin, evolution, and structure. It is an interdisciplinary field that draws on knowledge from astronomy, physics, and mathematics to understand the cosmos on the largest scales. It is one of the oldest branches of human inquiry and has its roots in ancient civilizations that tried to understand the nature of the cosmos. The earliest recorded cosmological ideas date back to ancient civilizations such as the Babylonians, Egyptians, and Greeks. These civilizations believed that the universe was ordered and that the gods controlled its workings. The Babylonians were the first to develop a systematic study of the heavens, and they recorded the movements of the planets and stars on clay tablets. The Egyptians also had a deep understanding of the cosmos and believed that the sun and stars were the manifestations of gods. In ancient Greece, philosophers such as Thales, Anaximander, and Pythagoras tried to explain the nature of the universe using reason and observation. However, it was the philosopher Aristotle who had the most significant impact on Greek cosmology. He believed that the universe was eternal, and the earth was at the center of the cosmos, with the stars and planets moving around it in perfect circles. The Greek astronomer Ptolemy developed a sophisticated cosmological model that was widely accepted for over a thousand years. According to this model, the earth was at the center of the universe, and the sun, moon, planets, and stars moved around it in a series of perfect circles. This model was refined over time, but it was unable to explain some of the observed phenomena in the night sky. The Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus challenged the Ptolemaic model in the 16th century, proposing that the sun was at the center of the universe, and the planets, including the earth, orbited around it. This model, known as the heliocentric model, was later confirmed by the observations of the Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei, who used the newly invented telescope to study the planets and stars. In the 17th century, the English physicist Isaac Newton developed the laws of motion and gravity, which revolutionized our understanding of the cosmos. He proposed that the universe was governed by universal laws of physics, and that the same physical laws applied everywhere in the cosmos. This idea was later used to explain the motion of the planets, comets, and other celestial objects. The 20th century saw a major shift in cosmological thinking, with the development of new theories and technologies that enabled us to study the universe in new and innovative ways. One of the most significant developments was the discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation in 1965, which provided evidence for the Big Bang theory. This theory proposed that the universe began as a singularity and has been expanding ever since. In the latter part of the 20th century, advances in technology enabled us to observe the cosmos in new ways, such as using radio telescopes and space-based observatories. These observations led to the development of new theories, such as the inflationary universe theory, which proposed that the universe underwent a period of rapid expansion in the first few moments after the Big Bang. To sum up, the history of cosmology is a long and fascinating one that has been shaped by the ideas and observations of many cultures and individuals. While our understanding of the universe has come a long way, there is still much to learn, and cosmologists continue to work towards unraveling the mysteries of the cosmos. One of the major areas of inquiry in cosmology is the origin of the universe, known as the Big Bang theory. This theory proposes that the universe began as a singularity, an infinitely hot and dense point in space-time, around 13.8 billion years ago. From this initial state, the universe rapidly expanded and cooled, eventually leading to the formation of atoms and the structure we see today. Another area of study in cosmology is the nature of dark matter and dark energy. Observations of galaxy motion and the cosmic microwave background radiation have provided strong evidence that the majority of the universe is composed of these mysterious, invisible substances. Despite extensive research, the true nature of dark matter and dark energy remains unknown, and their study is an active area of research in cosmology. The structure of the universe is also a central focus of cosmology. The large scale structure of the universe is thought to be comprised of galaxy clusters and superclusters, which are connected by vast cosmic voids. Cosmologists use computer simulations and observational data to study the formation and evolution of this structure. In recent years, cosmology has made significant progress due to advances in technology and data collection. The study of the cosmic microwave background radiation has provided us with valuable information about the universe's early history, and large scale surveys of galaxies have given us a detailed look at the universe's current structure. In essence, cosmology is a fascinating field of study that seeks to answer some of the most fundamental questions about the universe. From the origin of the universe to the nature of dark matter and dark energy, cosmologists are constantly working to expand our understanding of the cosmos.

Why does anything exist as opposed to nothing? What kind of thing is reality? Why are the natural laws so perfectly balanced to make it possible for intelligent creatures like us to exist? These questions serve as the framework for what is now known as the "standard model" of the beginning of the universe, which takes us on an amazing adventure starting from the Planck Epoch, the very beginning of the universe's history, and ending with the scientific breakthrough of the Cosmic Microwave Background and Albert Einstein's Theory of Relativity. And now, with advancement in cosmology, quantum theory, relativity and string theory, many researchers have been able to solve problems relating to almost everything from the smallest quarks to the largest exploding stars. Astrobiology(often referred to as xenobiology or exobiology) upholds its perspective on life elsewhere in the universe, holding that while the dimensions of the universe allows for the possibility of millions of extraterrestrial civilizations, there is no reliable evidence to support the claim that any of these civilizations have ever been to Earth to meet us. Only 4% of our universe is made up of the matter that goes into making the smallest atomic particles, planets, stars, galaxies, black holes, and wormholes, which has caused some scientists in the community of theoretical physics to scramble to find an explanation for it in recent years. The remaining 96% of the cosmos is a complete mystery. Until now. The universe is full of mysteries. It might conceal dimensions of space in addition to the well-known three that we are familiar with. There may even be an undiscovered, invisible neighboring universe to our own.

The question of why we exist is one of the oldest and most profound philosophical questions, and it has been pondered by thinkers for centuries. There is no one answer that can fully explain the reasons for our existence, as it is a complex and multifaceted question that can be approached from many different perspectives. From a scientific perspective, we can understand why we exist in terms of the laws of physics and the way they have shaped the universe and the development of life on Earth. For example, the laws of physics, such as gravitation and the laws of thermodynamics, have created the conditions that allowed for stars to form and eventually give birth to planets like Earth. Over time, life on Earth evolved through a process of natural selection, leading to the development of species like humans. From a religious perspective, the reasons for our existence may be understood in terms of a higher power or deity creating the universe and humanity for a specific purpose. Different religious traditions have different beliefs about why we exist and the role we play in the larger cosmic plan. Philosophically, the question of why we exist can be seen as a question about the meaning and purpose of life. Some philosophers argue that life has no inherent meaning, while others believe that our existence is imbued with purpose, either by a higher power or through our own actions and choices. Ultimately, the reasons for our existence are a subject of ongoing debate and discussion, and each person may have their own unique perspective based on their beliefs and experiences. There is no one answer that can fully explain why we exist, and the question may remain unanswered for some, but that does not diminish its importance or the continued effort to understand it.

Theories are models or frameworks that attempt to explain or predict a phenomenon. While theories are generally useful in providing a way to understand and make sense of complex phenomena, they are not infallible and can have limitations and failures. Here are a few examples of failures of theories:

Incomplete or inaccurate assumptions: The assumptions underlying a theory may not always be complete or accurate, leading to limitations or errors in the predictions or explanations the theory provides.

Limited applicability: The scope of a theory may be limited to a specific context or situation, and may not be applicable to other contexts or situations.

Contradictory evidence: New evidence or observations may contradict the predictions or explanations provided by a theory, calling into question its validity or usefulness.

Unfalsifiability: Some theories may be inherently unfalsifiable, meaning that it is impossible to prove or disprove them with empirical evidence. This makes them difficult to test or verify, and may limit their usefulness in explaining or predicting phenomena.

Inadequate testing: The testing of a theory may be inadequate or flawed, leading to incorrect conclusions about its validity or usefulness.

It is important to note that failures of theories do not necessarily mean that the theory is useless or without value. Rather, it highlights the need for continued refinement and improvement of theories through ongoing research and testing.

Seeking an answer to the fundamental puzzle of why do we exist at all? There are just a few of the many questions that cosmologists seek to answer, and the field continues to evolve as new data and technology become available. The study of cosmology provides us with a deeper understanding of the universe and our place within it and it continues to be a source of wonder and discovery. This book provides a glimpse into the living story of our universe and a clear, readable and self-contained introduction to the story of how our understanding of the cosmos has evolved significantly over time. It fills the gap and addresses the issues that are important to everyone, or at least to everyone reading this book, and it inspires us to explore the black holes and time machines, entire cosmos from creation to ultimate destruction, with a wealth of secrets at every turn. It discusses the mind-bending nature of time and space, God's involvement in creation, the past and future of the universe, and more.

The purpose of the universe is a philosophical and scientific question that has been debated by scholars and thinkers for centuries. While there is no definitive answer, here are some perspectives on the purpose of the universe:

From a scientific perspective, the universe can be seen as the result of natural processes that have unfolded over billions of years. The purpose of the universe, in this view, is simply to exist and to continue to evolve according to the laws of physics.

From a religious perspective, the purpose of the universe may be tied to the beliefs of a particular faith. For example, some religious traditions hold that the universe was created by a deity or deities, and that its purpose is to serve as a manifestation of the divine.

From a human perspective, the purpose of the universe may be to provide a home for life, including human life, and to offer opportunities for growth, exploration, and understanding. In this view, the universe can be seen as a vast and complex environment that offers endless possibilities for discovery and learning.

Ultimately, the purpose of the universe is a deeply personal and subjective question that may depend on one's worldview, beliefs, and values.

Gravity was first described by Sir Isaac Newton in the 17th century, and is explained by his law of universal gravitation, which states that every object in the universe attracts every other object with a force that is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. Gravity is the force that keeps us anchored to the Earth, and without it, we would float off into space. Despite its importance, the nature of gravity remains a mystery in many ways, and it is one of the most active areas of research in physics today. Dark matter is a type of matter that is thought to make up about 85% of the matter in the universe, but it does not interact with light or other forms of electromagnetic radiation. The nature of dark matter is still unknown, and scientists are working to develop new ways to detect it and understand its properties. Dark energy is a mysterious force that is thought to be responsible for the accelerating expansion of the universe. Its nature and origin are still unknown, and scientists are exploring different theories to explain it.  According to general relativity, space and time are intimately linked and can be warped by matter and energy. However, the principles of general relativity and quantum mechanics seem to be incompatible, and scientists are searching for a theory of quantum gravity that can unify these two branches of physics. The Big Bang theory is the most widely accepted explanation for the origin of the universe, but it still leaves many unanswered questions, such as what caused the Big Bang, and what happened in the moments immediately after. While there is no conclusive evidence of extraterrestrial life, the vast size and age of the universe suggest that life may exist elsewhere. Scientists are exploring different techniques for detecting signs of life on other planets and moons, and searching for habitable environments beyond our solar system. The mysteries of the universe continue to captivate and challenge scientists. As technology and scientific knowledge advance, we may be able to unlock more of these secrets and gain a deeper understanding of the universe and our place within it.

Have we reached the end of physics? As far as our current understanding of the universe goes, there is no reason to believe that physics will ever come to an end. Physics is the study of the fundamental laws of nature, and these laws have been observed to be consistent and unchanging throughout the history of the universe. Of course, our understanding of physics is constantly evolving as new discoveries are made and new theories are developed. However, even if we were to discover a completely new set of physical laws that completely upended our current understanding of the universe, it is likely that the study of these new laws would simply become a new branch of physics. Furthermore, physics is intimately connected to the other natural sciences, such as chemistry, biology, and geology. As our understanding of these fields grows, it is likely that our understanding of physics will continue to grow as well. So, in short, there is no reason to believe that physics will ever come to an end. As long as there is a universe to observe and study, there will be a need to understand its fundamental laws. Why something? Why not nothing? Why is There Universe rather Than Nothing? Science scrambles, Nature mystifies.This book concentrates on presenting the subject from the understanding perspective of cosmology and brings the reader right up to date with curious aspects of cosmology established over the last few centuries. This book assumes cosmology a journey not a destination and the advance of knowledge is an infinite progression towards a goal that forever recedes. This book will be of interest to students, teachers and general science readers interested in fundamental ideas of cosmology from the Big Bang to the present day and on into the future. It encourages us to think about the universe and our place in it in unique and fascinating ways while focusing our attention on the ongoing quest for the enticing secrets at the centre of time and space. Just as the mind is a womb of wordless thoughts, the universe is a fountain where everything is conceived.

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Chapter 1

THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSE IN 1000 WORDS OR LESS

The effort to understand the universe is one of the very few things that lifts human life a little above the level of farce, and gives it some of the grace of tragedy.

− Steven Weinberg

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Cosmic Event in which our universe was born.

Cosmic Inflation in which the Grand Unified Force was separated into the Four Forces of Nature (gravity, electromagnetic, the weak force and the strong force) as We Now Know Them, and the space expanded by a factor of the order of 10²⁶ over a time of the order of 10−36 to 10−32 seconds to Many Times Its Original Size in a Very Short Period of Time – Rapid expansion in which the universe super cooled, though not Quite as Quickly from about 10²⁷ down to 10²² Kelvins.

There were 2 types of fundamental particles: quarks and leptons. Quarks felt the strong interaction, leptons did not. Both quarks and leptons felt the other three interactions.

PARTICLE-ANTIPARTICLE ANNIHILATION in which All the Antiparticles in the Universe Annihilated Almost All the Particles, Creating a Universe Made Up of Matter and Photons (which did not possessed electrical charge nor did they had any rest mass) and no antimatter. This process satisfied a number of conservation laws including:

Conservation of electric charge: The net charge before and after was zero.

Conservation of momentum and energy: The net momentum and energy before and after was zero.

If the positron and the electron were moving very slowly, then they went into orbit round each other producing a quasi-stable bound atom-like object called positronium. Positronium was very unstable: the positron and the electron invariably destroyed each other to produce high energetic gamma photons.

DEUTERIUM AND HELIUM PRODUCTION in which Many of the positively charged Protons and electrically neural Neutrons in the Early Universe Combined to Form Heavy Hydrogen and Helium. The proton was composed of two up quarks and one down quark and the neutron was composed of two down quarks and one up quark.

Charge on the up quark was + 2/3× 1.6 × 10−19 coulombs

Charge on the down quark was −1/3 × 1.6 × 10−19 coulombs

The charge on the proton was approximately + 1.6 × 10−19 coulombs and that on the electron was −1.6 × 10−19 coulombs.

Intrinsic energy of a proton or a neutron was = Kinetic Energy of quarks + Potential Energy of quarks + intrinsic energy of quarks

RECOMBINATION in which Electrons Combined with Hydrogen and Helium Nuclei, Producing Neutral Atoms. A neutrino was passed through matter then it reacted with a proton to produce a positively charged particle with the same mass as the electron — this particle was the positron. The properties of the strong force were such that the quarks did not all stick together in one large mass (otherwise the newly born universe would have been a huge lump of fundamental constituent of matter). The strong force ensured that quarks and antiquarks could only stick together in groups of three:

2 up quarks + 1 down quark → Proton

or  

2 up antiquarks + 1 down antiquark → Antiproton

or as a quark and an antiquark pair (up quark + up antiquark).

GALAXY FORMATION in which the Milky Way Galaxy (consisted of ≈10¹¹ stars) was Formed – TURBULENT FRAGMENTATION in which a Giant Cloud of Gas Fragments broke into Smaller Clouds, which later Became Protostars – MASSIVE STAR FORMATION in which a Massive Star was Formed. The star's gravity tried to squeeze the star into the smallest ball possible. But the nuclear fusion reaction in the star's core created strong outward radiation pressure. This outward radiation pressure resisted the inward squeeze of a force called gravity.

STELLAR EVOLUTION in which Stars Evolved and Eventually Died – IRON PRODUCTION in which Iron was Produced in the Core of a Massive Star, Resulting in a Disaster called SUPERNOVA EXPLOSION in Which a Massive Star Ended Its Life by Exploding outpouring electromagnetic radiation over a very short period of time – STAR FORMATION in which the Sun was Formed within a cloud of gas in a spiral arm of the Milky Way Galaxy. There was a mass limit to neutron stars. It was approximately about 4 solar mass. Beyond this limit the degenerate neutron pressure was not sufficient to overcome the gravitational contraction and the star collapsed to black holes. There was no mass limit to the mass of a black hole.

PLANETARY DIFFERENTIATION in which the vast disk of gas and debris that swirled around the sun giving birth to planets, moons, and asteroids. Planet Earth was the third planet out − VOLATILE GAS EXPULSION in which the Atmosphere of the Earth was Produced – MOLECULAR REPRODUCTION in which Life on Earth was created.

PROTEIN CONSTRUCTION in which Proteins were built from organic compounds that contain amino and carboxyl functional groups (Amino Acids) – FERMENTATION in which Microorganisms Obtained Energy by converting sugar into alcohol – CELL DIFFERENTIATION in which dividing cells changed their functional or phenotypical type and Eukaryotic Life had a beginning.

RESPIRATION in which Eukaryotes Evolved to Survive in an Atmosphere with Increasing Amounts of Oxygen – MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS CREATION In Which Organisms Composed of Multiple Cells emerged – SEXUAL REPRODUCTION in Which a New Form of Reproduction Occurred and with the invention of sex, two organisms exchanged whole paragraphs, pages and books of their DNA helix, producing new varieties for the sieve of natural selection. And the natural selection was a choice of stable forms and a rejection of unstable ones. And the variation within a species occurred randomly, and that the survival or extinction of each organism depended upon its ability to adapt to the environment. And organisms that found sex uninteresting quickly became extinct.

EVOLUTIONARY DIVERSIFICATION in which the Diversity of Life Forms on Earth Increased Greatly in a Relatively Short Time – TRILOBITE DOMINATION In Which Trilobites (an extremely successful subphylum of the arthropods that were at the top of the food chain in Earth's marine ecosystems for about 250 million years) Ruled the Earth.

LAND EXPLORATION In Which Animals First Venture was On to Land – COMET COLLISION in which a Comet smashed the Earth – DINOSAUR EXTINCTION In Which an asteroid or comet slammed into the northern part of the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico. This world-wide cataclysm brought to an end the long age of the fossil reptiles of the Mesozoic era (dinosaurs)

MAMMAL EXPANSION in which Many Species of warm-blooded animals with hair and backbones was developed – HOMO SAPIENS MANIFESTATION In Which our caveman ancestors Appeared in Africa from a line of creatures that descended from apes.

LANGUAGE ACQUISITION in which something called curiosity ensued which triggered the breath of perception and our caveman ancestors became conscious of their existence and they learned to talk and they Developed Spoken