LEVELING-is the process of
Difference in Elevation- the
directly or indirectly measuring
vertical distances to determine the
elevation of points or their
differences in elevation.
1. Level Surface- is a curved
surface which is at any point
perpendicular to the direction of
the gravity or the plumb line.
2. Level Line-is a curved line in a
level surface all points of which are
normal to the direction of gravity
and equidistant from the center of
the earth.
3. Horizontal Surface- is a plane
that is tangent to a level surface at
a particular point.-perpendicular to
the plumb line at the same point.
4. Horizontal Line- a straight line
in a horizontal plane which is
tangent to a level line at one
point.-perpendicular to the
direction of gravity at the point of
tangency.
5. Vertical Line- is a line parallel
to the direction of gravity.
6. Mean Sea Level- is an
imaginary surface of the sea which
is midway between high and low
tides. - taken as the reference
surface to which most ground
elevations are referred.
7. Datum- is any convenient level
surface coincident or parallel with
mean sea level to which elevations
of a particular area are referred.
8. Elevation- is the vertical
distance above or below mean sea
level (positive/negative elevation)
or any other selected datum.
9.
difference in elevation between two
points is the vertical distance
between the two level surfaces in
which the points lie.
LEVELING METHODS
Traditional method and still useful
in the present:
 Direct Leveling
 Trigonometric Leveling
 Barometric Leveling
1. Direct/Spirit Leveling- is the
commonly employed method of
determining the elevation of points
some distance apart by a series of
set ups of a leveling instrument
along a selected route. Also
referred to as "spirit leveling"
since the device used is a spirit
level.
 Differential Leveling-
distances are measured
above or below a level line
and these values are used to
compute the elevation of
points or their differences in
elevation. - most precise
method
 Double-rodded Leveling- a
method of determining
differences in elevation
between points by employing
two level routes
simultaneously
 Three-wire Leveling- a
method of determining
differences in elevation
wherein three horizontal
hairs are read and recorded.
2 Reciprocal Leveling- is the
process of accurately determining
the difference in elevation between
two intervisible points located at a
considerable distance apart and
between which points leveling
could not be performed in the usual
manner.
-wide river, deep ravine, across
canyons and gullies
3. Profile Leveling- is used to
determine differences in elevation
between points at designated short
measured intervals along an
established line to provide data
from which a vertical section of the
ground surface can be plotted.
-design of roads, railroads, canals,
drainage systems, and
transmission lines
4. Trigonometric Leveling- is
employed in determining by
trigonometric computations the
difference in elevation between two
points from measurements of its
horizontal or slope distance and
the vertical angle between the
points.
-distances obtained by: stadia,
triangulation, direct taping.
5. Stadia Leveling- combines
features of direct leveling with
those of trigonometric leveling.
-differences in elevation between
points are computed from observed
vertical angles and the three
intercepts on a rod held at each
point backsighted or foresighted.
6. Barometric Leveling- involves
the determination of differences in
elevation between points by
measuring the variation in
atmospheric pressure at each point
by means of a barometer
7. Cross-section Leveling- in
highway or railroads construction it
is often necessary to obtain a
representation of the ground
surface on either side of the
centerline.
8. Borrow-Pit Leveling- is a
method of determining the relative
elevations of points in borrow pit
excavations for the purpose of
calculating volumes of earthwork.
-usually encountered in the
construction of roads and railroads.
TYPES OF LEVELS
1. Dumpy Level- is the most
widely used direct leveling
instrument. It has a long telescope
which is rigidly attached to the
level bar. The telescope which can
be rotated through 360°, fixes the
direction of the line of sight.
Attached to the level bar is a level
vial which always remains in the
same vertical plane as the
telescope. The whole instrument is
supported by means of a tripod.
-is simple in construction, the
instrument requires fewer
adjustments.
2. Wye Level- is identical to the
Dumpy Level. The only distinct
difference between these two
instruments is in the manner by
which their telescopes are attached
to the supporting level bar.
- has a detachable telescope which
rests in support called wyes.
4. Builder's Level- is used
primarily in the different phases of
building construction where a high
degree of precision is not a primary
requisite.
-engineers, architects and builders
use it in the setting of concrete
forms, batter boards, and in
establishing grades for earthwork.
-often called a construction level or
an architect's level.
4. Automatic Level- self-leveling
featured are incorporated in
automatic levels.
-has become popular for
conventional leveling work because
of the ease and speed of their
operation.
-is equipped with a prismatic
device called compensator which is
suspended on fine, non-magnetic
wires
5. Tilting Levels- this type of
leveling instrument can be tilted or
rotated about its horizontal axis. A
bull's-eye level is employed for its
quick and approximate leveling.
-equipped with a horizontal circle
which makes it suitable for layout
and construction surveys.
6. Geodetic Levels- is basically
another type of tilting level. Most of
its metal parts are made of invar to
reduce the effects of temperature.
-employed in first-order leveling
where extreme precision is an
important requirement.
7. Transit as a Level- engineer's
transit has always been referred to
as the "universal surveying
instrument" because of its variety
of uses.
-has a relatively shorter telescope
and level vial.
8. Laser Level- a new innovation
introduced to surveying operations
is the use of lasers.
- a laser system is a separate unit
equipped with a portable power
supply and may be a helium-neon
laser or gas laser. Usually mounted
or attached to conventional
surveying instruments e. g levels,
transits and theodolites.
-ideally suited for applications in
leveling work, building construction
and layout and many other
engineering activities where
reference lines have to be
established accurately.
-range: daylight- 300m, nightime-
600m
9. Hand Level- is a hand-held
instrument used on surveys
involving short sights and where a
low order of accuracy is sufficient
-proven to be useful in
reconnaissance surveys, in cross-
sectioning to obtain additional rod
readings on sloping ground, and in
taping to determine if the tape is
held horizontally during
measurement.
-useful in different phases of
construction such as in
excavations, setting of grades for
curbs and gutters, and in checking
the positioning of formwork for the
pouring of concrete.
LEVELING RODS
-is a graduated rod which is used
for measuring the vertical distance
between the line of sight through a
leveling instrument and the point
whose elevation is either required
or known.
1. Self-Reading Rod- most
commonly used type of leveling
rod. It can be read directly by the
instrumentman through the
telescope by noting the apparent
intersection of the horizontal hair
on the rod.
2. Target Rod- this type of rod has
a sliding target which is set and
read by a rodman at the position
selected by the instrumentman.
OTHER TYPES OF RODS
1. Rods Named After Cities or
States- leveling rods named after
cities or states include the
Philadelphia, Detroit, Chicago,
Florida, Boston, New York, Troy and
San Francisco rods.
a. Philadelphia rod- is a
combination of self-reading and
target rod and is the commonly
used type of rod.
b. Chicago rod- comes in three
sliding sections and usually
extends to either three or four
meters. It is graduated similar to
the Philadelphia rod except that the
figures on the face of the rod are
wider and thus more suitable for
longer distances.
2. Rod Ribbons- an improvised
type of rod used in leveling work.
3. Precise Rod- is a form of rod
ribbon which uses a graduated
invar strip permanently fastened to
a four-meter long wooden or metal
frame.
-equipped with rod level to allow
the rodman to hold the rod
vertically when used.
4. Geodetic Rod- similar to
precise rod except that a nilvar (an
alloy of metal with a very low
coefficient of linear expansion)
metal strip is used instead of invar.
5. Tape Rod- seldomly used rod
also known as “automatic rod"
-used advantageously when
numerous elevations are to be
determined from a single set-up of
the leveling instrument.
-useful in profile leveling, taking
cross sections and different phases
involved in building construction
and layout.
ROD LEVEL- is a device used for
fast and correct plumbing of a
leveling rod.
TARGETS- small device attached
to the rod when extremely long
sights make direct reading of the
rod difficult or impossible.
TELESCOPES- is a metal tube
containing a system of lenses
which are used to fix the direction
of the line of sight and in
magnifying the apparent size of
objects in its field of view.
1. Objective Lens- compound lens
composed of crown and flint glass
mounted in the objective end of
the telescope and has its optical
axis concentric with the tube axis
-allow light rays to enter the
telescope and form an image of the
object sighted within its field of
view.
2. Eyepiece- is a form of
microscope containing either two
or four lenses and is used to
enlarge altogether the image and
the crosshairs.
3. Cross Hairs- consists of a pair
of lines which are perpendicular to
each other and are used to define
the instrument's line of sight.
MAGNIFICATION- is the ratio of
the apparent size of an object
viewed through a telescope to its
size as seen by the unaided eye
from the same distance.
LEVEL VIAL- is sealed graduated
glass tube containing some amount
of liquid and small air bubble. Used
to determine the direction of
gravity.
-The type of liquid used must have
a low viscosity and freezing point.
COINCIDENCE BUBBLE- use on
most modern and precise
instruments such as the tilting and
automatic levels.
-with the use of this, the set up and
leveling of an instrument can be
made more accurately than by
means of the conventional level
vial.
TRIPODS- serve as a base to
prevent movement of the
instrument after it is set up.
-each end of a tripod is attached a
point piece of metal called a
“shoe”.
SETTING UP THE LEVEL- the
leveling instrument may be set up
at any suitable desired location
LEVELING THE INSTRUMENT
1. Instruments with Four Leveling
Screws
2. Instruments with Three Leveling
Screws
HOLDING THE LEVELING ROD-
the leveling rod is held on a point
by rodman when a sight is to be
taken on it.
-rodman stand beside the rod or
behind it.
-in high precision surveys the
leveling rod used are equipped with
a rod level.
TAKING A ROD READING
 Each blackened graduation
and each space between
graduations is one
centimeter high.
 Full meter marks are
identified by large numerals
which are usually painted in
red.
 Decimeter marks are
identified by smaller black-
painted numerals.
STEPS IN TAKING ROD READING
1. Position the Rod
2. Focus the Rod
3. Read the Rod
ARM AND HAND SIGNALS
1. Move Right or Left- the
desired direction of movement is
pointed out by the forefinger.
2. Give a Sight- the right or left
hand is raised up and is held for a
moment in a vertical position.
3. All Right- the levelman extends
both arms horizontally and moves
them up or down.
4. This is a Point- The rodman
raises the rod and holds it in
horizontal position over his head.
"Give me a Line"
5. Move back- the instrumentman
signals by raising right hand with
the palm facing toward the rodman
and then moving it into a horizontal
position with his palm faced down.
6. Pick Up Instruments-the COP
signals the instrumentman by first
extending both arms downward
then raising them up quickly as
though an object is being lifted.
7. Raise (or Lower) Target-
instrumentman motions to the
rodman by either raising his arm
above his shoulder to raise the rod,
or by dropping his arm below his
waist to lower the target.
8. Come in- COP or
instrumentsman signal for
assembly. Executed by moving the
arm into circular motion starting
from below the waist to the front of
his face
9. Plumb the Rod- hand is
extended vertically above the head
and moved slowly in the direction it
is desired to plumb the rod.
10. Establish a Turning Point-
arm is swung slowly in a circle
above the head.
11. This is a Turning Point- the
leveling rod (range pole) is raised
overhead in a horizontal position.
12. Wave the Rod-
instrumentman holds his arm
above his head and continuously
waves it back and forth.
13. Face the Rod- signal by
instrumentsman to the rodman to
face the rod towards the line of
sight. Executed by raising both
arms above the head and twisting
both hands back and forth.
14. Reverse the Rod- by
extending the arms above the head
and slowly rotating both arms in a
circular motion towards one side of
the body.
15. Move forward- from the
position where both arms are
extended horizontally. The arms are
slowly bent on the elbows and the
hands raised into a vertical
position.
16. Use the Long Rod-
instrumentsman extend both arms
downward then slowly raises it over
his head.
SOURCES OF ERROR IN LEVELIG
1. Instrumental Errors
a. Instrument Out of
Adjustment
 b. Rod Not Standard Length
c. Defective Tripod
2. Personal Errors
a. Bubble Not Centered in the
Level Vial
b. Parallax- the effect of
parallax is to cause relative
displacement between the
image of the cross hairs and
the image formed by the
focusing lens.
c. Faulty Rod Readings
d. Rod Not Held Plumb
e. Incorrect Setting of Target
f. Unequal Backsight and
Foresight
3. Natural Errors
a. Curvature of the Earth- the
effect of curvature of the
earth is to increase the rod
reading.
b. Atmospheric Refraction-
presence of heat wave on a
hot day is a sign of rapidly
fluctuating refraction in the
atmosphere.
c. Temperature Variations-
leveling rods either expand
or contract
d. Wind- strong wind can
shake a leveling instrument
making it difficult to center
the bubble in the level vial.
e. Settlement of the
Instrument- in soft or thawing
ground, mud and swamps the
instrument may settle in the
interval of time between rod
readings.
f. Faulty Turning Points- in
differential leveling work, a
poorly chosen turning point
may be a source of error.
COMMON MISTAKES IN
LEVELING
1. Misreading the Rod
2. Incorrect Recording
3. Erroneous Computations
4. Rod Not Fully Extended
5. Moving Turning Points
ADJUSTMENT OF THE DUMPY
LEVEL
1. Adjustment of the Cross
Hairs- the reticle or cross hair ring
is adjusted to see to it that the
horizontal cross hair lies in a plane
perpendicular to the vertical axis of
the instrument.
2. Adjustment of the Level Vial-
the purpose of this adjustment is to
make the axis of the level vial
perpendicular to the vertical axis of
the instrument.
3. Adjustment of the Line of
Sight- the line of sight is adjusted
to make it parallel to the axis of the
level vial.
Using Two-peg Test.
  If the line of sight is inclined
upward, the capstan screw
on top at the reticle is
loosened and the capstan
screw at the bottom is
tightened
 The opposite is done if the
line of sight is inclined
downward.
DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING-
process of determining the
difference in elevation between two
or more points some distance.
1. Bench Mark (BM) -is a fixed
point of reference whose elevation
is either known or assumed.
Permanent Bench Marks (PBM)
-are those which are established at
intervals throughout the country by
the Philippine Coast and Geodetic
Surveys (PCGS)
2. Backsight (BS) -a reading
taken on a rod held on a point of
known or assumed elevation.
3. Foresight (FS) -a reading taken
on a rod held on a point whose
elevation is to be determined.
4. Backsight Distance (BSD)
-measured from the center of the
instrument to the rod on which
backsight is taken.
5. Foresight Distance (FSD) -the
horizontal distance from the center
of the instrument to the rod on
which a foresight is taken.
6. Turning Point (TP) - an
intervening point between two
bench marks upon which point
foresight and backsight rod
readings are taken to enable a
leveling operation to continue from
a new instrument position.
7. Height of Instrument- or
Height of Collimation, is the
elevation of the line of sight of an
instrument above or below
selected reference datum.
PROFILE LEVELING- process of
determining differences in
elevation along a fixed line at
designated short measured
intervals.
1. Profile- is a curved line which
graphically portrays the
intersection of a vertical plane with
the surface of the earth.
2. Stationing- a numerical
designation given in terms of
horizontal distance any point along
a profile line is away from the
starting point.
3. Intermediate Foresights- also
known as ground rod reading, are
taken along the centerline of the
proposed project to provide an
accurate representation of the
ground surface.
4. Full Station- are points which
are established along the profile
level route at uniformly measured
distances.
5. Plus Station- any intermediate
point established along a profile
level route which is not designated
as a full station.
6. Vertical Exaggeration- process
of drawing the vertical scale for a
profile much larger than the
horizontal scale in order to
accentuate the differences in
elevation.
7. Profile Paper- a special heavy
grade graphing paper used for
plotting profiles.
PLOTTING PROFILES
a. Plotting Scales- the horizontal
and vertical scales used in plotting
the profile should be properly
identified.
b. Stationing- full stations along
the level route should be indicated
to portray the overall linear length
of the line.
c. Reference Points- important
reference and ground points which
need to be emphasized or pointed
out should be easily seen.
d. Marginal Information-any
other info which should explain the
profile better or in detail should be
indicated.
RISE AND FALL METHOD OF
LEVELING- this method relies upon
the difference in elevation between
successive points such that each
point is considered in relation to
the point immediately preceding it
and whose computed elevation is
either known or has just been
calculated.
RECIPROCAL LEVELING- is
employed to determine the
difference in elevation between two
points when it is difficult or
impossible to keep backsights and
foresights short and equal.
TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELING- or
Indirect Leveling is defined as the
determination of differences in
elevation from observed vertical
angles and either horizontal or
inclined distances.
BAROMETRIC LEVELING
-differences in elevation of points
are determined by observations of
the prevailing atmospheric
pressure.
-usually employed on
reconnaissance and preliminary
surveys where speed is of primary
importance and a high degree of
accuracy is not required.
BAROMETERS- instrument for
measuring variations in
atmospheric pressure.
1. Mercurial Barometer-
measures atmospheric pressure by
the height of a column of mercury
supported by the atmosphere in an
evacuated glass tube.
2. Aneroid Barometer- functions
by using an airtight metal box
which responds to changes in air
pressure.
ALTIMETER SURVEYS
Altimeters- precise aneroid
barometer which are designed
specifically for surveying
applications.
1. Single-Base Method
2. Two-Base Method
CROSS-SECTION LEVELING
1. Roadway Cross-sections- type
of cross-section required for most
route projects such as roads and
railroads.
2. Borrow-Pit Cross-Sections-
employed in the construction of
structures and buildings and in
excavation of borrow pits.