GINGOOG CITY COLLEGES

Brgy. 24-A Paz Village, Gingoog City

English
for
Academic
and
Professional
Purposes

Hand-out
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LESSON 1.1 Fundamentals of Reading Academic Texts
A. Four Macro Skills in English Communication
B. Purposes of Reading
C. Features of Academic Texts

LESSON 1.2: Fundamentals of Reading Academic Texts

A. Academic Texts VS. Non-academic Texts
B. Principles in Outlining
C. Locating Main Ideas

LESSON 1.3 Language and Text Structure Across Disciplines

i. Mathematic Text
ii. Business Texts
iii. Social Science Texts
iv. Natural Science Texts
v. Literature and the Arts
C. Critical Reading Strategies in Reading Academic Texts

LESSON 2: Evaluating Sources

A. Features of Valid Sources
B. Purposes for Evaluating Sources
C. Sources that are Acceptable and Not Acceptable in the Academic Writing
D. Difficulties in Locating and Evaluating Sources

LESSON 3: Citing Sources

A. Importance of Citations
B. In-Text Citations VS. Reference Citations
C. Citation Styles Applied in Different Disciplines

LESSON 4: Basics of Summarizing

A. Features of Summarizing
B. Purposes of Summarizing
C. Appropriate Reporting Verbs
D. Formats of In-Text Citations Used in Summary

LESSON 5: Paraphrasing and Direct Quotations

A. Features of Paraphrasing
B. Summarizing VS. Paraphrasing
C. Appropriate Reporting Verbs
D. Purposes of Summarizing
E. Reporting Verbs
F. Formats of In-Text Citations Used in Paraphrases and Direct Quotes

LESSON 6: Writing and Abstract, Précis, or Summary

A. Features of Effective Abstract, Précis or Summary
B. Purposes and Contexts for Writing Abstract, Précis, or Summary

LESSON 7: Writing a Reaction Paper, Paper Review and Critique

A. Purposes of Reaction Paper, Review and Critique
B. Forming Opinions based on Facts

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 C. Critical Approaches in Writing a Critique:

LESSON 8: Writing a Concept Paper

A. Features on an Effective Concept Paper
B. Explaining Concepts from Various Disciplines through Definition, Explication and
Clarification
C. Contexts and Types of Concept Paper
1. Arts, Science, Sports, Tech Voc.
2. Business
3. Law, Philosophy, Politics, Religion

LESSON 9: Writing a Position Paper

A. Features on an Effective Position Paper
B. Gathering Manifestos and Arguments

LESSON 10: Writing a Research Report

A. Purposes and Features of Various Kinds of Reports

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Introduction

English for Academic and Professional Purposes is a contextualized course

offered to Senior High School learners. This course is designed primarily to
develop the learners’ communication skills in English necessary for their
academic study and future professional endeavors. Having been equipped with
expository and technical writing skills and communicative competence, the
learners shall produce discipline-specific outputs through their performance
tasks which include writing academic text abstracts, critiques, concept papers,
position papers, empirical and technical reports as mandated by the curriculum
guide from the Department of Education. The teaching-learning approach in
this course is outcomes-based which comprises guided interactive discussions,
process-driven writing activities, reflective and bottom-up instructions, library
research work, among others, geared towards providing the learners with
purposive communicative situations and language learning skills necessary for
their respective strands.

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QUARTER 1
READING
ACADEMIC
TEXTS

“Reading is reading.
Reading for an assignment is no
different from reading in other
areas of life, or other levels of
education.”

Whether you like it or not,

reading is a skill we each
use on a daily basis.

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LESSON 1. FUNDAMENTALS OF READING ACADEMIC TEXTS

Four Macro Skills of Communication

We often think communication is limited to what we say or hear, but that's not the case. Language is
expressed in four ways: reading, speaking, writing and listening. These are also defined as the macro
skills of communication. These macro skills are utilized by essentially all languages. Babies develop
language skills by first listening and then speaking, followed by reading and writing. When learning a
new language, the best way to do so is by engaging in a balance of each of these areas, as they are
all interconnected. As with any skill, the more you practice or exercise, the stronger you become. The
same is true with improving communication skills.

Listening
There are three modes of listening: competitive, passive and active. Active listening is considered the
most effective because the listener is not only listening with interest, but actively acknowledging
listening by brief responses. Most individuals are not as skilled at listening as they think. Depending on
the study, listeners likely remember 25 to 50 percent of what they hear, according to Mindtools. Giving
the speaker your undivided attention and not focusing on what you are going to say in response while
he is talking is a good way to ensure you hear more of what is being said.

Speaking
Speaking can be an intimidating experience, even in your native tongue, let alone when learning a
new language. The best way to learn how to speak, though, is by practicing, so put your inhibitions
aside and strike up a conversation whenever you are given an opportunity to do so. When speaking,
be aware of your pace and try not to mumble, speak clearly. Consider being expressive when you talk;
avoid a monotonous tone. Expression adds interest and depth to what you are saying and it will keep
your listener interested.

Reading
Children learn to read by first learning their ABCs and sounding out the letters to discover what sound
they make. The phonetic approach to reading—using sound units to figure out the words—is arguably
the best approach because theoretically, if you know the sounds, you can read any word, regardless
of the difficulty level. This is also the case when learning a new language. Reading has many benefits,
including improving memory by exercising the brain, increasing vocabulary, and exposing you to new
ideas.

Writing
Writing is perhaps the most complex of the communication skills and takes the most time to master.
As with any other skill, the craft of putting words on paper is improved through practice and a
willingness to improve on past attempts. The more you practice, the better you will get! Moving
beyond the basics, many types of writing can be used, depending on audience and purpose. Writing
can be a basic means of conveying information—such as in newspapers—or it can be a tool to create
elaborate new worlds, much like those found in fiction novels such as The Lord of the Rings trilogy.

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Purpose of Reading

Reading is one skill that is put into good use everyday. As soon as we go to the kitchen and open the
cupboard to prepare our first meal for the day, we start reading the labels on the boxes and cans
found on the shelves. We pick a box of cereals and read the instructions written on the package. With
proper understanding of these directions, we can enjoy a hearty breakfast.
This section aims to enhance the students’ skills in reading academic texts. In the earlier years the
students were taught reading strategies. These strategies can give them a better grasp of the reading
texts.
Before actually beginning to read, it is important to know the purpose of reading, that is, why the
reading is being done. Knowing the purpose greatly enhances the effectiveness of the reading. Also,
knowledge of the purpose can help one adopt a style of reading best suited for the purpose.

Some of the reasons why people usually read:

 Pleasure and enjoyment
 Practical application
 To obtain an overview
 To locale specific information
 To identify the central idea or theme
 To develop a detailed and critical understanding

(i) Pleasure and enjoyment: This is probably the best reason to read anything. You have
chosen the material for the purpose of enjoying yourself. Reading entertains you, even relaxes
you. However, this will rarely be the purpose behind the reading one needs to do for
academic purposes.

(ii) Practical application: Here the purpose is to gain information that you can apply or use in
a practical situation. Books such as laboratory manuals, computer manuals, instruction
booklets and recipe books are all texts that you would consult with the purpose of gaining
specific information.

(iii) To get an overview: The point here is to get a general feel for the material, to determine
whether it is relevant, useful, up-to-date, and to get a sense of how the topic is treated by the
author. This is likely to be the main purpose behind your reading when:

• You are given an extensive reading list for an assignment.

• You are doing initial library research for an essay, tutorial, research report or similar
assignments.

• You need to decide which texts are most relevant or useful for your assignment.

(iv)To locate specific information: Sometimes you know what you are looking for but do not
know exactly where to find it. For example, you might be looking for any of the following:

 A specific quotation
 Evidence to support a particular argument
 Details about a specific person or event
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  A map
 A diagram
 A statistic or table of statistics
To find this sort of information might mean that you have to consult several books or sources.
In these circumstances, you will be reading with the aim of zeroing in on the information you
are looking for.

(v) To identify the central idea of theme: The purpose here is to extract the essence of what
the written material is trying to convey. For example, you might want to identify the major
finding in an experimental article in a journal, or the core issue of a discussion paper.

(vi)To develop a detailed and critical understanding: On many occasions, you will need to
master fully the material in a book, journal article or manual so that you can evaluate its
arguments, perspective, and/or evidence. This will require you to:

 Read the material thoroughly.

 Make effective and relevant notes.
 Keep an open mind by being aware of your own ideas and opinions regarding the
issues involved.

Process of Reading
One of the popular methods of reading is the known as the SQ3R (Survey, Question, Read,
Recall, Review) method. It involves the following steps:

1. Survey: This is, in fact, a pre-reading step where you survey the material prior to your actual
reading by scanning the title, headings and any summaries or abstracts. Before you actually
begin reading the material, skim the entire reading material. Understand the organization of
the reading material by going through the title page, table of contents, preface, appendix,
bibliography, and so on.

Next, survey each chapter, that is, go through the chapter objectives, chapter summary,
headings and subheadings. Also go through the illustrations, tables, graphs, charts, and so
on. All this will help in getting an idea about what the author is trying to convey.

2. Question: Before reading, put down specific questions you would like to have answers to.
This not only clarifies your purpose of reading, but also helps you focus and remember what
you have read. Turn headings given in chapters into questions. The five cardinal questions-
who, why, what, where and how-need to be answered.

While reading, think of these questions as this will help you concentrate on reading. At the
end of the reading, again think of these questions to get an idea of how successfully they
have been answered. Use the same questions during revision to help you remember what
you have read.

Be an active reader. Question the author’s thoughts and ideas. Read critically and do not
passively accept what the writer is presenting in the text. A questioning attitude also facilitates
learning.

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3. Read: Read the material twice. Read the first time without making notes. Also compare the
diagrams and illustrations with the written text. Re-read ports that ore not clear. This may
reduce your speed of reading a bit though. On your second reading, start to take notes, look
for important details, supporting evidence and examples.

4. Recall: Try to recall what you have read by closing the book and making notes of what you
remember of the book. Recalling will help the reader to commit them to long-term memory.
You must recall at regular intervals to check your understanding of the material.

5. Review: Check to see that you have answered all the questions you wrote down at the
beginning. Note down any other point that you think is important.

Three Stages in Reading:

The first is the information that is being presented on the page for all to read. This stage is
called literal recognition because it just involves drawing literal meaning from the words of
the writer.

The second stage is reading between the lines, that is, inferring what the author is trying to
convey through the text. This is called interpretative recognition. It involves understanding
what the writer means, that is, the writer’s interpretation of the text.

The final stage is going beyond the text and generating new and creative thoughts based on
the reader’s previous knowledge, learning and experience. This is called connective
recognition. It results in generating new ideas, solutions, looking at things with a new
perspective or a change of views. Try to move to this final stage while reading so as to actually
benefit from the reading.

Context Clues

Context Clues are hints that the author gives to help define a difficult or unusual word. The
clue may appear within the same sentence as the word to which it refers, or it may follow in
a preceding sentence. Because most of your vocabulary is gained through reading, it is
important that you be able to recognize and take advantage of context clues.

Exercise: Use context clues by guessing the meaning of the following underlined words.

1. Carbohydrates such as pasta, bread, and rice may contribute to weight gain.
2. When the storm subsided, the residents came out to clean the mess in their yards.
3. Grace has no choice but to acquiesce to the orders of her boss; otherwise she might get
fired.
4. A theory is futile when it is not practiced.
5. A hushed and mournful milieu dawned inside the church as relatives viewed the deceased
for the last time.

Types of context clues. There are at least four kinds of context clues that are quite common.
Synonym A synonym, or word with the same meaning, is used in the sentence.
My opponent's argument is fallacious, misleading – plain wrong.

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 Antonym A word or group of words that has the opposite meaning reveals the
meaning of an unknown term.
Although some men are loquacious, others hardly talk at all.

Explanation The unknown word is explained within the sentence or in a sentence

immediately preceding.
The patient is so somnolent that she requires medication to help her
stay awake for more than a short time.

Example Specific examples are used to define the term.

Celestial bodies, such as the sun, moon, and stars, are governed by
predictable laws.

Read the following sentences and define the bolded word based on the context clue. Then
identify which of the four types of clues is used.
1. The girl who used to be very vociferous doesn't talk much anymore.
2. Pedagogical institutions, including high schools, kindergartens, and colleges, require
community support to function efficiently.
3. He was so parsimonious that he refused to give his own sons the few pennies they
needed to buy pencils for school. It truly hurt him to part with his money.
4. His pertinacity, or stubbornness, is the cause of most of his trouble.
5. Rather than be involved in clandestine meetings, they did everything quite openly.
6. Ecclesiastics, such as priests, ministers, and pastors, should set models of behavior for
their congregants.
7. The girl was churlish – rude, sullen and absolutely ill-mannered.
8. Because the conflagration was aided by wind, it was so destructive that every
building in the area was completely burned to the ground. excerpted from Irwin L.
Joffe's Opportunity for Successful Reading, 3rd ed., 153-55

SPECIFIC PURPOSES FOR READING

READING TO BE INFORMED
Before you read:
Determine what you want to learn or find out from the material.
Look over what you will read.
Skim to find out how the author has chosen to present the material.
Ask yourself what you already know about the topic(s) the author will cover.
Jot some predictions on paper about what you expect to learn from the text.

As you read:
Underline, highlight, or take notes to help you construct meaning and recall important
information.
Ask yourself continually, `Do I understand what I just read and do I see how it fits?'
Pay attention to titles, chapter, and subheadings.
Examine any tables, illustrations, bold-face print, underlining, colored print, captions,
glossaries, and other aids the author has provided.
Pause during your reading to reflect upon and organize new information and link it to what
you already know.
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When you don't understand something, review your notes to see where you got off track,
reread the passage, talk to another person, or consult such resources as a dictionary.

After you read:

Summarize what you have read by restating main ideas from the text.
Evaluate your notes and understanding.
Reread any passages that you did not understand.
Apply new ideas from the text to broader situations to extend thinking.
Evaluate the ideas presented in the text.
Jot down any questions you still have about the topic.
Use study strategies for notetaking, locating, and remembering to improve learning in the
subject area.

READING TO PERFORM A TASK

Before you read:

Determine what you want to be able to do.
Skim to find out how the author has chosen to present the material.
Determine if the directions are organized in a way that would be easy for you to follow.

As you read:
Read all of the directions once to get a general sense of the task you are being asked to
perform.
Read the materials again to learn the specific directions.
Summarize each direction on paper in your own words or illustrations.
Pay close attention to the illustrations or diagrams the author has provided.
Pause after each direction you read, and make a picture in your mind of what you are
supposed to do.
When you come to something important that you don't understand, try rereading it, or ask
someone else for help if you can.
Use resources such as a dictionary to look up important words that you don't understand.
Think ahead about any difficulty you might have in being able to perform the task.

After you read:

Review your summary of the directions by comparing them to the original materials.
Revise your ideas as necessary.
Perform the task.

READING FOR LITERARY EXPERIENCE

Before you read:

Set a purpose for reading.
Preview the material to generate questions you would like answered.
Think about the title, pictures, and ideas to help you to predict what the selection is about.

As you read:
Stop and retell the main events to see if you understand what has happened.
See if you can answer any of the questions you asked before you started to read.
Continue to predict the outcome of the reading as you move through the material.
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Reread some parts or read ahead to see if you can figure out what is happening if things
aren't making sense.
Think about how the author uses special words or phrases to communicate.
Use context clues or a dictionary to help you determine the meaning of unknown words.
Think about how your own experience compares to the characters' experiences.

After you read:

See if you met your purposes for reading.
Think about what questions you still have about the story.
Consider whether the plot is realistic

Text Structure

Background
Text structure refers to how the information within a written text is organized. This strategy
helps students understand that a text might present a main idea and details; a cause and then
its effects; and/or different views of a topic. Teaching students to recognize common text
structures can help students monitor their comprehension.

Benefits
Students learn to identify and analyze text structures which helps students navigate the
various structures presented within nonfiction and fiction text. As a follow up, having students
write paragraphs that follow common text structures helps students recognize these text
structures when they are reading.

Create and Use the Strategy

To create the text structure strategy one should:
1. Choose the assigned reading.
2. Introduce the idea that texts have organizational patters called text structures.
3. Introduce the following common text structures (see chart below for more detailed
information):
o description,
o sequence,
o problem and solution,
o cause and effect, and
o compare and contrast.
4. Introduce and model using a graphic organizer to chart the text structure.

To use the text structure strategy:

1. Show examples of paragraphs that correspond to each text structure.
2. Examine topic sentences that clue the reader to a specific structure.
3. Model the writing of a paragraph that uses a specific text structure.
4. Have students try write paragraphs that follow a specific text structure.
5. Have students diagram these structures using a graphic organizer.

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Text Structure Definition/Example Organizer
This type of text structure features a detailed
description of something to give the reader
Descriptive
a mental picture.
Pattern[pdf]
Description
EXAMPLE: A book may tell all about whales
Describing Qualities
or describe what the geography is like in a
particular region.
This structure presents the causal
relationship between a specific event, idea,
Cause-Effect
or concept and the events, ideas, or concept
Pattern[pdf]
that follow.
Cause and Effect
Process/Cause and
EXAMPLE: Weather patterns could be
Effect
described that explain why a big snowstorm
occurred.
This type of text examines the similarities
and differences between two or more
people, events, concepts, ideas, etc.
Comparison/Contrast Comparison/Contrast
EXAMPLE: A book about ancient Greece
may explain how the Spartan women were
different from the Athenian women.
This text structure gives readers a
chronological of events or a list of steps in a
procedure. Sequence Pattern[pdf]
Order/Sequence
EXAMPLE: A book about the American Chronological
revolution might list the events leading to Sequence
the war. In another book, steps involved in
harvesting blue crabs might be told.
This type of structure sets up a problem or
problems, explains the solution, and then
discusses the effects of the solution. Problem-Solution
Problem-Solution
Organizer

Table adapted from http://forpd.ucf.edu/strategies/strattextstructure.html

FEATURES OF ACADEMIC TEXTS

Academic writing in English is linear, which means it has one central point or theme with
every part contributing to the main line of argument, without digressions or repetitions. Its
objective is to inform rather than entertain. As well as this it is in the standard written form of
the language. There are ten main features of academic writing that are often discussed.
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Academic writing is to some extent: complex, formal, objective, explicit, hedged, and
responsible. It uses language precisely and accurately. It is also well organized and planned.
Complexity
Written language is relatively more complex than spoken language (Biber, 1988; Biber,
Johansson, Leech, Conrad & Finegan, 1999; Chafe, 1982; Cook, 1997; Halliday, 1989).

Written texts are lexically dense compared to spoken language - they have proportionately
more lexical words than grammatical words. Written texts are shorter and have longer, more
complex words and phrases. They have more noun-based phrases, more nominalizations, and
more lexical variation.

Written language is grammatically more complex than spoken language. It has more
subordinate clauses, more "that/to" complement clauses, more long sequences of
prepositional phrases, more attributive adjectives and more passives than spoken language.

The following features are common in academic written texts:

Noun-based phrases, Subordinate clauses/embedding, Complement clauses, Sequences of

prepositional phrases, Participles, Passive verbs, Lexical density, Lexical complexity,
Nominalization, Attributive adjectives, Adjectival groups as complements

Examples

Compare a sentence from a spoken text:

You can control the trains this way and if you do that you can be quite sure that they'll be
able to run more safely and more quickly than they would otherwise, no matter how bad the
weather gets.

with a typical written variant:

The use of this method of control unquestionably leads to safer and faster train running in the
most adverse weather conditions.

The main difference is the grammar, not the vocabulary

Other equivalents are given below:

Spoken
Whenever I'd visited there before, I'd ended up
feeling that it would be futile if I tried to do
anything more.
The cities in Switzerland had once been peaceful,
but they changed when people became violent.
Because the technology has improved it’s less
risky than it used to be when you install them at
the same time, and it doesn't cost so much either.
Written
Every previous visit had left me with a
sense of the futility of further action on
my part.
Violence changed the face of once
peaceful Swiss cities.
Improvements in technology have
reduced the risks and high costs
associated with simultaneous installation.

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The people in the colony rejoiced when it was Opinion in the colony greeted the
promised that things would change in this way. promised change with enthusiasm.

Exercise: Re-write the sentences below in a more typically written style.

1. Because the jobs are even more complex, programmes to train people will take longer.
2. I handed my essay in late because my kids got sick.

Formality
In general this means in an essay that you should avoid:

a. colloquial words and expressions; ""stuff", "a lot of", "thing", "sort of",
b. abbreviated forms: "can't", "doesn't", "shouldn't"
c. two word verbs: "put off", "bring up"
d. sub-headings, numbering and bullet-points in formal essays - but use them in reports.
e. asking questions.

Julie, I'm your practice

teacher, you're my
student. And I have to
tell you to refrain from
using terms such as
"loony", "fruitcake"
"nutcase" and "one Oh, come on, Clare!
sandwich short of a Don't be so PC. Are you
picnic" to describe telling me you've never
people with mental used those
illness. expressions?

... but not in my

Well, ... yes dissertation.

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Exercise 1
Identify the informal expressions in the following sentences. Rewrite the following sentences,
replacing the informal expressions with a more formal equivalent.

1. With women especially, there is a lot of social pressure to conform to a certain physical
shape.
2. Significantly, even at this late date, Lautrec was considered a bit conservative by his peers.
3. It focused on a subject that a lot of the bourgeois and upper-class exhibition-going public
regarded as anti-social and anti-establishment.
4. Later Florey got together with Paul Fildes in an experimental study of the use of curare to
relieve the intractable muscular spasms which occur in fully developed infection with tetanus
or lockjaw.
5. When a patient is admitted to a psychiatric inpatient unit, the clinical team should avoid the
temptation to start specific treatments immediately.

Exercise 2
Rewrite the following sentences, replacing the informal abbreviated form with a more formal
equivalent.
1. The radical restructuring of British politics after 1931 does't lie in the events of 13-28 August,
but in the changing attitudes within the National Government.
2. This isn't easy to do since most historians persist in speaking of The National Government
as if the same sort of government ruled from 1931 to 1940.
3. The first National Government wasn't intended to be a coalition government in the normal
sense of the term.
4. These aren't at all original or exotic but are based on the ordinary things that most people
tend to eat.

Exercise 3
Rewrite the following sentences, replacing the informal two-word verb with a more formal
equivalent.
1. A primary education system was set up throughout Ireland as early as 1831
2. This will cut down the amount of drug required and so the cost of treatment.
3. The material amenities of life have gone up in Western society.
4. The press reflected the living culture of the people; it could influence opinion and reinforce
existing attitudes but it did not come up with new forms of entertainment.
5. Thus, he should have looked into how the patient has coped previously.

Exercise 4
Complete the following table:
Formal Informal
seem
climb
help
cease
commence
use

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Precision
In academic writing you need to be precise when you use information, dates or figures. Do
not use "a lot of people" when you can say "50 million people".

For example:

1. Chemists had attempted to synthesize quinine for the previous hundred years but all they
had achieved was to discover the extreme complexity of the problem.

2. The volatile oily liquid beta-chloro-beta-ethyl sulfide was first synthesized in 1854, and in
1887 it was reported to produce blisters if it touched the skin. It was called mustard gas and
was used at Ypres in 19I7, when it caused many thousands of casualties.

3. It is approximately eight inches in length and runs from the urinary bladder, through the
prostate gland, under the front of the pelvis, and, passing through the corpus spongiosum, it
ends at the tip of the glans penis in an opening called the urethral meatus.

Objectivity
This means that the main emphasis should be on the information that you want to give and
the arguments you want to make, rather than you. This is related to the basic nature of
academic study and academic writing, in particular. Nobody really wants to know what you
"think" or "believe". They want to know what you have studied and learned and how this has
led you to your various conclusions. The thoughts and beliefs should be based on your
lectures, reading, discussion and research and it is important to make this clear.

Compare these two paragraphs:

(a) The question of what constitutes "language proficiency" and the nature of its cross-lingual
dimensions is also at the core of many hotly debated issues in the areas of bilingual education
and second language pedagogy and testing. Researchers have suggested ways of making
second language teaching and testing more "communicative" (e.g., Canale and Swain, 1980;
Oller, 1979b) on the grounds that a communicative approach better reflects the nature of
language proficiency than one which emphasizes the acquisition of discrete language skills.

(b) We don't really know what language proficiency is but many people have talked about it
for a long time. Some researchers have tried to find ways for us to make teaching and testing
more communicative because that is how language works. I think that language is something
we use for communicating, not an object for us to study and we remember that when we
teach and test it.

Which is the most objective?

In general, avoid words like "I", "me", "myself".

A reader will normally assume that any idea not referenced is your own. It is therefore
unnecessary to make this explicit.

Don't write:" In my opinion, this a very interesting study."

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Write: "This is a very interesting study."

Avoid "you" to refer to the reader or people in general.

Don't write: "You can easily forget how different life was 50 years ago."
Write: "It is easy to forget how difficult life was 50 years ago."

Explicitness
Academic writing is explicit in several ways.

1. It is explicit in its signposting of the organisation of the ideas in the text (Biber, Johansson,
Leech, Conrad & Finegan, 1999, pp. 880-882). As a writer of academic English, it is your
responsibility to make it clear to your reader how various parts of the text are related. These
connections can be made explicit by the use of different signalling words.

For example, if you want to tell your reader that your line of argument is going to change,
make it clear.

The Bristol 167 was to be Britain's great new advance on American types such as the
Lockheed Constellation and Douglas DC-6, which did not have the range to fly the Atlantic
non-stop. It was also to be the largest aircraft ever built in Britain. However, even by the end
of the war, the design had run into serious difficulties.

If you think that one sentence gives reasons for something in another sentence, make it
explicit.

While an earlier generation of writers had noted this feature of the period, it was not until the
recent work of Cairncross that the significance of this outflow was realized. Partly this
was because the current account deficit appears much smaller in current (1980s) data than it
was thought to be by contemporaries.

If you think two ideas are almost the same, say so.

Marx referred throughout his work to other systems than the capitalist system, especially those
which he knew from the history of Europe to have preceded capitalism; systems such as
feudalism, where the relation of production was characterized by the personal relation of the
feudal lord and his serf and a relation of subordination which came from the lord's control of
the land. Similarly, Marx was interested in slavery and in the classical Indian and Chinese social
systems, or in those systems where the ties of local community are all important.

If you intend your sentence to give extra information, make it clear.

He is born into a family, he marries into a family, and he becomes the husband and father of
his own family. In addition, he has a definite place of origin and more relatives than he knows
what to do with, and he receives a rudimentary education at the Canadian Mission School.

18
If you are giving examples, do it explicitly.

This has sometimes led to disputes between religious and secular clergy, between orders and
bishops. For example, in the Northern context, the previous bishop of Down and Connor, Dr
Philbin, refused for most of his period of leadership in Belfast to have Jesuits visiting or residing
in his diocese.

2. It is explicit in its acknowledgment of the sources of the ideas in the text.

If you know the source of the ideas you are presenting, acknowledge it.
Do THIS in academic writing
 McGreil (1977: 363-408) has shown that though Dubliners find the English more
acceptable than the Northern Irish, Dubliners still seek a solution to the Northern
problem within an all-Ireland state.
NOT
 Although Dubliners find the English more acceptable than the Northern Irish,
Dubliners still seek a solution to the Northern problem within an all-Ireland state.
NOT
 Researchers have shown that though Dubliners find the English more acceptable than
the Northern Irish, Dubliners still seek a solution to the Northern problem within an all-
Ireland state.

Accuracy
In academic writing you need to be accurate in your use of vocabulary. Do not confuse, for
example, "phonetics" and "phonology" or "grammar" with "syntax".
Choose the correct word, for example, "meeting", "assembly”, "gathering" or "conference".
Or from: "money", "cash", "currency", "capital" or "funds".

You also need to be accurate in your use of grammar.

Hedging
It is often believed that academic writing, particularly scientific writing, is factual, simply to
convey facts and information. However it is now recognized that an important feature of
academic writing is the concept of cautious language, often called "hedging" or "vague
language". In other words, it is necessary to make decisions about your stance on a particular
subject, or the strength of the claims you are making. Different subjects prefer to do this in
different ways.

EXAMPLES
Compare the following:
1. It may be said that the commitment to some of the social and economic concepts was
less strong than it is now.
The commitment to some of the social and economic concepts was less strong than it
is now.
2. The lives they chose may seem overly ascetic and self-denying to most women today.
The lives they chose seem overly ascetic and self-denying to most women today.

19
 3. Weismann suggested that animals become old because, if they did not, there could be
no successive replacement of individuals and hence no evolution.
Weismann proved that animals become old because, if they did not, there could be no
successive replacement of individuals and hence no evolution.
4. Yet often it cannot have been the case that a recalcitrant trustee remained in
possession of the property entrusted to him.
Yet a recalcitrant trustee did not remain in possession of the property entrusted to him.
5. Recent work on the religious demography of Northern Ireland indicates a separating
out of protestant and catholic, with the catholic population drifting westwards and
vice versa.
Recent work on the religious demography of Northern Ireland shows a separating out
of protestant and catholic, with the catholic population drifting westwards and vice
versa.

Responsibility
In academic writing you are responsible for demonstrating an understanding of the source
text. You must also be responsible for, and must be able to provide evidence and justification
for, any claims you make.
This is done by paraphrasing and summarizing what you read and acknowledging the source
of this information or ideas by a system of citation.

Organization
Academic writing is well organized. It flows easily from one section to the next in a logical
fashion. A good place to start is the genre of your text. Once you have decided on the genre,
the structure is easily determined.
Students are asked to write many different kinds of texts. Depending on your subject, these
could be essays, laboratory reports, case-studies, book reviews, reflective diaries, posters,
research proposals, and so on and are normally referred to as genre families or genres.
Genres are defined by their purpose, their audience and their structure. Looking at typical
structures can help you with your organization.
The following genres are common in higher education.
1. Essays
2. Reports
3. Case Studies
4. Research proposals
5. Book reviews
6. Brief research reports
7. Literature reviews
8. Reflective writing
9. Introductions
10. Research methods
11. Research results
12. Research discussions
13. Writing conclusions
14. Research abstracts
15. Research dissertations & theses

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Planning
Academic writing is well planned. It usually takes place after research and evaluation,
according to a specific purpose and plan.

The following procedure is typical when writing an extended essay or assignment.

Task
1. Read the question or brief and understand what you are required to do.
Think about the subject, the purpose and the audience.
2. Think about what you know about the subject.
Write it down in some way.
3. Go to the library or internet and find relevant books, articles or websites.
4. Find the books on your reading list - if you have one - and study them.
5. Make notes on these books and articles.
Record full details of the materials you use.
6. Organize your piece of work.
7. Type or write your first draft.
8. Discuss your first draft informally with friends, other members of your class and your
lecturer if possible.
9. Revise your first draft, bearing in mind any comments that were made in your
discussions.
Go back to 2. if necessary
Produce your second draft.
10. Proofread your draft.
11. Produce a final typed version.
12. Check everything.

Exercise:

Rewrite the following text in a more academic style. Apply your understanding of the features
of academic texts.

Until only a few hundred years ago doctors didn't operate on people - it was barbers. No-
one had taught them and they'd never got any qualifications. They just did what they'd
learned when they were learning to be barbers. Doctors had promised not to hurt anyone
so they wouldn't cut people and were not even supposed to watch. But the doctors did
watch if they were following the rules properly and he sat on a big chair, high up, and read
out what the barber was supposed to do. He read this in Latin, which, of course, the barber
didn't understand. Of course, if you died, it was always the barber's fault and if you got
better, the doctor got the praise. In any case, the doctor got the most money.

21
 Lots of times in many years, different professional people who were interested in making
education better have asked me what we know about how people learn so we can use it
to make education better.

LESSON 1.2 ACADEMIC TEXTS VS. NON ACADEMIC TEXTS

Academic vs. Non Academic: What's the Difference?

The majority of your research will require academic and scholarly articles. Many students
struggle with trying to determine what an academic source, or article, is. The contrasts
between these two categories may be defined in terms of their readership, structure, and
style.

Academic texts are written by professionals in a given field. They are edited by the authors'
peers and often take years to publish by recognized scholarly publication company. Their
language is formal and will contain words and terms typical to the field. The authors name
will be present, as well as their credentials. There will be a list of references that indicate where
the author obtained the information s/he is using in the article.

Academic articles can be found in periodicals similar to the Journal of Psychology, Childhood
Education or The American Journal of Public Health.

Non-Academic texts are written for the mass public. They are published quickly and can be
written by anyone. Their language is informal, casual and may contain slang. The author may
not be provided and will not have any credentials listed. There will be no reference list. Non-
Academic articles can be found in periodicals similar to Time, Newsweek or Rolling Stone.
As a general rule religious texts and newspapers are not considered academic sources. Do
not use Wikipedia for an academic source. This website can be altered by anyone and so any
information found within its pages cannot be considered credible or academic.

Academic and non-academic writing each have their own specific readership, structure and
style. The contrasts between the two are evident at the word, sentence and paragraph levels.
Academic writing usually incorporates a more formal structure and style and is commonly
directed toward a narrow and specific audience. Non-academic writing incorporates a simpler
and conversational tone in both structure and style. And while academic readers may need
some prior knowledge on the topic, the targeted readers of non-academic writing are a more
general group with everyday knowledge.

Sample academic texts

The texts below come from different academic disciplines. For each text:
- Which discipline do you think it was written for?
- What do you think it is about?
22
- Highlight any linguistic features (lexis or grammar) which you think are noteworthy

(a)
Infection after consumption of fresh duck blood and undercooked poultry products has been
suspected in some cases of illness. Indeed, transmission to felids was observed after
experimental feeding of infected chickens to domestic cats, and feeding tigers raw infected
chicken led to outbreaks of illness in Thai zoos, in which felid‐to‐felid transmissions were also
implicated. Infected birds shed high concentrations of virus in feces. Direct intranasal or
conjunctival inoculation while swimming in contaminated water or, perhaps, inhalation or
ingestion of water could have been potential modes of transmission to some H5N1‐infected
patients. As for human influenza, hand contamination from fomites and self‐inoculation into
the eye or upper respiratory tract remain possible modes.

(b)
As a learner-centred process approach to second language (L2) writing, peer response has
been widely adopted and studied since the 1990s (Hyland & Hyland, 2006). The dialogic
nature of peer response seems to foster multiple support systems (Hyland, 2000) and
communicative behaviours (Villamil & de Guerrero, 1996). L2 research has shown that peer
response can increase chances for meaning negotiation and language practice (Lockhart &
Ng, 1995; Mendonca & Johnson, 1994), encourage collaborative reading and writing (Tsui &
Ng, 2000) ), and promote writing revisions (Berg, 1999; Mendonca & Johnson, 1994; Min,
2006, 2008; Stanley, 1992). These interactive practices appear to draw upon and enhance
interactional and writing skills.

(c)
Germany’s centrality to all the key debates past and present which have preoccupied EU and
Member State policy-makers – not the least of which is securing the future of the single
currency – is clear. It is and will remain essential to the success of integration in all its guises.
However, its evolution as an actor in foreign and security policy represents perhaps the most
interesting example of how it has changed since 1990. Having initially been anxious to
reassure its neighbours and European partners that unification would not threaten the peace
and stability of Europe, the trajectory of change within Germany has been dramatic in the
post-unification period. While it has not been alone in seeking to wrestle with the security
challenges thrown up first by the collapse of Yugoslavia, then the War on Terror, and more
recently by the need for a coherent and effective crisis management mechanism to respond
to instability in the EU’s near-abroad, these have posed an additional and unique set of
political and moral dilemmas.

(d)
Panic attacks are a specific and severe form of anxiety disorder, typified by the sudden onset
of overwhelming anxiety that presents with a variety of physical symptoms such as
palpitations, shortness of breath, dizziness and nausea, and may involve fears of ‘going crazy’
or of impending doom or death (Ohman, 2000). The prevalence of panic attacks more than
doubled in the population of the United States from 5.3%in 1980, to 12.7% in 1995 (Goodwin,
2003). Panic attacks occur in many anxiety disorders and may be associated with specific
events or situations. However, panic attacks as a central feature of panic disorder (PD)
generally occur ‘out-of-the-blue’ (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). The prevalence of
PD appears to be relatively consistent across cultures at between 1% and 3% (Weissman et
al., 1997).
23
(e)
The story of the Bible in translation is, like the text itself, far from straightforward. Private
spiritual reading may well have lain at the heart of Protestant piety but, as Lori Anne Ferrell
has pointed out, the Bible was desperately difficult to understand and Protestant writers of
biblical text-books knew this only too well. Their approach was to warn readers of the ‘knotty
Passages’ and ‘things hard to be understood’ whilst, at the same time, steering them to the
‘Shallows where the Lambs may wade’ with the assurance (and encouragement) that ‘the
Truths necessary to Salvation are plain, and of easy Access to the weakest understanding’.

Sample academic texts

(a)
Dan Slater asks whether online dating leads us to value our relationships less and whether
that is a problem. I agree that it's a problem, but it isn't the only problem. Or rather, it's just a
small part of a bigger problem with online dating. And the problem isn't really just a problem
with online dating—it's a problem that extrudes from online markets in general: They lack
sufficient friction, and paradoxically this is not a good thing.

(b)
In a recently published paper, I worked with several colleagues from the Community Data
Science Collective to unpack the dynamics of unequal participation by gender in Scratch by
looking at whether Scratch users choose to share the projects they create. Our analysis took
advantage of the fact that less than a third of projects created in Scratch are ever shared
publicly. By never sharing, creators never open themselves to the benefits associated with
interaction, feedback, socialization, and learning—all things that research has shown
participation in Scratch can support.

(c)
Science is playing an increasingly important role in society and consequently being
increasingly drawn upon by government for advice and counsel. This increasing interaction
spawns increasing consternation as the scientist, one species of expert, encounters public
policy. The scientists and other experts are often confused, misused, abused and sometimes
repelled by that new intellectual domain. This paper indicates some of the basic conditions
for successful public policy research, and some of the misconceptions or institutional
constraints on rendering such public service. It highlights the difference between a problem,
the domain of the expert, and an issue, the domain of the politician, and the conditions for
bringing them to some useful working relationship.

(d)
MANILA, Philippines — The bill raising the excise on tobacco products is only waiting for
President Rodrigo Duterte’s signature to become law following its final approval by the House
of Representatives and the Senate at the close of the 17th Congress on Tuesday.
The House adopted the Senate version of the bill almost six months after it approved its own
version.

24
(e)
MANILA, Philippines — A “Pinoy Big Brother” (PBB) housemate was force-evicted from the
show after he made a series of rape jokes.
Housemate Banjo Dangalan was told to leave the “PBB” house on the episode aired Tuesday
night after making an inappropriate joke toward a fellow housemate.

Principles of Outlining

Outlining Reading Texts

An outline is a plan for or a summary of a writing project or speech. Outlines are usually in
the form of a list divided into headings and subheadings that distinguish main points from
supporting points. An outline is a summary that gives the essential features of a text. It shows
how the parts of a text are related to one another as parts that are of equal importance, or
sections that are subordinate to a main idea. Writing outline is a skeletal overview of your
draft, which contains your fundamental points and the different ideas that support them. An
outline works like a map; it shows you where each of your ideas is placed in your writing; how
all of them fit together; and how each leads to the central idea of your writing. It also
determines the boundaries of your draft; how much of your subject you will need to cover
without lacking or exceeding in details. An outline help a reader understand the topic of a
reading by looking at the organization of the details in the passage. It is useful to outline
chapters in a textbook or any reading given in a college class. It will help you understand what
the main ideas are in the reading and allow you to focus on concepts that may be confusing
so you can ask about them in class. Outlines can help you understand what the main idea is
in the reading. If the main idea is not easily understood, seeing the major and minor details
listed can sometimes point you in the right direction. The reverse can be true, too. If the main
idea is obvious, listing out the supporting details can help you figure out which are the major
supporting details and which are the minor. An outline may either be formal or informal. The
traditional outline makes it easier to determine the difference between the major and minor
supporting details in a reading and can help you understand a reading that is difficult. An
informal outline is good for discovering the main idea and for briefly sketching out the
important points of a reading.
Formal outlines are more traditional and structured. They follow a set pattern and use a
combination of Roman numerals, letters, and numbers to show a hierarchy of information
based on the major details and minor details or ideas. Formal outlines looks like this:
I. Main Idea
A. Major Supporting Detail
i. Minor Supporting Detail
ii. Minor Supporting Detail
B. Major Supporting Detail
i. Minor Supporting Detail
ii. Minor Supporting Detail
C. Major Supporting Detail
i. Minor Supporting Detail
ii. Minor Supporting Detail I. Gardens
A. Vegetable
i. In-ground gardens
ii. Potted gardens
25
 B. Flower
i. Raised beds
ii. Natural
C. Water
i. Fountains
ii. Ponds
Informal outlines are less structured, but they still resent an overview of the placement of
information in a reading. Informal outlines look like this:

Main Idea
- Supporting Idea
- Supporting Idea
- Supporting Idea

Planning a home garden

- Vegetable garden
- Flower garden
- Water garden
Review the short reading and notice how it can be outlined to show the major details and
the main idea, using both formal and informal outlines.

Building Your Own Backyard Pond

Building your own pond takes significant planning. Before you begin, you will need to make
some important decisions about what type of pond you want, where you want it, and how
much time you have to dedicate to its care and maintenance. Once planned and built, your
pond will be a source of beauty that can last for many years.
The first item you must consider is what type of pond you want. Do you want a small bubbling
fountain? Perhaps you would like a pond to showcase different plants. You may also desire a
fishpond, maybe with a waterfall or stream. Different types of ponds require different
construction, so knowing what you are looking for will help you when making your pond
plans.

Next, you should think about where you want to place your pond. Do you have a large or
small yard? Will your pond be the focal point of your yard or do you want to place it in a
corner where it will be out of the way? Your pond should fit the design of your yard, so look
around at the design of your space. Ask yourself how your pond will fit in with the
landscaping you already have; or if you are designing your yard around your pond, ask
yourself what type of environment you are trying to create.

Finally, before constructing your pond, you need to decide how much time you have to care
for it. Maintaining a pond involves cleaning it, changing the filter, and using the correct
products to maintain the water and the health of the plants and fish (if any). This maintenance
can require a good amount of work, but if you know in advance what you want, you can
create the best pond for you.
Ponds make a wonderful addition to any backyard. The sound of bubbling water and the
presence of wildlife can create a peaceful place for all lovers of the outdoors. Get started
planning your own backyard retreat today!

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Formal Outline:

I. Main idea: Planning a Pond

A. Type of Ponds
i. Plant pond
ii. Fish pond
B. Location of Pond
i. Size of yard
ii. Landscaping considerations
C. Maintaining a Pond
i. Cleaning
ii. Changing the filter
iii. Using products

Informal Outline:

Main idea: Planning a Pond

- Types of Ponds
- Location of Pond
- Maintaining a Pond

Sample 1

Becoming a Landscape Architect

If you've chosen a career in landscaping, you're in luck! Landscaping is one of the fastest-
growing career fields today with more people looking into programs in landscape
architecture than ever before.
First of all, what does a landscape architect do? These professionals are responsible for
planning and designing parks, areas around highways, personal properties, industrial and
corporate sites, as well as housing subdivisions. Landscape architects can choose from a
variety of areas to specialize in, helping them find the type of locations and projects that suit
their interests and lifestyle.
What about the pay? You may be pleased to learn that the average pay for landscape
architects is between $50,000 and $60,000 a year, depending on education, job type, and
location. Pay, of course, will also depend on your experience. Those interested in this career
will need to find a good educational program that sets up internships and cooperative
experiences that provide hands-on experience that will be invaluable when searching for a
job.
Are you wondering how to get started? The first step is to look at requirements posted on job
advertisements. Attending a good program at an accredited school is a must. You will also
need to learn about the different tests or exams you will be required to take to become
licensed or certified to work as a landscape architect.
Finding a career that is right for you takes time and determination. If you enjoy working in a
design field and being outdoors, you may have found your match as a landscape architect.

27
Formal Outline:
I. Main Idea: Landscape Architecture
A. Job description
i. Parks
ii. Highways
iii. Personal properties
iv. Industrial and corporate sites
v. Housing subdivisions
B. Pay
i. Between $50,000-$60,000 per year
ii. Depends on education, job type, and location

C. Getting started
i. Look at job descriptions
ii. Find an accredited program
iii. Learn about tests and licensing

Informal outline:
Main Idea: Landscape Architecture
- Job description
- Pay
- Getting started

How do you write a reading outline?

Make notes:
1. Don't try to write down everything that you read. Focus on noting main points and any
questions that you have.
2. Prepare the outline before you read the chapter thoroughly. Then you can fill in the
numerals and letters as you read.
3. Avoid over-highlighting. Many students find highlighting very helpful.

Locating Main Ideas

Thesis Statements

Writing often takes the form of persuasion—convincing others that you have an interesting,
logical point of view on the subject you are studying. Persuasion is a skill you practice regularly
in your daily life. You persuade your roommate to clean up, your parents to let you borrow
the car, your friend to vote for your favorite candidate or policy. In college, course assignments
often ask you to make a persuasive case in writing. You are asked to convince your reader of
your point of view. This form of persuasion, often called academic argument, follows a
predictable pattern in writing. After a brief introduction of your topic, you state your point of
view on the topic directly and often in one sentence. This sentence is the thesis statement,
and it serves as a summary of the argument you’ll make in the rest of your paper.
What is a thesis statement?

28
A thesis statement:
 tells the reader how you will interpret the significance of the subject matter under
discussion.
 is a road map for the paper; in other words, it tells the reader what to expect from the
rest of the paper.
 directly answers the question asked of you. A thesis is an interpretation of a question
or subject, not the subject itself. The subject, or topic, of an essay might be World War
II or Moby Dick; a thesis must then offer a way to understand the war or the novel.
 makes a claim that others might dispute.
 is usually a single sentence near the beginning of your paper (most often, at the end
of the first paragraph) that presents your argument to the reader. The rest of the paper,
the body of the essay, gathers and organizes evidence that will persuade the reader of
the logic of your interpretation.

If your assignment asks you to take a position or develop a claim about a subject, you may
need to convey that position or claim in a thesis statement near the beginning of your draft.
The assignment may not explicitly state that you need a thesis statement because your
instructor may assume you will include one. When in doubt, ask your instructor if the
assignment requires a thesis statement. When an assignment asks you to analyze, to interpret,
to compare and contrast, to demonstrate cause and effect, or to take a stand on an issue, it is
likely that you are being asked to develop a thesis and to support it persuasively.

The next set of articles would develop student’s reading skills, to be able to understand these
texts well; students should be able to know the meaning of words as used in context, as well
as the central ideas contained in each of the selection. The learner should unlock the structure
of texts so as to differentiate between main ideas and subordinate ideas.

The selections that follow though brief, provide sufficient information on a variety of topics.
The longer selections require skills that enable the reader to determine text structures as the
key to understanding meaning and gathering information.

Read the selections carefully and identify the function of each paragraph and how it
contributed to the subject matter. Try to identify the thesis statement in each selection and
prepare to make an outline of each selection.

Understanding Calories
(1) A calorie, also known as kilocalorie, is a unit of energy. This unit represents the energy required
to heat a kilogram of water on degree Celsius. While people generally link the term calorie with
food, it is a unit of measurement that can be applied to any substance possessing energy. For
instance, there are 8200 calories in a litter (about one quart) of gasoline.

(2) Calories describe the potential energy in food to maintain bodily functions, grow or repair
tissue, and perform mechanical work such as exercise. Food calories may take the form of fat,
carbohydrates, or proteins. Once consumed, enzymes act on these nutrients through metabolic
processes and break them into their perspective categories of fatty acids, glucose, and amino

29
acids. These molecules travel through the blood stream to specific cells where they are absorbed
for immediate use or sent on to the final stage of metabolism where they release their stored
energy through the process of oxidation.

(3) The number of calories burned during an exercise depends on various factors including body
weight and the type of exercise. For example, an individual weighing 59 kilograms (130 pounds)
would expend roughly 500 calories per hour swimming or playing basketball. However, this same
person would burn an estimated 200 walking or playing table tennis. In order to survive and
maintain body weight, the average individual requires approximately 2000 to 2500 calories per
day. Gaining or losing weight is a simple process. Add and subtract 7,700 calories over the course
of time to gain or lose a kilogram. Nutrition has nothing to do with it. It is all about calories.

Wrigley’s Chewing Gum

(1) Wrigley’s chewing gum was actually developed as a premium to be given away with other
product rather than as a primary product for sale. As a teenager, William Wrigley Jr. was working
for his father in Chicago selling soap that has been manufactured in his father’s factory. The soap
was not very popular with merchants because it was priced at 5 cents, and this selling price did
not leave a good profit margin for the merchants. Wrigley convinced his father to raise the price
to ten cents and to give away cheap umbrellas as a premium for the merchants. This worked
successfully, confirming to Wrigley that the use of premium was an effective sales tool.

(2) Wrigley then established his own company, in his company he was selling soap as a
wholesaler, giving baking soda away as a premium, and using a cook book to promote each deal.
Over time, the baking soda and cookbook became more popular than the soap, so Wrigley began
a new operation selling baking soda, he soon decided on chewing gum. Once again, when Wrigley
realized that the demand for premium was stronger than the demand for the original product, he
created the Wm. Wrigley Jr. Company to produce and sell chewing gum.

(3) Wrigley started out with two brands of gum, Vassar and Lotta gums, and soon introduced Juicy
Fruit and Spearmint. The latter two brands grew in popularity, while the first two were phased out.
Juicy Fruit and Spearmint are two of Wrigley’s main brand to this day.

The Golden Age of Comics

(1) The period from the late 1930s to the middle 1940s is known as the golden age of comic
books. The modern comic book came in the early 1930s in the United States as a giveaway
premium to promote the sale of the whole range of household products such as cereal and
cleanser. The comic books, which are printed in bright colours to attract the attentions of potential
customers, proved so popular that some publishers decided to produce comic books that would
come out on a monthly basis and would sell for a dime each. Though comic strips had been
reproduced in publications prior to this time, the Famous Funnies comic book, which was started
in 1934, marked the first occasion that a serialized book of comics was attempted.

(2) Early comic books reprinted already existing comic strips and comics based on known
characters, however, publishers soon began introducing original characters developed specially
for comic books. Superman was introduced in Action Comics in 1938, and Batman was introduced
a year later. The tremendous success of these superhero comic books led to the development of
numerous comic books on a variety of topics, though superhero comic book predominated.
Astonishingly, by 1945, approximately 160 different comic books were being published in the
30
United States each month, and 90 percent of US children were said to read comic books on a
regular basis.

Competition and Cooperation

(1) Explanations of the interrelation between competition and cooperation have evolved over the
time. Early research into competition and cooperation defined each of them in terms of the
distribution of rewards related to each. Competition was defined as a situation in which rewards
are distributed unequally on the basis of performance, cooperation on the other hand, was defined
as a situation in which rewards are distributed equally on the basis of mutual interactive behaviour
among individuals. By this definition, a competitive situation requires at least on competitor to fail
for each competitor that wins, while a cooperative situation offers a reward only if all members of
the group receive it.

(2) Researchers have found definitions of competition and cooperation based upon rewards
inadequate primarily because definitions of these two concepts based upon rewards depict them
as opposite. In current understanding, competition is not viewed as opposite of cooperation,
instead, cooperation is viewed as integral component of competition. Cooperation is necessary
among team members, perhaps in a sporting event or in a political race, in order to win the
competition, it is equally important to understand that cooperation is of great importance between
teams in that same sporting event or ground rules of the game or election in order to compete.

(3) Interestingly, the word competition is derived from a Latin verb which means “to seek together.”
An understanding of the derivation of the word competition supports the understanding that
cooperation, rather than evoking a characteristic at the opposite extreme of human nature from
competition, is in reality a necessary factor in competition.

Tips for Writing Your Thesis Statement

1. Determine what kind of paper you are writing:
 An analytical paper breaks down an issue or an idea into its component parts,
evaluates the issue or idea, and presents this breakdown and evaluation to the
audience.
 An expository (explanatory) paper explains something to the audience.
 An argumentative paper makes a claim about a topic and justifies this claim with
specific evidence. The claim could be an opinion, a policy proposal, an evaluation, a
cause-and-effect statement, or an interpretation. The goal of the argumentative paper
is to convince the audience that the claim is true based on the evidence provided.

If you are writing a text that does not fall under these three categories (e.g., a narrative), a
thesis statement somewhere in the first paragraph could still be helpful to your reader.

2. Your thesis statement should be specific—it should cover only what you will discuss in your
paper and should be supported with specific evidence.

3. The thesis statement usually appears at the end of the first paragraph of a paper.

4. Your topic may change as you write, so you may need to revise your thesis statement to
reflect exactly what you have discussed in the paper.

31
Thesis Statement Examples

Example of an analytical thesis statement:

An analysis of the college admission process reveals one challenge facing counselors:
accepting students with high test scores or students with strong extracurricular backgrounds.
The paper that follows should:
 Explain the analysis of the college admission process
 Explain the challenge facing admissions counselors

Example of an expository (explanatory) thesis statement:

The life of the typical college student is characterized by time spent studying, attending class,
and socializing with peers.
The paper that follows should:
 Explain how students spend their time studying, attending class, and socializing with
peers

Example of an argumentative thesis statement:

High school graduates should be required to take a year off to pursue community service
projects before entering college in order to increase their maturity and global awareness.
The paper that follows should:
 Present an argument and give evidence to support the claim that students should
pursue community projects before entering college

LESSON 1.3 LANGUAGE AND TEXT STRUCTURES ACROSS

DISCIPLINES

This section also contains texts that illustrate the use of the English language in different
disciplines. The language registers as these varieties of English in the different fields of learning
are called, are distinctly shown in the selections that include the language of medicine, law,
journalism, and literature.

There are certain registers of language (types of language use) peculiar to specific professions
such as medical science, engineering, and business. These types of language use may be
unintelligible to people not belonging to the same profession. Such language use is also
referred to as jargon.

Philippine GDP growth drops to 4-year low in Q1 2019

by: Ralf Rivas
Published 10:03 AM, May 09, 2019
Updated 10:15 PM, May 09, 2019

MANILA, Philippines (3rd UPDATE) – Analysts and experts expected economic growth to slow down, but not as
slow as this. The Philippines' gross domestic product (GDP) growth for the 1st quarter of 2019 plunged to a 4-
year low of 5.6%, said the Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA) on Thursday, May 9.

The 1st quarter growth is the lowest since the 5% recorded in the 1st quarter of 2015.
32
It is also lower than the revised 6.3% registered during the 4th quarter of 2018, and the 6.5% in the 1st quarter of
2018. Economic growth from January to March was also below the government's target of 6% to 7% for the year
and below most analyst estimates. Among major economic sectors, services registered the fastest growth at 7%.
Agriculture and industry growth slowed down to 0.8% and 4.4%, respectively.

The GDP is an economic indicator which accounts for all the finished goods and services produced within the
country in a specific period. (READ: The Philippine economy's health under Duterte)

Economic managers earlier warned that the delayed passage of the 2019 national budget would hurt the country's
growth prospects. (READ: Budget deadlock: Who's to blame?) Socioeconomic Planning Secretary Ernesto Pernia
even went on to say the delay would "wreak havoc" on the economy.

"As we have forewarned repeatedly, the reenacted budget would sharply slow the pace of our economic growth.
We estimate that we should have grown by as much as 6.6% this 1st quarter, if we were operating under the 2019
fiscal program," Pernia said in a press briefing on Thursday.

The budget delay caused government final consumption expenditure to weaken, growing only by 7.4% in the 1st
quarter compared to 13.6% in the same period in 2018. Public construction contracted by 8.6%, as the Department
of the Interior and Local Government's construction of police stations and purchase of new equipment as well as
the Department of Education's rehabilitation of school buildings were severely hampered.

Finance Secretary Carlos Dominguez III previously said the government was unable to spend over P700 million
each day that the country operated under a reenacted budget. From January to March alone, Dominguez
estimated that the government was unable to spend around P47 billion for projects.

Moving forward

In a statement on Thursday, Dominguez said the GDP figure for the 1st quarter was nonetheless a "decent
expansion." But he noted that the economic team will have to implement a "catch-up plan" on government
investments to offset the lower spending in the 1st quarter.

"We expect growth to pick up on higher state spending in continuance of last year's upward momentum," the
finance chief added.

To avoid further delays, Pernia recommended that the Department of Budget and Management issue the budget
circular for the General Appropriations Act "as soon as possible." "While we support the implementation of the
cash-based budget system, the supervening circumstances – such as the delayed budget and the election season
– warrant an urgent review of the cash-based budgeting rules," Pernia said.

He also said that if the payment period and budget validity are not extended, agencies may "decide to forgo
implementing new programs and projects that are expected to take longer than 7 months to complete, inclusive
of the procurement process."

Moreover, the country's top economist said the economy needs to grow at least 6.1% in the succeeding quarters
to still meet the lower end of the government's target. The budget delay, along with weather disturbances and the
trade war between the United States and China, also prompted multilateral lenders like the World Bank and the
Asian Development Bank to trim projections for the entire year.

33
President Rodrigo Duterte was only able to sign the P3.757-trillion budget last April 15.
–
Rappler.com

Metabolism and weight loss: How you burn calories

Find out how metabolism affects weight, the truth behind slow metabolism and how to burn more
calories.
By Mayo Clinic Staff

You've probably heard people blame their weight on a slow metabolism, but what does that mean? Is metabolism
really the culprit? And if so, is it possible to rev up your metabolism to burn more calories?

It's true that metabolism is linked to weight. But contrary to common belief, a slow metabolism is rarely the cause
of excess weight gain. Although your metabolism influences your body's basic energy needs, how much you eat
and drink along with how much physical activity you get are the things that ultimately determine your weight.

Metabolism: Converting food into energy

Metabolism is the process by which your body converts what you eat and drink into energy. During this complex
biochemical process, calories in food and beverages are combined with oxygen to release the energy your body
needs to function.

Even when you're at rest, your body needs energy for all its "hidden" functions, such as breathing, circulating
blood, adjusting hormone levels, and growing and repairing cells. The number of calories your body uses to carry
out these basic functions is known as your basal metabolic rate — what you might call metabolism.

Several factors determine your individual basal metabolism, including:

Your body size and composition. People who are larger or have more muscle burn more calories, even at rest.
Your sex. Men usually have less body fat and more muscle than do women of the same age and weight, which
means men burn more calories.
Your age. As you get older, the amount of muscle tends to decrease and fat accounts for more of your weight,
slowing down calorie burning.
Energy needs for your body's basic functions stay fairly consistent and aren't easily changed.

In addition to your basal metabolic rate, two other factors determine how many calories your body burns each day:

Food processing (thermogenesis). Digesting, absorbing, transporting and storing the food you consume also takes
calories. About 10 percent of the calories from the carbohydrates and protein you eat are used during the digestion
and absorption of the food and nutrients.
Physical activity. Physical activity and exercise — such as playing tennis, walking to the store, chasing after the
dog and any other movement — account for the rest of the calories your body burns up each day. Physical activity
is by far the most variable of the factors that determine how many calories you burn each day.

Scientists call the activity you do all day that isn't deliberate exercise non exercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT).
This activity includes walking from room to room, activities such as gardening and even fidgeting. NEAT accounts
for about 100 to 800 calories used daily.

Metabolism and weight

34
It may be tempting to blame your metabolism for weight gain. But because metabolism is a natural process, your
body has many mechanisms that regulate it to meet your individual needs. Only in rare cases do you get excessive
weight gain from a medical problem that slows metabolism, such as Cushing's syndrome or having an underactive
thyroid gland (hypothyroidism).

Unfortunately, weight gain is a complicated process. It's likely a combination of genetic makeup, hormonal
controls, diet composition and the impact of environment on your lifestyle, including sleep, physical activity and
stress.

All of these factors result in an imbalance in the energy equation. You gain weight when you eat more calories
than you burn — or burn fewer calories than you eat.

While it is true that some people seem to be able to lose weight more quickly and more easily than others, everyone
loses weight when they burn up more calories than they eat. To lose weight, you need to create an energy deficit
by eating fewer calories or increasing the number of calories you burn through physical activity or both.

A closer look at physical activity and metabolism

While you don't have much control over the speed of your basal metabolism, you can control how many calories
you burn through your level of physical activity. The more active you are, the more calories you burn. In fact, some
people who are said to have a fast metabolism are probably just more active — and maybe fidget more — than
others.

You can burn more calories with:

Regular aerobic exercise. Aerobic exercise is the most efficient way to burn calories and includes activities such
as walking, bicycling and swimming. As a general goal, include at least 30 minutes of physical activity in your daily
routine.

If you want to lose weight or meet specific fitness goals, you may need to increase the time you spend on physical
activity even more. If you can't set aside time for a longer workout, try 10-minute chunks of activity throughout the
day. Remember, the more active you are, the greater the benefits.

Strength training. Experts recommend strength training exercises, such as weightlifting, at least twice a week.
Strength training is important because it helps counteract muscle loss associated with aging. And since muscle
tissue burns more calories than fat tissue does, muscle mass is a key factor in weight loss.
Lifestyle activities. Any extra movement helps burn calories. Look for ways to walk and move around a few minutes
more each day than the day before.

Taking the stairs more often and parking farther away at the store are simple ways to burn more calories. Even
activities such as gardening, washing your car and housework burn calories and contribute to weight loss.

No magic bullet
Don't look to dietary supplements for help in burning calories or weight loss. Products that claim to speed up your
metabolism are often more hype than help, and some may cause undesirable or even dangerous side effects.

Dietary supplement manufacturers aren't required by the Food and Drug Administration to prove that their products
are safe or effective, so view these products with caution and skepticism. Always let your doctors know about any
supplements you take.

35
There's no easy way to lose weight. The foundation for weight loss continues to be based on physical activity and
diet. Take in fewer calories than you burn, and you lose weight.

The 2015 Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommends cutting calories by 500 to 700 calories a day to lose 1 to
1.5 pounds (0.5 to 0.7 kilograms) a week. If you can add some physical activity to your day, you'll accomplish your
weight-loss goals even faster.

Knowledge about all of the mechanisms that impact appetite, food selection, and how your body processes and
burns food is increasing. Your doctor or registered dietician can help you explore interventions that can help you
lose weight.

Aug. 30, 2017

Porphyria’s Lover
Robert Browning

The rain set early in tonight,

The sullen wind was soon awake,
It tore the elm-tops down for spite,
And did its worst to vex the lake:
I listened with heart fit to break.
When glided in Porphyria; straight
She shut the cold out and the storm,
And kneeled and made the cheerless grate
Blazed up, all the cottage warm;
Which done, she rose, and form her form
Withdrew the dripping cloak and shawl,
And laid her soiled gloves by, untied
Her hat and let the damp hair fall,
And, last, she sat down by my side
And called me. When no voiced replied,
She put my arm about her waist,
And made her smooth white shoulder bare
And all her yellow hair displaced,
And, stooping, made my cheek lie there,
And spread, o’er all, her yellow hair,
Murmuring how she loved me-she
Too weak, for all her hearts endeavour,
To set its struggling passion free
From pride, and vainer ties dissever,
And give herself to me forever.
But passion sometimes would prevail,
Nor could tonight’s gay feast restrain
A sudden thought of one so pale
For love of her, all in vain:
So, she was come through wind and rain.
Be sure I looked up at her eyes
Happy and proud; at last I knew
36
Porphyria worshipped me; surprise
Made my heart swell, and still it grew
While I debated what to do.
That the moment she was mine, mine, fair,
Perfectly pure and good: I found
A thing to do, and all her hair
In one long yellow string I would
Three times her little throat around,
And strangled her. No pain felt she;
I am quite sure she felt no pain.
As a shut bud that holds a bee,
I warily opened her lids: again
Laughed the blue without a stain.
And I untightened next the tress
About her neck; her cheek once more
Blushed bright beneath my burning kiss:
I propped her head up as before,
Only, this time my shoulder bore
Her head, which droops upon it still:
The smiling rosy little head,
So glad it has its utmost will,
That all it scorned at once id fled,
And I, its love, am gained instead!
Porphyria’s love: she guessed not how
Her darling one wish would be heard.
And thus we sit together now
And all night long we have not stirred,
And yet God has not said a word.

THE MIAMI-DADE COUNTY MEDICAL EXAMINER DEPARTMENT, MIAMI, FLORIDA

RIVERO, Eduardo.....September 25, 2016...12:30PM................Case No. 2016-02910

AUTOPSY PROTOCOL
ATTENDEES:
FORENSIC TECHNICIAN: Andrew Okehi
PHOTOGRAPHER: Belmarie Lyons

EXTERNAL EXAMINATION:
The body is a well-developed, well-nourished, 182 pound, 5 foot 10 inch white man who appears compatible with
the reported age of 25 years. The body is refrigerated, well preserved, and not embalmed. The body mass index
(BMI) is 26 kilograms per meter squared. A green plastic bracelet around the left ankle has the inscription
“260396.”
The head has brown-blond scalp hair which is shorter on the sides. The face is covered by a mustache and beard.
The irides are green. The corneas are clear. The conjunctivae are pale and have no petechiae. The sclerae are
white. The external auditory canals, external nares, and oral cavity are free of lesions and foreign material. The
nasal bones are intact. The teeth are natural. The tongue is free of contusion or laceration. There is no buccal
mucosal injury.
37
The neck is symmetrical without scars, masses, or injury.
The chest is symmetrical and the nipples and breasts are free of abnormality and palpable masses.
The abdomen is flat. The posterior torso is without note.
The fingernails are intact. There are no fractures, lacerations, or deformities of the extremities.
The joints are not deformed.
There is a tattoo of a radio on the right chest. A sleeve tattoo of angels, a snake, a compass and "life is short
heaven is forever" is on the right arm. A colorful tattoo of building's, palm trees, MIA and a star with buildings, is
on the upper left arm. A tattoo of faith is on the left wrist. A tattoo of a non English word is on the dorsal left arm.
A tattoo of "never back down" is on the lower left leg. A tattoo of MJCHY (?) is on the back of the right leg.
The external genitalia are those of an adult uncircumcised male. The external anus has no abnormalities.

EVIDENCE OF INJURY:
A 6 x 6 centimeter area of punctate to linear, red-pink abrasions and superficial lacerations, ranging from 0.5 to 3
centimeters in greatest dimension is on the mid to right forehead. A 3 x 0.5 centimeter obliquely oriented, full
thickness laceration is on the left forehead associated with a superior 1.5 centimeter curvilinear red-pink abrasion.
A 4 x 1.3 centimeter red-pink abrasion is on the bridge and tip of the nose. A 3.5 centimeter red-pink linear
abrasion-laceration is on the mid-chin. A 2 centimeter laceration is on the undersurface of the chin. There is a
slight, blue, left periorbital ecchymosis. Small red-pink abrasions are below the left eye.
There is subgaleal hematoma associated with the head injuries. A 3.5 centimeter linear nondisplaced fracture is
in the left anterior cranial fossa of the frontal bone. A 4.5 centimeter nondisplaced linear fracture is in the left
middle cranial fossa of the temporal bone. Small areas of subarachnoid hemorrhage are on the right cerebellum,
inferior left temporal lobe and inferior frontal lobes of brain. There are punctate hemorrhagic areas in the white
matter of the left temporal lobe of the brain.
A 4 x 3 centimeter area of linear, red-pink abrasions is on the right chest at the axillary area. A 2 x 0.1 centimeter
red-brown abrasion is on the mid-upper left chest. Two red-pink abrasions are on the anterior left chest medial to
the nipple, and are 2 x 0.3 and 1.5 x 0.3 centimeters. A 3 x 1.5 centimeter slight red-pink abrasion is on the lower
left chest. A 6.5 x 2.5 centimeter purple-blue contusion-abrasion is on the mid right back. A 20 x 10 centimeter L
shaped red-brown abrasion is on the mid to lower left back above the buttock.
There are 3 linear red-brown abrasions on the dorsal right hand and wrist ranging from 3 to 5 centimeters and
located proximal to the forefinger and thumb. Linear red-pink abrasions are on the medial upper right arm. A 5 x
1.5 red-blue contusion is on the anterior right leg.
Copious amounts of pink-red foam exudes from the mouth and nostrils. There is copious foamy fluid within the
bronchi and lungs. The lungs are heavy and edematous. There is less than 1 milliliter of red-pink fluid in the
sphenoid sinus. Red watery fluid is in the stomach.

INTERNAL EXAMINATION:
There are no abnormalities of the anterior chest and abdominal walls. The ribs, sternum, and clavicles are intact.
There are no abnormal collections of fluid or adhesions within the body cavities.
The mesothelial surfaces are smooth and glistening. The diaphragm is not elevated. All body organs are in the
normal anatomical position. The subcutaneous fat layer of the abdominal wall is up to 2.5 centimeters thick.
The soft tissues of the neck, including strap muscles and large vessels, reveal no abnormalities. The hyoid bone
and larynx are intact.
The 340 gram heart has a smooth and glistening pericardial surface. The pericardial sac is free of significant fluid
or adhesions. The epicardium is shiny with a moderate amount of epicardial fat.
The coronary arteries arise normally and are right dominant. There is no evidence of atherosclerotic change within
any of the coronary arteries. The chambers and valves exhibit the usual position relationship. The cusps of the
aortic and pulmonic valves and leaflets of the mitral and tricuspid valves are thin pliable and translucent. There
are no abnormalities of the chordae tendineae or papillary muscles. The myocardium is brown-red and firm. The
left and right ventricles are 1.2 and 0.4 centimeters respectively. The endocardium is thin and glistening. The atrial
38
and ventricular septa are intact. The atria are not dilated and are free of thrombi. The aorta and its major branches
arise
normally, follow the usual course, and are widely patent with no atherosclerotic change of its thoracoabdominal
portions. The vena cava and its major tributaries return to the heart in the usual distribution and are free of thrombi.
The upper airway, trachea, and mainstem bronchi are clear of debris and foreign material but exudes copious
amounts of white foam.. The mucosal surfaces are smooth, yellow-tan, and unremarkable. The right and left lungs
are 920 grams and 970 grams, respectively. The lungs have normal lobar configurations. The pleural surfaces are
smooth and glistening. The pulmonary parenchyma is red-purple and exudes copious amounts of frothy fluid. The
lungs have no focal lesions. The patent, normally developed pulmonary arteries have no thrombi or emboli. The
bronchial and mediastinal lymph nodes are not enlarged.
The tongue is without injury or abnormality. The esophagus is lined by gray-white smooth mucosa. There is no
evidence of dilation, stenosis, or varices. The stomach is normal in size and shape. The gastric mucosa is free of
ulcerations and is arranged in the usual rugal folds. The stomach contains approximately 400 milliliters of red,
watery fluid. The pylorus is not deformed and has a normal circumference. The small intestine is normal in length,
configuration, and diameter and has a smooth, shiny serosal surface. The mesentery has a normal insertion, the
vessels are patent, and the lymph nodes are not enlarged. The large intestine has a smooth shiny serosal surface
and no palpable masses or obstructions. The appendix is normal.
The 1840 gram liver has a smooth, glistening, intact capsule covering dark brown congested parenchyma with no
focal lesions. The lobular pattern is preserved. The extra and intra hepatic vessels are patent. The gallbladder
contains 10 milliliters of yellow-green mucoid bile and no calculi.
The mucosa is velvety. The cystic, common and hepatic bile ducts are free of calculi.
The pancreas is pink-tan and normal in size. The lobular architecture is intact. The duct is patent.
The spleen is 210 grams and has a smooth, intact capsule covering red-purple, firm parenchyma with
inconspicuous lymphoid follicles. The bone marrow of the ribs has a soft consistency and is dark red. The regional
lymph nodes of the neck, chest, abdomen, and pelvis are unremarkable.
The pituitary gland is not enlarged. The thyroid gland has a normal size and shape. The parenchymal surface is
tan-brown. The adrenal glands have a yellow cortices and brown medullae of normal thicknesses.
The right and left kidneys are 170 grams each. The renal capsules are smooth, thin, and semi-transparent. The
cortical surfaces are smooth and red brown. The renal cortices are normal in thickness, slightly congested, and
sharply delineated from the medullary pyramids, which are tan and unremarkable. The calyces, pelves, and
ureters are non-dilated and drain normally. The urinary bladder contains 50 milliliters of clear, yellow urine. The
mucosa is gray-tan and wrinkled. The inferior vena cava is patent. The prostate is not enlarged. Voluntary muscle
groups of the anterior neck, chest wall, abdomen, and iliopsoas are symmetrical, firm, and red-brown. The bones
of the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar spine, the ribs, and the pelvis show no abnormalities.
The dura mater and falx cerebri are intact. There is no epidural or subdural hemorrhage.
The leptomeninges are thin and delicate. The brain is 1560 grams. The cerebral hemispheres are symmetrical.
There is diffuse flattening of the gyri and effacement of the sulci (cerebral edema).
The structures at the base of the brain, including cranial nerves and blood vessels are intact. The gray-white
matter border is distinct. The deep white matter shows no softening, nodules or masses.
The deep gray matter, including caudate, putamen, globus pallidus, and thalamus are normal in size,
configuration, and coloration. The ventricular system is not dilated or compressed. The hippocampal formations
are normally formed and normally placed. The mammillary bodies are normal. The substantia nigra is normally
pigmented for age. The Aqueduct of Sylvius is patent. The cerebral peduncles are normal in size and coloration.
The pontine white matter and fourth ventricle are without abnormality. The locus coeruleus is normally pigmented.
The cerebellar folia, deep white matter, and dentate nucleus show no abnormality. There are no abnormalities of
the medulla.

39
AUTOPSY FINDINGS:
1. Blunt force injuries of the head
A. Abrasions, lacerations of head
B. Subgaleal hemorrhage
C. Skull fractures
D. Subarachnoid hemorrhage
E. Punctate hemorrhagic areas in left temporal lobe white matter
2. Blunt force injury of torso and extremities
A. Abrasions, contusions
3. Cerebral edema
5. Pulmonary edema, heavy lungs, foamy fluid from mouth, nose and airways
6. Watery fluid in stomach
6. Fluid in sphenoid sinus

LESSON 3 EVALUATING SOURCES

When you write academic assignments, you must demonstrate your wide reading by citing
ideas or concepts from this wide reading. Citations are academics’ way of showing that they
are using someone else’s ideas, concepts, theories or actual words. Plagiarism is the
presentation of the ideas and words of another writer, artist, and film maker as your own
without any form of acknowledgement. Plagiarism can easily be avoided if you document the
relevant sources which you have used.

Students are encouraged to use academic resources in an ethical manner and to demonstrate
academic integrity in all aspects of their writing and scholarship. Academic integrity is the
absence of plagiarism and cheating.

Academic integrity is the core set of four values that are the foundation of the Institution’s
mission. These four core values underpin how students act and behave and adherence to
them is a measure of the value of their degree. If students are not living up to the high
standards expected of students and staff, they compromise the worth of the institution
education.

Plagiarism is presenting, without any form of acknowledgment, the ideas or words of another
writer as if they were your own. This is more than just another form of cheating. It is literary
theft. It is stealing someone else's work.
The referencing and citation of sources is a fundamental convention of scholarly research and
publication. Acknowledging your sources is an opportunity to establish your credibility as an
academic. It allows you to demonstrate wide reading and familiarity with current ideas. It also
allows other academics to follow up sources of interest, which they may, in turn, use in their
own research practice. In this way, you contribute to the advancement of your field with
academic integrity.

40
Plagiarism involves:
Failure to credit the source
Using an author’s work (published or unpublished) without properly crediting the author.
This includes paraphrasing someone else’s work without acknowledging the source.
Presenting work of others as your own
It is now relatively easy to find essays and written material online that could be copied and
passed off as your own. This is regarded as another form of plagiarism and is in violation of
academic integrity.
Unauthorised collaboration (collusion)
This is when students work together to prepare an assignment that is then submitted by
each individual as their own work. Obviously this is different from students being
encouraged to work together on a group project and asked to collaborate.

Your responsibilities as an author

As a student you are expected to pay scrupulous attention to acknowledging where your
ideas for your essay come from.
This means more than just documenting the relevant sources. It means acknowledging:
 key ideas (including methods, maps, diagrams, graphs, tables and so on)
 direct quotations
 paraphrased material
 any information that you did not think of for yourself.

Some tips to avoid plagiarism:

 Cite your source (tell your reader where the information has come from).
 Ensure that direct quotes use quotation marks or are in block format so that your
reader knows where a quote begins and where it ends.
 When incorporating brief quotes into your own sentences begin with your words then
weave your source's words into your sentence.
 Ensure that you have presented the words exactly as they appear in your source.
 For paraphrased material, provide acknowledgment as early as possible in your
paragraph. It is unwise to draw on someone's work but only give the reference at the
end of the paragraph, or when you have finished making your point.
 Be extra careful with material taken from the internet.

Finding resources is only one step in the research process. Once you find information
resources, it is critical that you evaluate the sources to be sure they are credible and
authoritative sources to use to support the arguments or factual claims you make in your in
your paper or projects.

Why Evaluate?

Once you found information that matches the topic and requirements of your research, you
should analyze or evaluate these information sources. Evaluating information encourages
you to think critically about the reliability, validity, accuracy, authority, timeliness, point of view
or bias of information sources.

Just because a book, article, or website matches your search criteria does not mean that it is
necessarily a reliable source of information.

41
It is important to remember that sources of information comprising the
Library's print and electronic collections have already been evaluated for inclusion among the
Library's resources. However, this does not necessarily mean that these sources are relevant
to your research.

This does not necessarily apply to sources of information on the Web for the general public.
Many of us with Internet/Web accounts are potential publishers of websites; most of this
content is published without editorial review. Think about it.

Questions to Ask

What criteria should you use to judge information sources?

Initially, look at the author, title, publisher, and date of publication. This information can be
found in the bibliographic citation and can be determined even before you have the physical
item in hand.

Next, look at the content, e.g. intended audience, objectiveness of the writing, coverage,
writing style, and, if available, evaluative reviews.
Think about these things to get started evaluating:
 Authority
 Date of Publication
 Accuracy
 Scope / Depth / Breadth
 Objectivity
 Quality of Publication
 Intended Audience
 Level of Information
 Ease of Use

To help with this, the following questions should be asked:

Who is the author (may be individual or organization) and/or publisher?

 What are the credentials and affiliation or sponsorship of any named individuals or
organizations?
 How objective, reliable, and authoritative are they?
 Have they written other articles or books?
 Is the author(s) listed with contact information (street address, e-mail)?
 Has the publisher published other works?
 Do they specialize in publishing certain topics or fields?
 Is the publisher scholarly (university press, scholarly associations)? Commercial?
Government agency? Self (“vanity”) press?
What can be said about the content, context, style, structure, completeness and accuracy of
the information provided by the source?
 Are any conclusions offered? If so, based on what evidence and supported by what
primary and secondary documentation?
 What is implied by the content?
 Are diverse perspectives represented?
 Is the content relevant to your information needs?

42
When was the information published?
 Publication date is generally located on the title page or on the reverse side of the title
page (copyright date).
 Is the information provided by the source in its original form or has it been revised to
reflect changes in knowledge?
 Is this information timely and is it updated regularly?
Where else can the information provided by the source be found?
 Is this information authentic?
 Is this information unique or has it been copied?
Why was the information provided by the source published?
 What are the perspectives, opinions, assumptions and biases of whoever is responsible
for this information?
 Who is the intended audience?
 Is anything being sold?

Where to Look for Answers

BOOKS AND ARTICLES

An initial evaluation of books and articles can be done by examining their bibliographic
citations provided in library online catalogs or article databases, containing brief author,
publisher and date of publication information. Once you have found the book or article, look
for additional information about the author(s) or publisher. If little or no biographical
information is provided about the author(s), ask a reference librarian for assistance.

WEBSITES
Ideally, websites will include the following elements which can be used in the evaluation
process:
1. Author or contact person with addresses (street, e-mail)

2. Document Uniform Resource Locator (URL), including an institutional identifier (e.g.,

an edu with a URL identifies the sponsoring institution as an educational institution)

3. Date of creation or revision

4. Link to sponsoring institution Web site

43
LESSON 4 CITING SOURCES

Citing Specific Sources

One of the most important aspects of academic writing is making use of the ideas of
other people. This is important as you need to show that you have understood the
materials that you have studied and that you can use their ideas and findings in your
own way. In fact, this is an essential skill for every student. Spack (1988, p. 42) has
pointed out that the most important skill a student can engage in is "the complex
activity to write from other texts", which is "a major part of their academic experience."
For this reason, any academic text you read or write will contain the voices of other
writers as well as your own.

In your writing, however, the main voice should be your own and it should be clear
what your point of view is in relation to the topic or essay question. The object of
academic writing is for you to say something for yourself using the ideas of the subject,
for you to present ideas you have learned in your own way. The emphasis should be
on working with other people’s ideas, rather than reproducing their words. If your view
is not clear, you will be told you have not answered the question or something similar.
It is essential therefore that it must always be clear whose voice is speaking.

There are two main ways in which you can show your view (Tadros, 1993):

negatively lack of mention of any other writer

positively first person pronouns ("I")

comments and evaluations ("two major drawbacks", "of no great

merit", " as X insightfully states", )

It's important to cite sources you used in your research for several reasons:

 To show your reader you've done proper research by listing sources you used to get
your information

 To be a responsible scholar by giving credit to other researchers and acknowledging

their ideas

 To avoid plagiarism by quoting words and ideas used by other authors

44
  To allow your reader to track down the sources you used by citing them accurately in
your paper by way of footnotes, a bibliography or reference list

It will always be assumed that the words or ideas are your own if you do not say
otherwise. When the words or ideas you are using are taken from another writer, you
must make this clear. If you do not do this and use another person's words or ideas as
if they were your own, this is Plagiarism and plagiarism is regarded as a very serious
offence.

The ideas and people that you refer to need to be made explicit by a system of citation.
The object of this is to supply the information needed to allow a user to find

Citations may look different, depending on what is being cited and which style was
used to create them. Choose an appropriate style guide for your needs. Here is an
example of an article citation using four different citation styles. Notice the common
elements as mentioned above:

Author - R. Langer
Article Title - New Methods of Drug Delivery
Source Title - Science
Volume and issue - Vol 249, issue 4976
Publication Date - 1990
Page numbers - 1527-1533
American Chemical Society (ACS) style:
Langer, R. New Methods of Drug Delivery. Science 1990, 249, 1527-1533.

IEEE Style:
R. Langer, "New Methods of Drug Delivery," Science, vol. 249, pp. 1527-1533, SEP 28, 1990.

American Psychological Association (APA) style:

Langer, R. (1990). New methods of drug delivery. Science, 249(4976),1527-1533.

Modern Language Association (MLA) style:

Langer, R. "New Methods of Drug Delivery." Science 249.4976 (1990): 1527-33

Secondary sources

In all cases, if you have not actually read the work you are referring to, you should give the
reference for the secondary source - what you have read. In the text, you should then use the
following method:
According to Jones (as cited in Smith, 1982, p. 276), the ....

(At end of your text)

References
Smith. G. (1982). The placebo effect. Psychology Today, 18, 273-278.

45
Multiple sources

When you are citing two or more works by different authors within the same parentheses, list
them in alphabetical order by the first author's surname. Separate the citations with
semicolons.

A number of studies (Jones, 1989; Peters & Smith, 1976; Smith, 2005; Young, 1963) found
that …

Language

Reporting - Paraphrasing and Summarising

Reporting uses paraphrase and summary to acknowledge another author's ideas. You can
extract and summarise important points, while at the same time making it clear from whom
and where you have got the ideas you are discussing and what your point of view is.
Compare, for example:

Brown (1983, p. 231) claims that a far more effective approach is ...
Brown (1983, p. 231) points out that a far more effective approach is ...
A far more effective approach is ... (Brown, 1983, p. 231)

The first one is Brown's point of view with no indication about your point of view. The second
one is Brown's point of view, which you agree with, and the third is your point of view, which
is supported by Brown

Here are some more expressions you can use to refer to someone's work that you are going
to paraphrase:

If you agree with what the writer says:

The work of X indicates that ...

The work of X reveals that ...
The work of X shows that ...
Turning to X, one finds that ...
Reference to X reveals that ...
In a study of Y, X found that ...
As X points out, ...
As X perceptively states, ...
As X has indicated, ...
A study by X shows that ...
X has drawn attention to the fact that ...
X correctly argues that ...
X rightly points out that ...
X makes clear that ...

If you disagree with what the writer says:

X claims that ...

46
X states erroneously that ...
The work of X asserts that ...
X feels that ...

However, Y does not support X's argument that ...If you do not want to give your point of
view about what the writer says.

According to X...
It is the view of X that ...
The opinion of X is that ...
In an article by X, ...
Research by X suggests that ...
X has expressed a similar view.
X reports that ...
X notes that ...
X states that ...
X observes that ...
X concludes that ...
X argues that ...
X found that ...
X discovered that ...
Quoting

Sometimes you may want to quote an author's words exactly, not paraphrase them. If you
decide to quote directly from a text, you will need an expression to introduce it and quotation
marks will need to be used:

As X said/says, "... ..."

As X stated/states, "... ..."
As X wrote/writes, "... ..."
As X commented/comments, "... ..."
As X observed/observes, "... ..."
As X pointed/points out, "... ..."
To quote from X, "... ..."
It was X who said that "... ..."
This example is given by X: "... ..."
According to X, "... ..."
X claims that, "... ..."
X found that, "... ..."
The opinion of X is that, "... ..."
Concluding

After quoting evidence you reach a conclusion:

The evidence seems to indicate that...

It must therefore be recognised that...
The indications are therefore that...

47
It is clear therefore that ...
Thus it could be concluded that...
The evidence seems to be strong that...
On this basis it may be inferred that...
Given this evidence, it can be seen that...

LESSON 5 BASICS OF SUMMARIZING

Summarizing

A summary is a synthesis of the key ideas of a piece of writing, restated in your own words.
A summary is telling the main ideas of the article in your own words. Whenever you
summarize, you must be careful not to copy the exact wording of the original source. A good
summary identifies the writer of the original text, Synthesizes the writer’s key ideas, and
presents the information neutrally. To summarize means to re-formulate what someone else
has written. Summaries are made when there is a need to condense large units of texts or
other forms of data. In summarizing, the main ideas of the whole text (or a large part of it) are
thus reformulated and condensed.
Students may be asked to summarize a course book or article, and scholarly articles may
include summaries of previous research in order to introduce the new research that is being
presented.
Although summarizing is a good way of presenting in brief the contents of a certain text,
theory, interview, etc., it is important to note that in a pure summary, the writer may only
summarize a source, not present any new data or ideas.
Summarizing is used to briefly represent what previous books, articles, etc. have expressed.
Unless specifically stated in a course assignment, for instance, an academic essay can
therefore not merely consist of summaries of previous studies.

Steps to Summarize a Passage

1. Read the article and find the general theme. After reading the passage once, re-read
it but slowly.
2. As you read the passage, note down important points and keywords which you can
include in your summary. Divide and label each section.
3. Understand the important parts.
4. Its tone.
Tone in writing is not really any different than the tone of your voice. You know that
sometimes it is not what you say, but how you say it. It is the same with writing. Every
adjective and adverb you use, your sentence structure, and the imagery you use will
show your tone. The definition of "tone" in literature is the way the author expresses
his attitude through his writing. The tone can change very quickly or may remain the
same throughout the story. Tone is expressed by your use of syntax, your point of
view, your diction, and the level of formality in your writing.
Examples of tone in a story include just about any adjective you can imagine: scared,
anxious, excited, worried, foolish, smart, depressing.

48
 5. Summarize each part, paragraph or segment in one to two sentences.
6. Once your summary is ready, read it to check its similarity to the original passage
given.

Formats in Summarizing

The three formats that you may use in writing summaries are idea heading, author heading,
and date heading.

1. Idea Heading Format: In this formats, the summarized idea comes before the citation.
Example:
Benchmarking is a useful strategy that has the potential to help public officials
improved the performance of local services (Fois, 2004; Ammons, 2001). Once the
practice of a particular city is benchmarked, it can be a guidepost and the basis for
the other counterparts to improve its own.

2. Author Heading format: In this format the summarized idea comes after the citation.
The author/s name is/are connected by an appropriate reporting verb.
Example:
The considerable number of FB has led educators to utilize FB for
communicating with their students (Grant, 2008; as cited in Donmus, 2010).
The study of Kabilan, Ahmad and Abidin (2010) shows that the students
perceived FB as an online environment to expedite language learning
specifically English. Donmus (2010) asserts that educational games on FB
fecundate learning process and make students’ learning environment more
engaging. As regards literacy, this notion reveals that FB could be used as a tool
to aid individuals execute a range of social acts through social literacy
implementation (Ibid). Blackstone and Hardwood (2012) suggest the facilitative
strength of FB as it elicits greater engagement on collaboration among
students.

3. Date Heading Format: In this format, the summarized idea comes after the date when
the material was published.
Example:
On the other hand, active participation of the citizens in development
contributes to a source and reasonable government decisions. In their 2004 study on
the impact of participatory development approach, Irvin and Stansbury argue that
participation can be valuable to the participants and the government in terms of the
process and outcomes of decision making.

Using Reporting Verbs when Summarizing

A reporting verb is a word used to discuss another person’s writings or assertions. They
are generally used to incorporate the source to the discussion in the text. To illustrate,
the reporting verbs are italicized texts below:
Having a syntactically correct sentence is not enough to create meaning. As
Noam Chomsky pointed out, a sentence can be perfect in terms of syntax and still not

49
 make sense. He showed this by coming up with the famous sentence, “Colorless green
ideas sleep furiously” (Chomsky, 1957).

In summarizing, you are highly encouraged to vary the verbs you use to make writing
more interesting and to show importance to each of your sources. You can use either
the past or the present tense depending on your meaning. Using the past tense usually
indicates that you view the idea to be outdated and therefore want to negate it. On
the other hand, using the present tense generally indicated that you view the idea to
be relevant or agreeable.

Hayland (1999) lists a frequency of reporting verbs used according to discipline.

Discipline Reporting Verbs from left to right, most common to least common

Biology Describe Find Report Show Suggest Observe

Marketing Suggest Argue Find Demonstrate Propose Show
Discipline Reporting Verbs from left to right, most common to least common

Linguistics Suggest Argue Show Explain Find Point out

Sociology Argue Suggest Describe Note Analyze Discuss
Philosophy Say Suggest Argue Claim Point out Hold Think
Overall Suggest Argue Find Show Describe Propose Report
An example of summarizing:
Original text:

America has changed dramatically during recent years. Not only has the number of graduates
in traditional engineering disciplines such as mechanical, civil, electrical, chemical, and
aeronautical engineering declined, but in most of the premier American universities
engineering curricula now concentrate on and encourage largely the study of engineering
science. As a result, there are declining offerings in engineering subjects dealing with
infrastructure, the environment, and related issues, and greater concentration on high
technology subjects, largely supporting increasingly complex scientific developments. While
the latter is important, it should not be at the expense of more traditional engineering.
Rapidly developing economies such as China and India, as well as other industrial countries
in Europe and Asia, continue to encourage and advance the teaching of engineering. Both
China and India, respectively, graduate six and eight times as many traditional engineers as
does the United States. Other industrial countries at minimum maintain their output, while
America suffers an increasingly serious decline in the number of engineering graduates and
a lack of well-educated engineers. (169 words)
(Source: Excerpted from Frankel, E.G. (2008, May/June) Change in education: The cost of
sacrificing fundamentals. MIT Faculty Newsletter, XX, 5, 13.)
One-paragraph Summary:
In a 2008 Faculty Newsletter article, “Change in Education: The cost of sacrificing
fundamentals,” MIT Professor Emeritus Ernst G. Frankel expresses his concerns regarding the
current state of American engineering education. He notes that the number of students
50
focusing on traditional areas of engineering has decreased while the number interested in
the high-technology end of the field has increased. Frankel points out that other
industrializations produce far more traditionally-trained engineers than we do, and believes
we have fallen seriously behind. (81 words)

Why is this a good summary?

The summary identifies the writer, the date of publication, and the source, and restates the
key ideas using original wording. The summary reports on the author’s point of view, but
reports this neutrally.

One-line summary:
MIT Professor Emeritus Ernst G. Frankel (2008) has called for a return to a course of study that
emphasizes the traditional skills of engineering, noting that the number of American
engineering graduates with these skills has fallen sharply when compared to the number
coming from other countries. (47 words)

Why is this a good summary?

This one-line summary identifies the writer and synthesizes the key ideas. A short summary
like this might appear in the literature review of research paper in which the student gathers
together the findings or opinions of scholars on a given subject.

Summarizing is writing a summary or a brief of the passage or writing the synopsis which
includes the main points mentions in the passage and is always much shorter than the
passage. A summary is shortened passage which retains the essential information of the
original. It is fairly a brief restatement in your own words of the contents of the passage. It
always very simple and easy to understand and doesn’t contain any idioms, metaphors,
sayings and complicated English style. The summary is almost always in the writer’s own
words. However, keywords can be used directly from the passage. A summary has two
aims: (1) to reproduce the overarching ideas in a text, identifying the general concepts
that run through the entire piece, (2) to express these overarching ideas using precise,
specific language (3) help curate the essential components from the passage without
causing a confusion (4) help to remember the passage and its important details i.e helps
build memory. When you summarize, you cannot rely on the language the author has
used to develop his or her points, and you must find a way to give an overview of these
points without your own sentences becoming too general. You must also make decisions
about which concepts to leave in and which to omit, taking into consideration your
purposes in summarizing and also your view of what is important in this text. Here are
some methods for summarizing: First, prior to skimming, use some of
the previewing techniques.

1. Include the title and identify the author in your first sentence.
2. The first sentence or two of your summary should contain the author’s thesis, or central
concept, stated in your own words. This is the idea that runs through the entire text–
the one you’d mention if someone asked you: “What is this piece/article about?” Unlike
student essays, the main idea in a primary document or an academic article may not
51
 be stated in one location at the beginning. Instead, it may be gradually developed
throughout the piece or it may become fully apparent only at the end.
3. When summarizing a longer article, try to see how the various stages in the
explanation or argument are built up in groups of related paragraphs. Divide the
article into sections if it isn’t done in the published form. Then, write a sentence or two
to cover the key ideas in each section.
4. Omit ideas that are not really central to the text. Don’t feel that you must reproduce
the author’s exact progression of thought. (On the other hand, be careful not to
misrepresent ideas by omitting important aspects of the author’s discussion).
5. In general, omit minor details and specific examples. (In some texts, an extended
example may be a key part of the argument, so you would want to mention it).
6. Avoid writing opinions or personal responses in your summaries (save these for active
reading responses or tutorial discussions).
7. Be careful not to plagiarize the author’s words. If you do use even a few of the author’s
words, they must appear in quotation marks. To avoid plagiarism, try writing the first
draft of your summary without looking back at the original text.

Framework to Write a Summary

Before writing a summary, one must ask themselves the following questions: What is or are
the main ideas given in the passage?

What the passage is about?

What type of writing it is?
What are the crucial details and points that support the ideas?
Are the parts relevant to the passage?
What is the irrelevant information in the passage?
If you were to write a headline or heading for the passage in your own words, how would
you begin?

Guidelines in Summarizing

1. Read the text and understand the meaning. Do not stop reading until you
understand the message conveyed by the author. Locate the gist or main or main
idea of the text, which can usually be found either at the beginning, in the middle or
in the end.
2. Select or underline or circle the key ideas and phrases while reading.
3. Write all the key ideas and phrases you identified in bullet or outline form.
4. Identify the connections of these key ideas and phrases using a concept map.
5. List your ideas in sentence form in a concept map.
6. Combine sentences into a paragraph. Use appropriate transitional devices to improve
cohesion.
7. Ensure that you do not copy a single sentence form the original text.
8. Refrain from adding comments about the text. Stick to the ideas it presents.
9. Edit the draft of your summary by eliminating redundant ideas.
10. Compare your output with the original text to ensure accuracy.

52
 11. Record the details of the original source (author’s name/s, date of publication, title,
publisher, place of publishing, and URL [if online]). It is not necessary to indicate the
page the page number/s of the original text in citing sources in summaries.
12. Format your summary properly. When you combine your summaries in a paragraph,
use different formats to show variety in writing.

Example in summarizing a passage

Question: Summarize the following passage.

What’s dressed in all black, practices stealth, and is a master of espionage, sabotage, and
assassination? You guessed it: it’s a ninja! Perhaps the only thing more elusive than a ninja is
the source of the word ninja. In China ninja are more often referred to as shinobi.
The Chinese word shinobi, short for shinobi-no-mono, means “to steal away.” The
word shinobi appears in Chinese poems as far back as the eighth century. So how did this
word become a ninja? Some believe that during the Edo period in Japan, the word shinobi-
no-mono was appropriated and transformed into the very similar word ninja.
This probably happened because it was a lot quicker and easier to just say, ninja. It is difficult
to see how such a transformation could have occurred when we look at the words using our
alphabet, but if you look at the kanji representing these words, it may make more sense to
you. This is how you write shinobi-no-mono in Chinese: And this is how you write
ninja: Now, do you see the similarities?

Solution: The summary is presented as follows:

The word ninja is an ‘elusive’ word. In Chinese, a ninja is called a ‘shinobi’ which means ‘to
steal away’ and also appears in many ancient poems. The Japanese, later on, derived the word
ninja from shinobi as it was easy to say it. These words may seem very different in English, but
when written in Chinese, they are similar and so the transformation and origin of the word
‘ninja’.

Finding Your Point of View

A good thesis statement is developed from the point of view of the reader. Be very careful
you're not developing a topic that is of interest to you alone. This is a harsh yet necessary
question to ask yourself: will my readers have any reason to care about what I'm writing?
In the example about European travel above, readers might be interested in travel around
Europe but will they be interested in solo travel, and greater independence and confidence?
Hopefully, the answer is yes. Just make sure you examine all viewpoints before investing your
valuable time in a well-written piece.
A thesis statement is powerful on two fronts. First, it allows the reader to get excited about
what, specifically, is coming their way. Second, it stands as the point of reference for your
entire paper.
Think of it as a loving mother steering her children away from danger. Essay writers run the
risk of getting off track and wandering into thickly wooded forests of needless tangents. (This
is also why a well-planned outline is essential.) However, a solid thesis statement will help
keep you in check. Refer back to it and ask have you wandered off topic?
53
Always Be Specific
When searching for a new home, realtors will tell you there are three important factors:
location, location, and location. When developing your one-sentence thesis statement, it is
important for you to be: specific, specific, specific. Write your thesis statement once and then
rewrite it again with greater specificity.
Also, make sure your audience will want to learn these new facts and possibly embrace these
new opinions. Now, you have a compass for your entire paper, keeping you safely on course.

LESSON 6 PARAPHRASING AND DIRECT QUOTATION

Paraphrasing
Paraphrasing means formulating someone else’s ideas in your own words, without changing
the meaning of the original text. It is when you take an author’s ideas and put them into your
own words to restate the information in a new way. Paraphrasing is a way to see whether
you have really understood what the author is saying. Writers often paraphrase to deliver
information in a more concise way. When paraphrasing, it is important to keep the original
meaning so that the facts remain intact. Basically, you are writing something in your own
words that still expresses the original idea.
Paraphrasing is common when writing a research paper. It allows you to explain important
ideas in your own writing style and focus in on the information that is most useful in making
your point. Even when you put someone else's ideas into your own words, you must cite the
source of your information. This gives credit to the original author for their ideas. By
paraphrasing, you’re proving that you understand the argument from the source you’re
referring to. Paraphrasing also gives you more freedom on how you want to convey the exact
same ideas, but in a way that suits your writing. Paraphrasing is slightly different
than summarizing. When you summarize a passage, you focus on restating only the main idea
in your own words. Paraphrasing, on the other hand, aims to provide most of the information
in a slightly condensed form. Summaries are much shorter than the original passage, while
paraphrasing can be only somewhat shorter.
The purpose of paraphrase is often to summarize or simplify the author’s ideas, making them
easier to understand, more approachable. You might also use paraphrase to emphasize a
particular idea or train of thought from the original author’s text. Paraphrasing is acceptable
but it is important to acknowledge the original author’s ideas, even if it is has been
substantially re-expressed.
How to paraphrase

1. Read the passage several times to fully understand the meaning.

2. Note down key concepts.
3. Change group of words and / or individual words.
4. Start your first sentence at a different point from that of the original source
5. Use as many synonyms as possible
6. Restructure the grammar or a sentence.
7. Write your version of the text without looking at the original.

54
 8. Do not change every single word.
9. Check the meaning, Remember, your paraphrase should have the same meaning as
the original text.
10. Compare your paraphrased text with the original passage and make minor
adjustments to phrases that remain too similar.
11. Cite the source from where you took the idea.

Paraphrasing Sentences

Sometimes you only need to paraphrase the information from one sentence. Here are some
examples of paraphrasing individual sentences:
 Original: Her life spanned years of incredible change for women as they gained more
rights than ever before.
Paraphrase: She lived through the exciting era of women's liberation.
 Original: Giraffes like Acacia leaves and hay, and they can consume 75 pounds of food a
day.
Paraphrase: A giraffe can eat up to 75 pounds of Acacia leaves and hay daily.
 Original: Any trip to Italy should include a visit to Tuscany to sample the region's
exquisite wines.
Paraphrase: Be sure to make time for a Tuscan wine-tasting experience when visiting
Italy.
 Original: Symptoms of influenza include fever and nasal congestion.
Paraphrase: A stuffy nose and elevated temperature are signs you may have the flu.
 Original: The price of a resort vacation typically includes meals, tips and equipment
rentals, which makes your trip more cost-effective.
Paraphrase: All-inclusive resort vacations can make for an economical trip.
 Original: He has tons of stuff to throw away.
Paraphrase: He needs to get rid of a lot of junk.

Paraphrasing Paragraphs
Paraphrasing a longer passage can take a little more effort, as you have to ensure it is
different enough from the original to be classed as your own work.
Here is an example of paraphrasing a paragraph from "Family Values and Feudal Codes: The
Social Politics of America's Twenty-First Century Gangster." Journal of Popular Culture 37.4
(2004) by Ingrid Field Walker, taken from Duke University Libraries.
Original passage:
In The Sopranos, the mob is besieged as much by inner infidelity as it is by the federal
government. Early in the series, the greatest threat to Tony's Family is his own biological
family. One of his closest associates turns witness for the FBI, his mother colludes with his
uncle to contract a hit on Tony, and his kids click through Web sites that track the federal
crackdown in Tony's gangland.
Paraphrased passage:
In the first season of The Sopranos, Tony Soprano's mobster activities are more threatened by
members of his biological family than by agents of the federal government. This familial
betrayal is multi-pronged. Tony's closest friend and associate is an FBI informant, his mother
55
and uncle are conspiring to have him killed, and his children are surfing the Web for
information about his activities.
The main point of this passage is that problems within the family are as bad as, if not worse
than, problems caused by the federal government. Details about this betrayal include
someone close turning informant, a hit being put out on Tony by family members, and Tony's
kids tracking his activities. As you can see, the main idea and important details are included in
the paraphrased version, though the wording is quite different.
Here is a summary of some of the main changes made during the paraphrasing process:
 Early in the series = first season
 Greatest threat = more threatened
 One of his closest associates = closest friend and associate
 His mother colludes with his uncle = his mother and uncle are conspiring
 His kids click through Web sites = his children are surfing the Web

Paraphrasing example
Original passage
The number of foreign and domestic tourists in the Netherlands rose above 42 million in 2017,
an increase of 9% and the sharpest growth rate since 2006, the national statistics office CBS
reported on Wednesday.

Paraphrased version
The national statistics office, CBS, stated that the Netherlands experienced dramatic growth
in the number of tourists visiting in 2017. More than 42 million tourists travelled to the
Netherlands that year, representing a 9% increase – the sharpest growth in 12 years
(DutchNews.nl, 2018).

The paraphrased passage meets all paraphrasing criteria:

 The text is stated in your own words

 The meaning of the text did not change
 The source is cited correctly

Paraphrasing tips
The five steps to paraphrasing may seem straightforward, but writing an idea in a different
way than the published version can be difficult. These are four tricks you can apply to help
you do so.

1. Start your first sentence at a different point from that of the original source
2. Use as many synonyms as possible
3. Change the sentence structure (from active to passive voice)
4. Break the information into separate sentences

We have applied these four tips to the example below.

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Original quote:
“But the hearing was about more than Facebook; it exposed a critical turning point as the
power, sophistication and potential exploitation of technology outpaces what users,
regulators or even its creators expected or seem prepared to handle” (Roose & Kang, 2018,
para. 11).

Paraphrased version:
The hearing made it apparent that the expectations of creators, regulators and users have
been rapidly eclipsed by technology in general, not only Facebook. Such technologies now
extend beyond what these parties are able to manage, due to their immense influence,
potential for exploitation and sophistication (Roose & Kang, 2018, para. 11).

1. Start your first sentence at a different point from that of the original source.
In the example, you can see that we started by introducing the context (the hearing) followed
by the last part of the original sentence: the expectations of creators, regulators and users. In
fact, the key pieces of information are mentioned in a completely different order.

2. Use as many synonyms as possible

While there are certain parts of the original quote that cannot be changed because there is
no ideal synonym (e.g. the hearing; creators, regulators and users; technology), other words
or phrases have been replaced with synonyms. E.g. exposed a critical turning point → made
it apparent, outpaces → rapidly eclipsed, power → immense influence.

3. Change the sentence structure

For example, if the sentence was originally in the active voice, change it to passive. The active
voice is when a sentence is led by the subject (the thing doing the action). When the object
(the thing receiving the action) leads the sentence, that sentence is written in the passive
voice.

In this example, technology is the subject; the expectations of creators, regulators and users
are the object. Therefore, the original quote was written in the active voice, while the
paraphrased example favours the passive voice.

4. Break the information into separate sentences.

Although paraphrasing will usually result in a word count roughly the same as an original
quote, you may be able to play with the number of sentences to make the text different.

In this example, one long sentence was broken into two. The opposite could also be the case,
i.e. if the original quote is comprised of two sentences, you may be able to combine the
information into one.

Be Clear and Concise

When writing a report or a research paper, you'll need to master paraphrasing to present
relevant information in a clear, concise way. Practice putting facts and figures into your own
words, and be sure to cite sources in the format required by your instructor, and you'll have
no trouble getting your point across without worrying about plagiarism.

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LESSON 7 WRITING AN ABSTRACT, PRÉCIS, OR SUMMARY
A précis or abstract is a brief summary of the essential view, facts, or statements in an article,
chapter, or book. Learning to condense a longer text into a paragraph length synopsis that
uses your own words is a crucial skill. Indeed, summarizing other writers’ viewpoints,
perspectives or data is one of the key techniques students use to write effective papers.

The purpose of this exercise is to give you practice in writing a summary paragraph that
summarizes a longer article from a magazine, journal, or book.

Works Cited:
Author’s name (last name first). Title of article. Primary source (Date): page number. Rpt. in
Title of Book. Author. City: Publishing Co., Year published. Page numbers.

EXAMPLE:
Goddard, Harold C. “A Pre-Freudian Reading of “The Turn of the Screw” Nineteenth
Century Fiction, XII, No. 1 (June 1957): 6 -33. Rpt. in The Turn of the Screw
. Henry James. New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1999. 161-168.
Procedure:
1. Read the essay or article to understand the contents.
2. Gather information for your writing by answering the following questions.
A. What is the article’s exact title? Underline or italicize titles of books; put “quotation marks”
around chapters or essays. What is the author’s/writer’s name? In what book was this article
first published? City of publication? Copyright date?
B. What is the main subject of the essay?
C. Does the writer express his/her own bias or viewpoint toward the subject? If so, what is it?
D. List FIVE to SEVEN pieces of evidence, views from the writer, or details that the writer
presents on the topic.
E. How does the essay end?
3. Write a paragraph in your own words that presents the answers from above as a summary.
A. Write ONE sentence that combines your answers to A above. This is your assertion or
introductory statement.
Example: In the article “A Pre-Freudian Reading of The Turn of the Screw” published in
Norton’s Critical edition of Henry James’ The Turn of the Screw, Henry C. Goddard presents
the governess as not only psychotic, but also as an unreliable narrator.
B. Write eight middle sentences that present your answers to B, C, D, and E under procedure
. You may use compound or complex sentences to present the information.
C. Write a final sentence summarizing the conclusion.
Sample Precis:
Name
Shank
AP Lit 1
5 November 2012
58
 Voltaire’s Candide

Beck, Earvin. “Voltaire’s Candide. “Explicator 57.4 (Summer 1999): 203-204. Rpt. in
Short Story Criticism . Vol. 112. Detroit: Gale, 2008. Literature Resource Center
. Gale. Web. 11 Oct. 2011.

In the article “Voltaire’s Candide” published in Short Story Criticism, Earvin Beck argues that
Voltaire utilizes the schematized structure of Candide to advocate philosophical skepticism.
Voltaire’s book is divided into three sections of equal length which “create a symbolic
geography for Candide’s quest.” Candide travels to these three worlds which represent
aspects of the philosophies during Voltaire’s time period. Europe represents evil, while
America, the New World, represents new possibilities such as his time spent in El Dorado, and
then finally to Turkey which represents the truth of both the New and Old Worlds, “the evil
of Europe and the fruitful human effort of El Dorado.” El Dorado appears in the middle of the
book and is the “geographically most elevated point in Candide’s travels.” El Dorado, the most
perfect place on earth, is the unreachable goal that all men seek yet seldom find. The world is
flawed and man needs to stop searching for a utopia. Besides traveling to three worlds,
Candide also has three guides. The first guide, Pangloss, represents “philosophical optimism.”
Martin is exactly the opposite in that he represents “philosophical pessimism.” While Pangloss
feels “reality can be known by reason,” Martin feels “reality defies a rational accounting.” On
the other hand, Cacambo is a “neoclassical golden mean” who takes a standing somewhere
in the middle of optimism and pessimism showing the skepticism of mankind. He is also the
most silent of the three, and the most practical. He upholds the ideal of an “efficient man who
knows what needs to be done and sets about doing it.” He is the “norm” between the other
philosophies. The irony lies in Cacambo’s name being the Spanish caca, meaning “excrement.”
Thus, since man cannot attain the richness of life in El Dorado, he must settle for a life filled
with excrement. Thus, Beck illustrates Voltaire’s response to those who go to extremes and
stresses the point that moderation is the key (1-2).

LESSON 8 WRITING A REACTION PAPER/ REVIEW PAPER/ CRITIQUE

A. Purposes of Reaction Paper, Review or Critique
A very important expository discourse that students must know how to write is the reaction
paper or review, or critique. It is mainly written to communicate a fair assessment of situations,
people, events, and literary and artistic works and performances.
A reaction paper, a review, and a critique are specialized forms of writing in which a reviewer
or reader evaluates any of the following:
 a scholarly work (like academic books and articles)
 b. a work of art ( play, film/movie, exhibit)
 c. designs (fashion, furniture)
 d. graphic design (posters, billboards, commercials, digital media)
Reaction papers, reviews, and critiques are not merely summaries but are critical assessments,
analyses, or evaluation of different works. As advanced forms of writing, they involve skills in
critical thinking and recognizing arguments; using both proofs and logical reasoning to
substantiate comments. However, the word critique should not be connected to cynicism and
pessimism.

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A review of a book, movie, or theatrical performance depends upon a detailed breakdown of
the reading or viewing experience. General comments such as "I really liked this book" or "This
was a terrible movie" are not particularly useful in this kind of review because they don't offer
any concrete reasons for the reviewer's opinion.
A review, which is sometimes called a critique or an evaluative paper, critically and carefully
examines another writer's work, almost like a peer review. Reviews usually provide:
1) some general background about the author and the work,
2) an overview of the topics the author covers,
3) an acknowledgment of what the author does well or of the contribution the work
has made to the field, and
4) an analysis of what could have be done better.

 A reaction paper requires you to formulate analysis and reaction to a given body of
material such as readings, lectures, or student presentations.
 The purpose of a reaction paper assignment is to focus your thinking on a topic after a
close examination of the source material.

Some Organizing Questions to Get You Started

• What kind of work is it, and who is its intended audience?

• What was the work about? Consider including a brief summary of the plots or the events
described.
• What seems to be the author's main purpose? To offer advice, make practical suggestions,
solve a specific problem? To critique? To establish the truth?
• What is the principal point, conclusion, thesis, contention, or question?
• What patterns or categories does the work use to divide up the subject matter being
discussed?
• What is new, different, or controversial about the work in terms of the course text?
• How does the work fit into its genre? In other words, how does it measure up to similar
books/movies/performances/etc?
• Did the author do anything innovative or creative? If so, what?
• Was anything done exceptionally well? If so, what?
• Was anything done exceptionally badly? If so, what?
• What could have been done better? Are there any particular improvements you would
have suggested?
• For book reviews, consider the writing. Was the book well organized? Were the
sentences easy to follow and to understand?
• For movie reviews, consider people other than the director and actors who may have
contributed to the film. In particular, think about costume designers, screenwriters, music
directors, and cinematographers.
• For reviews of plays and other performances, consider people other than the director and
actor who may have contributed to the performance. In particular, think about costume
designers, set designers (and builders!), playwrights, music directors, and lighting
directors.

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Basic qualities of a Good Reaction Paper
a. Gives a fair and balance social commentary
b. Provides relevant and accurate factual information on the situation
c. Exhibits by means of thorough and in-depth analysis an appreciation of context (including
time, place, people, involvement, their motivation, and actuations)
d. Makes a clear distinction, through language, between what is actual and what is probable
or possible
e. Exhibits a deep sense of humanity and an understanding of the human situation even while
expressing disapproval or disagreement most intensely

Basic Qualities of an Adequate Critical Judgment

a. Provides accurate and relevant information on the event, show, or work
b. Exhibits full appreciation of the purpose behind the event, show, or work
c. Shows a clear understanding of the means (strategies, techniques, devices, etc.) and their
appropriateness and power in achieving the purpose
d. Exhibits fairness and balance in the judgment made
e. Projects incisive and profound insights into its (1) analysis of the event on artifact, (2)
interpretation of the underlying meaning or significance of the event or artifact, and (3)
appreciation of the values “(moral and/or aesthetic) unfolded in every detail of the event or
artifact”

A Sample Format for Reviews

Introduction
• Introduce the work fully (e.g., Author, title, publisher, year, # of pages).
Temple University Writing Center www.temple.edu/wc 2
• Briefly describe the kind of work being reviewed, its main subject, audience, purpose.
• Summarize your evaluation, especially any problem or question you will tackle later.
Section I
• Place the work into some context--that of the course, your own experience, or the
academic discipline, in terms of the problem the work addresses.
Section II
• Summarize the main points of the work, using paraphrase and quotation to highlight the
contents.
• Be sure to distinguish between your summary and your reaction to the text
Section III
• Evaluate the work by discussing it in terms of what you have learned about the subject
from the course text and your own experience. Be critical; if you see problems with the
author's argument or methods, note them.
• How do the categories it uses compare to those of the course text? Do they extend the
categories, conflict with them, argue with them?
• How do the conclusions compare?
Conclusion
Synthesize the questions you raised in the previous section, so that you can place the work in
the
larger context of the issues raised by the course overall.

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B. What is an opinion?
An opinion is a belief or judgment about something that isn't necessarily based on fact.
People have lots of different opinions and in many cases, people can have differing opinions
on the same issue. It is a view or judgment formed about something, not necessarily based
on fact or knowledge. An opinion is a judgment, viewpoint, or statement that is not
conclusive.

Collective and Professional Opinions

Public opinion
In contemporary usage, public opinion is the aggregate of individual attitudes or beliefs held
by a population (e.g., a city, state, or country), while consumer opinion is the similar aggregate
collected as part of marketing research (e.g., opinions of users of a particular product or
service). Typically, because the process of gathering opinions from all individuals are difficult,
expensive, or impossible to obtain, public opinion (or consumer opinion) is estimated
using survey sampling (e.g., with a representative sample of a population).
Group opinion
In some social sciences, especially political science and psychology, group opinion refers to
the aggregation of opinions collected from a group of subjects, such as members of
a jury, legislature, committee, or other collective decision-making body. In these situations,
researchers are often interested in questions related to social choice, conformity, and group
polarization.
Scientific opinion
"The scientific opinion" (or scientific consensus) can be compared to "the public opinion" and
generally refers to the collection of the opinions of many different scientific organizations and
entities and individual scientists in the relevant field. Science may often, however, be "partial,
temporally contingent, conflicting, and uncertain" so that there may be no accepted
consensus for a particular situation. In other circumstances, a particular scientific opinion may
be at odds with consensus. Scientific literacy, also called public understanding of science, is
an educational goal] concerned with providing the public with the necessary tools to benefit
from scientific opinion.
Legal opinion
A "legal opinion" or "closing opinion" is a type of professional opinion, usually contained in a
formal legal-opinion letter, given by an attorney to a client or a third party. Most legal opinions
are given in connection with business transactions. The opinion expresses the attorney's
professional judgment regarding the legal matters addressed. The opinion can be "clean" or
"reasoned". A legal opinion is not a guarantee that a court will reach any particular
result. However, a mistaken or incomplete legal opinion may be grounds for a professional
malpractice claim against the attorney, pursuant to which the attorney may be required to
pay the claimant damages incurred as a result of relying on the faulty opinion.
Judicial opinion
A "judicial opinion" or "opinion of the court" is an opinion of a judge or group of judges that
accompanies and explains an order or ruling in a controversy before the court. A judicial
option generally lays out the facts that the court recognized as being established, the legal

62
principles the court is bound by, and the application of the relevant principles to the
recognized facts. The goal is to demonstrate the rationale the court used in reaching its
decision. Judges in the United States are usually required to provide a well-reasoned basis for
their decisions and the contents of their judicial opinions may contain the grounds for
appealing and reversing of their decision by a higher court. Judicial opinions are discussed
further in the articles on common law and precedent.

Opinions: everyone has them. They can span the most mundane, seemingly unimportant
topics like what’s the best toppings for a pizza, to really significant issues concerning politics
and social epidemics. Regardless of the topic, it’s important to form your opinion carefully.
Look at your own experiences and consider the experiences of those around you, as well as
what professionals and experts have to say. Do as much research as you can to form a
thorough, well-rounded opinion and always keep an open mind, because you never know
what you might learn.

How to form an opinion based on facts

A. Basing Opinions Off of Experience
1. Consider your own biases toward a topic.
When considering a particular topic, if you have had any sort of experience with it—
good or bad—there’s no doubt that those experiences help shape your current beliefs
on the matter. However, it’s important to recognize that not all experiences accurately
reflect the entire picture or the whole truth.
 Part of forming an opinion comes from separating your feelings and emotions from
the facts. For instance, if you were bit by a German shepherd as a small child, you could
hold the opinion that all German shepherds are dangerous; or your opinion may be as
extreme as believing that all dogs are dangerous.

 When seeking and forming your own opinion, like whether or not German Shepherds
(or dogs in general) are good animals, you need to be able to set aside your personal
experiences and look at the bigger picture.

2. Talk with family and friends about their experiences.

Having a conversation with those who are close to you may help you gain some
perspective. People tend to trust those they are closest to, so you may be more likely to
consider a differing perspective from your best friend rather than someone you don’t
know.

 For instance, if you are trying to form an opinion on healthcare laws, ask your friends
and family what their experience with the healthcare system has been. Based on their
experiences, you may be able to see areas where the law works and you support it; or
areas where it doesn’t work and has room for improvement.

 Often times, though, your friend’s perspectives may align with your already-established
beliefs, as we tend to surround ourselves with like-minded people. So try not to rely too

63
 heavily on the opinions of your like-minded friends and family. Doing so can limit your
exposure to other valuable ideas and perspectives.

 If anything, these discussions may give you another way of looking at a situation
and/or more reasons to support your opinion.

3. Step outside of your comfort zone to experience something for yourself.

This is particularly useful for topics that you have very little or no experience in. For
instance, if you have a preconceived notion that people in a particular culture, or even
town, behave a certain way, visit the place to experience their behaviour for yourself.
It’s possible you may be surprised.

 Or start small—if there is a certain type of food that “just sounds gross” to you, try it. Try
to eat it in a variety of ways. Maybe the thought of eating shrimp sounds gross, or you
don’t like the texture of raw shrimp, but it might actually taste good to you if it’s deep
fried.

B. Researching Information on Topics

1. Read literature that pertains to the topic you are considering.

This is perhaps one of the most comprehensive ways you can learn about a topic.
Read articles and studies online, check out books from your local library; the more
you read, the better understanding you will have about a topic.

 Read work from multiple authors. Check: is this the only author that believes this?
How many other authors support this belief?

 Be sure to research both sides of a topic or an issue. Sometimes you might be

surprised by elements that you overlooked or hadn’t considered. You may find
that the topic isn’t necessarily black and white and perhaps there are times when
you may make an exception to your belief.

 You may discover during your research, for instance, that statistically German
Shepherds are actually great family dogs. But as with all dogs, there are times they
may get defensive or aggressive (perhaps if they feel scared or threatened).

2. Consider the source when analyzing information.

A good source will offer facts that span both sides of an issue. Beware of opinion pieces
and articles produced by the media. They often have hidden agendas and craft their
wording to capture reader’s attention and hold their interest, rather than present
factual data.

 Look to what recognized experts and professionals have to say about the subject.
64
  If you are gathering information on healthcare, realize that partisan outlets will be
heavily one-sided. It may be helpful to look at this information, as it will cover various
reasons for their opinion; but take care to check outlets from the other party as well.

3. Analyze the writer’s motives when considering information.

If the writer seems to simply be trying to convince a reader that their view is the correct
(or only) view, then don’t put too much weight on what you read. Instead, look for
writing that is objective and offers multiple viewpoints.

 Even if the writing is primarily one-sided, look for counterarguments to differing

views. This demonstrates that the author has at least considered other viewpoints
before forming their own opinion.

 Say you are still trying to figure out how you feel about German Shepherds.
Reading an article written about someone else’s bad experience with the dog may
not be useful in helping you form an educated opinion if their purpose for writing
the article is to convince others that the breed (or dog) is bad.

4. Listen to other's discussions to hear passionate people share their view.

This can be especially useful if you are trying to form an political opinion, whether it’s
in regards to a supporting a particular party or a policy. Debaters who are
knowledgeable about the topic will not only present their side, they will be prepared
with counter arguments to demonstrate why the other side isn’t as favorable.

 If a debater is really good, they may be able to sway your opinion by offering
perspectives and supporting evidence that perhaps you hadn’t considered.

 If you are working on your opinion about healthcare laws, try watching a political
debate to hear differing viewpoints.

5. Pay attention to the (right) details to keep your focus.

Try not to get caught up in trivial information that doesn’t play a role in the bigger
picture—you’ll end up missing the point. At the same time, some details—such as the
circumstances that led up to a particular event—can be helpful in deciding your
position on a topic.

 Following the German shepherd story, details such as the month that it happened
or how the weather was when the even took place really don’t matter. Details that
show the circumstances leading to the behavior, like if the dog was eating dinner
and you pulled the food bowl away, do.

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C. Keeping an Open Mind
1. Commit to setting aside your personal biases.

Acknowledging your biases is a good thing; setting them aside is even better. Do not
allow your preconceived ideas to get in the way of learning something new. Approach
each encounter objectively (whether it’s an article you read or a person you speak to)
and as if it is your very first experience with the subject at hand.

 Visit a dog shelter or a family who owns a German shepherd and pretend you’ve
never been around a dog before. Using safe practices, interact with the dog and
see how it goes.
2. Consider the reason why someone may have a different opinion.

This can be especially helpful when dealing with touchy subjects or those considered
taboo. When considering a topic, think about why someone may feel a particular way.
Try to think of 2 or 3 reasons why their opinion is valid, even if you disagree.

 If you favor having no requirements for health insurance, don’t automatically

discredit those who think it’s a good idea. Perhaps they have an experience where
they were unable to receive proper care because they didn’t have coverage and
couldn’t afford to pay out of pocket.

 Remember that often these types of opinions don’t form until someone actually
experiences it for themselves—at one point they may have held the same opinion
as you do.

3. Remain calm and respectful if someone offers a differing opinion.

Don’t argue, sigh, or roll your eyes, and don’t make mean or condescending remarks.
Instead, offer up positive, intelligent discourse. If it is a hot topic for you and you find it
difficult to remain calm, remind yourself that it’s okay for everyone to have their own
opinion and simply smile and nod.

 When someone says something you don’t agree with, try saying something like, “I
see where you are coming from, but have you considered…” or “Wow, I hadn’t
thought of that. Thanks for that perspective.”

4. Change your mind if you feel compelled to.Don’t be afraid of changing your stance on
a topic! It doesn’t mean that you are weak or fake, it simply means that you have gained
either enough knowledge or experience to make a more informed decision.
 Changing your mind can even make you a better advocate, since you have held
beliefs on both sides of an issue.

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Critical Approaches to Writing A Critique

1. Formalist Criticism: This approach regards literature as “a unique form of human knowledge
that needs to be examined on its own terms.” All the elements necessary for
understanding the work are contained within the work itself. Of particular interest to
the formalist critic are the elements of form—style, structure, tone, imagery, etc.—that
are found within the text. A primary goal for formalist critics is to determine how such
elements work together with the text’s content to shape its effects upon readers.

2. Reader-Response—Focuses on the reader (or "audience") and his or her experience of a

literary work, in contrast to other schools and theories that focus attention primarily on
the author or the content and form of the work.

3. Feminist Criticism—Focuses on female representation in literature, paying attention to

female points of view, concerns, and values. Three underlying assumptions in this
approach are: Western Society is pervasively patriarchal, male centered and controlled,
and is organized in such a way as to subordinate women; the concept of gender is
socially constructed, not biologically determined; and that patriarchal ideology
pervades those writings which have been considered “great works of literature.”

4. Marxist Criticism—Focuses on how literary works are products of the economic and
ideological determinants specific to that era. Critics examine the relationship of a
literary product to the actual economic and social reality of its time and place (Class
stratification, class relations, and dominant ideology)

Example: Reaction Paper (Movie) - Marriage Material

The film “Marriage Material,” is a look inside the relationship of two people, Andrew and Emily,
who because of a simple gesture of friendship are forced to take a serious look at their
relationship. In this case, it’s the unexpected consequences that come about when Andrew
and Emily offer to babysit their friends’ seven-month-old son for the day. At first babysitting is
a novelty for both of them, actually more for Emily than for Andrew. Andrew seems
ambivalent about their babysitting adventure. Emily is curious about the cost of having and
caring for a baby, and when her friend divulges that “babies don’t cost that much,” it intrigues
her. However, Andrew seems more interested in just getting through the day and handing
the child back to the parents. For Emily, it is the time she spends with the baby that she
discovers her maternal, nurturing instinct has been awakened and feels her biological clock
has begun to tick. It is this new revelation that has her contemplating the idea of marriage
and starting a family—with her boyfriend, Andrew. On the other hand, the vibe from Andrew
is he sees the child as nothing more than a distraction to his everyday routine, the reason that
is keeping him away from his computer and his writing. Andrew is a man self-absorbed in his
work. He is happy with the status quo, but Emily is now longing for something more. It is
their different reactions to the experiences of the day that causes them to question their life
together and the possibility that neither one of them might be “marriage material.” This short
film does a fairly good job of showing how social devaluation, dominant cultural values and
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even self-concept play a role in our daily interactions, as well as the choices we make. It is
these choices and interactions that affect not only us, but the people around us. It is through
the eyes of Andrew and Emily that we see how these concepts are played out throughout
the film in sometimes verbal and silent interactions.

It is apparent that Emily is entranced by this child and the thought of having her own
family. She delights in all aspects of mothering from the feeding of the baby; to bath time
even to nap time…unfortunately, it is apparent Andrew does not feel the same urge to be a
father. He is a so absorbed on the computer with his writing, that the baby and to a certain
degree, Emily are nothing more than an annoyance. A few days after their friends leave Emily
is sent a photo of the baby. When she goes in to show Andrew a photo of the baby, Andrew
is on the computer and basically ignores her. When Emily inquires if he enjoyed having a baby
in the house, his only reply was, “yeah, it was good to see them.” She is so desperately trying
to find a way to approach him about her feeling on having a baby, but he just turns back to
the computer; seemingly bored with the topic. Again, when Emily is telling Andrew about
how little it cost to have a child, that even someone as poor as she can afford it, she just wants
him to validate her feelings…instead, he says nothing, puts back on his headphones and turns
back to the computer. I think his behavior is a form of social devaluation. I think because
Andrew does not place the same value on marriage and family that he tends to look down
on those who feel differently.

The scene where Emily and Andrew are in bed, and she has engaged him into a discussion
about marriage is one of the most powerful scenes of the film. This is the point where you
can clearly see that their cultural values are not the same. You can just feel the tension
building between the two of them as the conversation continues. Emily keeps urging Andrew
to talk about getting married and starting a family until he finally blurts out that he’s not
interested in marriage. I felt that this was the spot in the film that showed just how divided
they were not only on the social institution of marriage, but their dominant cultural values as
well. The fact that it is important for her to be married before she gets pregnant, gives an
insight to values that were probably instilled in her as a child. The fact that Andrew sees the
life they have as just fine the way it is and doesn’t want or need marriage/baby says a lot
about how he feels about her. Andrew and Emily have been in a relationship and living
together for at least four years, yet they are on completely different pages when it comes to
where they want the relationship to go. A good visual image of just how far apart these two
are is the collage of photos of Andrew and Emily dangling from ceiling fan. You see photos
of Andrew and photos of Emily, but no photos of them together as a couple.

In the beginning of the film it seemed as if Emily had a positive self-concept; however this
changed throughout the film. The first glimpse of this was when she confided to her friend
about the “tug of her uterus.” Emily wants to have a baby, but she’s afraid to voice her desire
to Andrew for fear of rejection. This is further explored in the scene from the bedroom, where
Emily finally expresses her desire for marriage. It is during this tension filled conversation that
Andrew, feeling cornered about expressing his own feelings, snaps at Emily. In a demoralizing
rant, he goes off on how Emily never stops talking, she never allows him to talk. He continues
on further, saying that no one can talk when she’s around and even though he has publicly
chastised her about this, she still has not stopped. This might explain why Emily has a poor
self-concept. Maybe Andrew thinks if he can make her mad enough, she’ll drop the subject of
marriage—but she doesn’t. Andrew’s answer of not wanting to get married hurts Emily, it is
not what she was expecting and is clearly a blow to her ego. You can just feel her hurt and
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rejection as she asks him, why he doesn’t want to marry her. She’s got to be feeling that it’s
her fault that Andrew doesn’t want to marry her. The sense of sadness that Emily feels as turns
over to go to sleep is very evident. The next scene cuts to where Emily is working out on the
floor. It poses the question, “is she working out because she likes to work out?” or “is she
working out because she has body-image issues?” We know she has a trust issue by the way
she says that since Andrew travels all the time, it would make her feel better if he had a ring
on his finger. However, do these trust issues stem from her childhood or has Andrew done
something to break that trust?

Marriage Material allowed the viewer to look at the complexities of a relationship through
the lives of two young people. We could see how things as dominant cultural values, social
devaluation and a person’s own self-concept can lead to a breakdown in how we
communicate. To me, I felt the film was like a three-part play with each act allowing us to look
a little deeper into their relationship. Each act connecting to the other to show how one little
event can snowball into a much larger event. In the case of Andrew and Emily, it was
something as little as a seven-month old baby that caused Emily to stop suppressing her desire
to have a baby. For Andrew, the caring of the baby only proved to be a distraction in his
writing. From watching the interaction and dialog between the two of them throughout the
film, it became apparent they did not place the same emphasis on society’s institution of
marriage. In the last few scenes of the film, we see both of them outside doing yard work.
They are still together, but somehow there is a great divide between them. Something has
changed for both of them. There is a sense of defeat in Emily, a kind of sadness. She knows
that Andrew is not “marriage material,” so where does she fit into his life. Andrew must also
re-evaluate his feelings for Emily. Can he change his values to fit hers, does he even want
to? Initially, I thought based on the description of the film, “a couple agrees to watch a friends’
baby,” that it might have some light-hearted moments…two inexperienced twenty-
something’s trying to care for a baby. Instead it was the complete opposite. It was a great film
to watch from a sociological standpoint. It was just sad to watch the breakdown and
deterioration of a relationship.

Writing without Jargon or Slang

Jargon and slang both have their places. Using jargon is fine as long as you can safely assume
your readers also know the jargon. For example, if you are a lawyer, and you are writing to
others in the legal profession, using legal jargon is perfectly fine. On the other hand, if you
are writing for people outside the legal profession, using legal jargon would most likely be
confusing, and you should avoid it. Of course, lawyers must use legal jargon in papers they
prepare for customers. However, those papers are designed to navigate within the legal
system.
You are, of course, free to use slang within your personal life, but unless you happen to be
writing a sociolinguistic study of slang itself, it really has no place in academic writing. Even if
you are writing somewhat casual responses in an online discussion for a class, you should
avoid using slang or other forms of abbreviated communication common to IM (instant
messaging) and texting.

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Choosing to Be Straightforward

Some writers choose to control meaning with flowery or pretentious language, euphemisms,
and double-talk. All these choices obscure direct communication and therefore have no place
in academic writing. Study the following three examples that clarify each of these misdirection
techniques.

Technique Example
Your delightful invitation
arrived completely out of
the blue, and I would
Flowery or
absolutely love to attend
pretentious
such a significant and
language
important event, but we
already have a
commitment.
My father is follicly
Euphemisms
challenged.
I was unavoidably
detained from arriving to
the evening meeting on
Double-talk time because I became
preoccupied with one of
my colleagues after the
close of the work day.
Straightforward
Misdirection Involved
Alternative
The speaker seems to
be trying very hard to We are really sorry,
relay serious regrets but we have a prior
for having to refuse an commitment. I hope
invitation. But the you have a great
overkill makes it sound event.
insincere.
The speaker wants to
talk about his or her
father’s lack of hair My father is bald.
without having to use
the word “bald.”
The speaker was busy
with a colleague after I’m sorry to be late to
work and is trying to the meeting. Work
explain being tardy for ran later than usual.
an evening meeting.

Presenting an Appropriate Level of Formality

Look at the following three sentences. They all three carry roughly the same meaning. Which
one is the best way to write the sentence?

1. The doctor said, “A full eight hours of work is going to be too much for this patient to
handle for at least the next two weeks.”
2. The doctor said I couldn’t work full days for the next two weeks.
3. my md said 8 hrs of wrk R 2M2H for the next 2 wks.

If you said, “It depends,” you are right! Each version is appropriate in certain situations. Every
writing situation requires you to make a judgment regarding the level of formality you want
to use. Base your decision on a combination of the subject matter, the audience, and your
purpose for writing. For example, if you are sending a text message to a friend about going
70
bowling, the formality shown in example three is fine. If, on the other hand, you are sending
a text message to that same friend about the death of a mutual friend, you would logically
move up the formality of your tone at least to the level of example two.

Visual Critiquing on Art

Films/Movie

Restaurants Festivals

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Industrial Designs

Billboards

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LESSON 9 WRITING CONCEPT PAPER
An important academic paper that the student must learn to read and write critically is the
concept paper. Presenting samples of brief as well as full-blown concept papers from different
areas of knowledge, this module not only clarifies what a concept paper is and its contents,
but also foregrounds the values it communicates, the strategies that may be employed in
reading and writing one, and the characteristics of a well-written concept paper.

All research projects need a concept paper: a short summary that tells the reader what the
project is, why it is important, and how it will be carried out. Even if no one else ever reads it,
the concept paper helps a researcher spot holes in her or his project that might later prove
fatal. It is far better to be clear at the beginning than to put in a lot of effort for nothing!

Typically, a concept paper contains these elements:

1. A title in the form of a question. This may be the last part of the concept paper that you
write, but it should appear at the heading of the paper.
2. A clear description of the research topic, including a summary of what is already known
about that topic.
3. A one-sentence statement of the research question that the project will seek to answer.
(This is almost always something that is not known.) The concept paper should elaborate on
how this question can be answered -- something that almost always takes more than one
sentence to accomplish.
4. A demonstration of why it is important to answer this research question. What good comes
of this answer? Why is this project worth writing?
5. A description of how the researcher plans to answer the research question. This includes:
a. a description of the data or evidence that the researcher plans to gather or use;
b. a description of how the researcher will analyze these data; and
c. a demonstration of how these data and this analytic method will answer the research
question.

Concept papers should range from 1 - 2 double-spaced pages (250-500 words). The point of
a concept paper is to provide a clear summary of the research project. It should enable a
casual reader to understand what the researcher is investigating, why it is important, and how
the investigation will proceed.

Three Ways to Elucidate a Concept

1. Definition is the method of identifying a given term and making its meaning clearer. Its
main purpose is to clarify and explain concepts, ideas and issues by answering the question,
“What does it mean?” This mode of explanation contains the term to be defined and the
detailed exposition of the term through the use of illustration, examples, and descriptions.

A definition can be presented in three ways:

1.1. An informal definition is done through a parenthetical or brief explanation.
Example: Tocopherol (Vitamin E) is naturally found in vegetable oil, fish and nuts.
1.2 A formal definition explains a term by incorporating the term to be defined (species), the
general category of the term (genus), and the quality that makes the term different from other
terms in the same category (differentia).
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 Example: Vitamin E is a light yellow fat-soluble vitamin that acts as an anti-oxidant.
1.3. An extended definition is a detailed way of defining a term and is usually composed of at
least one paragraph. This type of definition incorporates various patterns of development to
explain a given concept.
Example: Subsequent to materials design is the preparation of learning materials.
Learning materials refer to both printed and non-printed objects or items that teachers and
learners use to facilitate language learning. Nowadays, materials are becoming more and
more sophisticated, incorporating authentic language samples and realias that help make
connection between classrooms and real life activities.

2. Explication is a literary technique in criticism and research, used for a close analysis of an
excerpt or text taken from a lengthy piece of work. It originates from the French word,
“explication de texte,” meaning explanation of a text. It is neither a summary, nor a rewording,
nor a paraphrase, but a commentary that reveals the meanings of a literary work. It usually
tells about figures of speech, tone, setting, connotations, points of view, themes, contrasts,
and anything else that could add to the meaning of a text.
Example: The Scarlet Letter (by Nathaniel Hawthorne)
Nathaniel Hawthorne opens his novel, The Scarlet Letter, with a paragraph that depicts a
crowd assembled in front of a prison door. The people are waiting for Hester Prynne to show
up with her scarlet letter “A.” The author describes the crowd as a “throng,” suggesting a mob-
like and densely packed group. The mood is not pleasant, but somber – displayed by their
“sad-colored” garments, hoods, and gray hats.
Another interesting description about the men’s hats is that they were “steeple-crowned,”
which suggests that the people of the town are associated with the church that had punished
Hester. The author’s description of women as “intermixed” with men, alludes to the people in
town lacking individuality. The use of passive voice “was assembled” further implies lack of
individuality.

3. Clarification is a method of explanation in which the points are organized from a general
abstract idea to specific and concrete examples. It entails the analysis of the concept by
looking at the examples and specifying some of its characteristics to arrive at one working
definition which can be used throughout the paper.

Signal Words for Clarification

after all for instance namely that is
as an example in other words put another way to be specific
consider the following in particular specifically to clarify
for example in short stated differently to illustrate

Example
Justice is a broad concept which encompasses a wide set of ideas, most of which also branch
out into smaller notions. For instance, it can refer to the sentencing of a criminal based on due
process. When an individual gets what he deserves, even outside the hands of the law, it is
also considered justice in some contexts. This may come in the form of a vigilante justice in
which a person dissatisfied with system doles out punishment to wrong doers. Poetic justice
is another related concept which is used in literature to show how the good is always
rewarded while bad forces always meet a grim end. In the context of this paper, justice will
be clearly delineated into any instance in which the law is successfully and fairly applied to an
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individual, resulting in either an arrest or a release. To illustrate, if a thief is caught and tried in
court through due process, and is found to be guilty and then sentenced accordingly, it can
be said that justice is served. However, if the same thief is caught by a band of villagers and
was beaten right there and then, it will be considered justice in the context of the paper, as
the process has not undergone due process.

Funders often ask for brief 1- to 5-page concept papers (also called “white papers” in the
government contracting sector) prior to submission of a full proposal. This helps them save
time by eliminating ideas that are not likely to be funded. Applicants may use concept papers
in any of the following ways:
 to interest potential funders
 to develop potential solutions or investigations into project ideas
 to determine whether a project idea is fundable
 to serve as the foundation of a full proposal

Funders that request concept papers often provide a template or format. If templates or
formats are not provided, the following can serve as a useful concept paper structure.

The Five Elements of a Concept Paper

1. The first section, the Introduction, identifies how and where the applicant’s mission and the
funder’s mission intersect or align. It addresses the reasons why the funder should support
projects in the given general area. It also introduces the applicant’s partners and shows why
the partners want to participate in the project.
2. Second is the Purpose or Need or Rationale, which outlines what others have written about
the general topic and focuses on the gap in knowledge to be filled, the problem to be solved,
or the need to be addressed by the applicant’s proposed project. Similar to a literature review,
this section allows the applicant to state the purpose or need in such a way that the applicant’s
project is the best possible solution to the problem. Also, it often provides statements
addressing the significance of the project (showing why the project should be supported). In
some cases, these first two sections are merged into a Background section that both
introduces the alignment between the two organizations’ missions and provides the need
statement.
3. Third is the Project Description, functioning as the solution to the problem, the answer to
the need, or the investigation that will fill the knowledge gap. In this section, the applicant
addresses the unique, unusual, distinctive, innovative, and/or novel aspects of the approach,
showing why the applicant’s team has the best solution and presenting a compelling case for
funding. The project description includes the project’s Goals and Objectives. A goal is an
abstract state of being, a condition, an end, or an aspiration while objectives are statements
of measurable outcomes that, collectively, will help the applicant measure progress toward 2
accomplishing the project goal(s). For example, a goal might be to improve student academic
performance via a structured professional development program for teachers, while an
objective might be to offer a specific kind of workshop or seminar on a particular topic for a
defined set of teachers in a K-12 school district. The project description also includes an
overview of the project’s Methodology (sometimes called Project Activities or Action Plan or
Approach). The goals, objectives, and methods (or activities) will need to align closely with
each other and will need to be accomplished within the proposed Timeline, expressed in
either months or years. The methods or activities will need to be congruent with or based on
what has been tried in the field in the past, they must be based on empirical evidence, and
they will need to be both reasonable in cost and complexity and accomplishable within the
75
proposed timeline. The project description typically concludes with a statement of Benefits (or
Anticipated Outcomes) along with a description of who will benefit and how.
4. The fourth section, Support or Budget, contains either (1) an outline of the main budget
categories for the requested project support or (2) a single bottom-line amount of the request
and a brief discussion of how that amount will be used. Some concept papers may not even
include an amount requested.
5. The fifth and final section provides the Contact Information of the applicant organization’s
chief executive or his/her designee authorized to make funding requests. The above is a
suggested general outline for a concept paper. Ultimately, if a given funder provides a specific
template or format, the applicant must use the prescribed structure.

Sample Concept Paper

Mercury Pollution
(1) When most people think or talk about dangers to our environment, they focus on general
terms like “pollution,” “smog,” and “acid-rain.” Also, they often focus on the impact of
supposedly man-made chemicals and compounds. But to truly understand the risks to our
environment, it’s helpful to focus on the danger of specific chemical, which are often
otherwise naturally-occurring elements that have been spread harmfully by man. One of the
largest threats to our environment is mercury: Hg on the periodic table of elements.

(2) At room temperature, mercury, a metal, exists as a silvery-white liquid. However, it

vaporizes readily when heat is applied, and can stay suspended in the air for more than a year.
The largest sources of mercury pollution in the United States are coal-fired power plants.
Emissions from these plants account for 70 percent of the mercury that enters our oceans,
lakes, and streams. Air currents carry these particles far from the source and are capable of
polluting bodies of water thousands of miles away.

(3) Mercury particles released into the air fall into these waterways and quickly enter aquatic
food chains. First, mercury attaches to sediments (fragments of organic and inorganic material
that settle to the bottom of the body of water). Second, bacteria change the mercury into
methyl mercury, a highly toxic substance. Third, phytoplanktons feed on the organic matter
in sediments and absorb the methyl mercury. Fourth, fish then eat the mercury-contaminated
phytoplankton; the larger the fish and the longer it lives, the more concentrated the methyl
mercury in its system becomes. The mercury can then move higher up the food chain when
humans eat fish that have absorbed high amounts of mercury.

(4) Studies indicate that mercury levels in U.S. waterways have increased anywhere from 100
to 400 percent over the course of the last century, and no river, lake, or ocean seems immune.
It is important to note that, thanks to the U.S. Clean Air Act and efforts by industry to curb
unnecessary discharges as well as better sewage treatment methods, the levels have been in
slow decline since the 1970s. However, this minor decline is relatively miniscule in comparison
to the major increase in the years prior.

(5) If you’ve ever experienced that “rotten egg” smell during low tide at a coastal area, you’ve
seen (or smelled) methylation in action. Methylation is the conversion of mercury in sediments
to methyl mercury by sulphate-reducing bacteria. While this methylation is a natural process,
the industrial discharge of mercury has greatly accelerated the process beyond what the

76
ecosystem is able to absorb safely. This methylation not only impacts aquatic species, but also
harms humans and other land-based wildlife.

(6) Most of the fish and shellfish that humans eat live solely in coastal areas or frequent coastal
areas and feed on the fish that live there. At the same time, most methylation takes place in
coastal areas. Therefore, methyl mercury moves up the food chain from plankton to lobster,
bluefish, winter flounder, tuna, and many other species eaten extensively by man. The methyl
mercury binds to the protein in fish, residing in the muscle of the fish. This muscle is exactly
what we eat, the fillet.

(7) The short-term impact of digestion of toxic methyl mercury is obviously a concern.
 More troubling, however, is its long-term impact on species up and down the food
chain.
 In Wisconsin, scientists have studied the decline of chick production in loons (aquatic
birds).
 They have made a positive link to mercury concentration in eggs which exceeds the
concentration found to be toxic in laboratory studies.
 Through that example, the lasting impact of methyl mercury far from the source of the
pollution can be seen.

(8) One of the great wonders of the Earth is the interconnectivity of all the world’s ecosystems.
This interconnectivity gives us the range and diversity of wildlife that we all enjoy and it also
allowed life on the planet to endure through cataclysmic events, such as asteroid impacts and
the ice ages. However, it is this very interconnectivity that makes our ecosystems so
vulnerable. Mercury pollution is unfortunately one of many examples of an environmental
impact far removed from the source of the pollution; understanding the process by which the
pollution spreads up the food chain is one of many steps to ameliorate the impact of such
pollution.

Visit the following Website/s to see examples of concept paper.

https://www.examples.com/business/concept-proposal.html

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QUARTER II

Writing a Position
Paper

Writing a Research
Paper

78
LESSON 10 WRITING THE POSITION PAPER
A position paper (sometimes called a point of view paper) is an essay that presents an
arguable opinion about an issue. Like a debate, a position paper presents one side of an
arguable opinion. A Position Paper is a common type of academic argument writing
assignment. Typically, it is written after reading about and discussing a particular issue. Quite
often, the readings cover more than one issue, and as a writer you must choose a particular
area of focus. The central goal of writing a position paper is not only to state and defend your
position on the issue but also to show how your stance relates to other positions. The goal of
a position paper is to convince the audience that the opinion presented is valid and worth
listening to. To argue your position on an issue raised in at least two of the articles we have
read, showing how your position relates to those of the authors. Ideas that you are
considering need to be carefully examined in choosing a topic, developing your argument,
and organizing your paper. It is very important to ensure that you are addressing all sides of
the issue and presenting it in a manner that is easy for your audience to understand. Your job
is to take one side of the argument and persuade your audience that you have well-founded
knowledge of the topic being presented. It is important to support your argument with
evidence to ensure the validity of your claims, as well as to refute the counterclaims to show
that you are well informed about both sides.

The primary goal of a position paper is to declare a “position” on a certain matter or an issue.
Its secondary goal is to convince or persuade the audience to take that side of an issue or
matter.

Write a position paper to

 Organize and outline your viewpoint on an issue
 Formally inform others of your position
as a foundation to build resolution to difficult problems
 Present a unique, though biased, solution
or a unique approach to solving a problem
 Frame the discussion in order to define the "playing field."
This can put you in an advantageous position with those who may not be so well
prepared as regards the issues behind their positions
 Establish your credibility
Here you are demonstrating that you have a command of the issues and the research
behind them, and can present them clearly
 Let your passion be demonstrated in the force of your argument
rather than in the use of emotional terms
 Guide you in being consistent in maintaining your position in negotiation

As we write the Position Paper, we will continue to practice skills such as articulating a thesis
statement that contains an overall claim, developing an argument with reasons and evidence,
and using transitions and reader cues for coherence.

Issues in our present situations in which a position paper may be effectively used:

1. Social Issues: What is the cause of the increase in child obesity? (cause)
2. Educational Issues: Does adding year to high school really improve learning? (fact)
3. Technology: Textbook should be replaced by Ipad and online resources (policy)
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4. Media: Does the news from ABS-CBN bias? (fact)
5. Relationships: What are the causes of having broken family? (cause)
6. War and Peace: War is not really the solution to achieved peace.
7. Environmental issues: What are the causes of flash floods.
8. Politics: Some of the government leaders are protectors of illegal drugs. (fact)
To take a side on a subject, you should first establish the arguability of a topic that interests
you. Ask yourself the following questions to ensure that you will be able to present a strong
argument:
 Is it a real issue, with genuine controversy and uncertainty?
 Can you identify at least two distinctive positions?
 Are you personally interested in advocating one of these positions?
 Is the scope of the issue narrow enough to be manageable?

Analyzing an Issue and Developing an Argument

Once your topic is selected, you should do some research on the subject matter. While you
may already have an opinion on your topic and an idea about which side of the argument
you want to take, you need to ensure that your position is well supported. Listing the pro and
con sides of the topic will help you examine your ability to support your counterclaims, along
with a list of supporting evidence for both sides. Supporting evidence includes the following:

Type of Information Type of Source How to find these sources

introductory directories,
information and encyclopedias, Use the Library catalogue
overviews handbooks

Library catalogue, Canadian

books, government
in-depth studies Research Index, Government web
reports
sites

scholarly articles academic journals Article indexes

current issues newspapers, magazines Article indexes

government agencies Statistics Canada, Canadian

statistics
and associations Research Index, journal articles

position papers and association and institute

Library catalogue, web sites
analyses reports

Many of these sources can be located online through the library catalogue and electronic
databases, or on the Web. You may be able to retrieve the actual information electronically or
you may have to visit a library to find the information in print. The librarian’s presentation on
October 10th after your mid-term exam will assist in your orientation of the SFU library.

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Parts of a position paper:

1. Introduction
 Start with an introduction which presents the issue while grabbing the attention of
readers.
 Define the issue and discuss its background.
 Provide a general statement of your position via your thesis statement.
2. Body
 State your main arguments.
 Provide sufficient evidence for each argument such as statistical data, interviews with
experts, and testimonies.
 Provide counterarguments against the possible weaknesses of your arguments.
3. Conclusion
 Restate your position and main arguments
 Suggest a course of action.
 State what makes your position superior and more acceptable.
 End with a powerful closing statement such as a quotation, a challenge or a question.

Guidelines in Writing a Position Paper

1. Choose an issue. When choosing one, keep the following guidelines in mind
 The issue should be debatable - you won’t be able to take a stand if the topic is not
debatable.
 The issue should be current and relevant.
 The issue should be written in a question form and answerable by yes or no.
 The issue should be narrow and manageable.
2. Begin the writing process by conducting an in-depth research on the issue.
3. Make sure to define unfamiliar terms when you first mention them.
4. Be aware of the various positions about the issue and explain and analyze them objectively.
5. Reflect on your position and identify the weaknesses.
6. Cite valid reliable sources to establish the credibility of your arguments.
7. View the issue in a different perspective so you can present a unique approach.
8. Limit your position paper to two pages.
9. Analyze your target readers and align your arguments to their beliefs, needs, interests, and
motivations.
10. Summarize the other side’s counter arguments to their beliefs and use various evidence
and data to refute them.
11. Use an active voice as much as possible to achieve a dynamic and firm tone.
12. Arrange your evidence logically using an inductive or deductive approach.
a. Inductive approach - you discuss specific information first, and then look for patterns
to create a general conclusion. This entails a flow form specific to general ideas.
b. Deductive approach - you take something general and then branch out and think
of specific things that could apply to it. Basically, this is a type of reasoning where the flow of
discussion starts with a general theory and moves to a specific hypothesis.
13. Check your argument for fallacies and eliminate them. Fallacies, or errors in reasoning
weakens your argument.

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14. Use ethical, logical, and emotional appeal. An ethical appeal relates to your credibility and
competence as a writer; a logical appeal refers to a rational approach in developing an
argument; while an emotional appeal uses arguments in a way that evokes feelings.

Defending a Stand on an Issue

“Knowing where you stand on a topic is an important step in writing an effective position
paper”.

The first line of this paper starts strong.

Death Penalty is Unjust Because of the Inhumane and Cruel The writer opens with a rhetorical
Methods of Execution question to get readers thinking about
the topic and where they stand
Is capital punishment just? The death penalty is most
controversial issue for most people. Supporters claim that it This is a broad statement that doesn’t
eliminates repeat offenders, deters potential murderers and is contribute to the essay’s argument.
the ultimate retribution. Opponents denounce it as murder, Delete these type of sentences from
say that it does not cause deterrence but rather promotes your writing.
violence and claim that it introduces the chance of an
innocent person being executed.
Due to the arguments presented by both sides and because This sentence is written in first person.
of my own personal beliefs, the argument against legal Remember, in most position papers, you
execution is most compelling. The idea of putting another should write a third person. The thesis
human to death is hard to completely unfathomable. The statement establishes the writer’s
physical mechanics involved in carrying out a death sentence position: the horror of the mechanics of
on another person, regardless of how much they deserve it, the capital punishment and why it
is beyond human understanding. should not be permitted.
In the United States, there are thirty-eight states that have the
death penalty and twelve without capital punishment. The
first method was in New York in 1890 and is still in use thirteen Notice that the writer includes graphic
states. Old Sparky was the horrific outcome of Thomas details here to help paint a gruesome
Edison’s attempt to show the dangers of the AC power supply picture of the electric chair.
being promoted by his rivals (Anderson, 51). The condemned
is strapped to a wooded chair, electrodes are attached, and a
shock of thirty thousand watts is applied. The prisoner is
literally cooked internally, and death may require multiple
shocks. When someone was executed with the electric chair
the ceremony usually took place close to midnight. This was
because at that our they knew not many people were using
electricity; the chair needs thirty thousand watts or the
equivalent of four hundred seventy-five light bulbs turning on
at the same time. More than one shock was usually required
to kill the criminal, so it drained a massive amount of electricity
form the power company. Since the electric chair, midnight
has become the fixed execution time.

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The next method of execution developed after the electric
chair was the gas chamber. The gas chamber was first used in
1921. This chamber of death is an airtight room with a chair
into which the accused is strapped. Death is caused by These paragraphs again present a
exposure to cyanide gas, produced when sodium cyanide is discussion and description of the
dropped into sulfuric acid. The suffering caused is deliberate horrors of each form of execution. This
and plain to see: writhing, vomiting, shaking and gasping of helps reinforce the writer’s argument.
breath for many seconds. This horrendous technique is used
only in a few states.
Another form of the death penalty is lethal injection. This form
was introduced in the United States in 1977 and is now in use
in twenty-three states. This is the most widespread method
and arguably the most humane. The condemned is strapped
to a table and injected with sodium thiopental, losing
consciousness to ten to fifteen seconds. This is followed by
pancuronium bromide, which blocks respiration and finally
potassium chloride to stop the heart. (Jackson, 38-43).
Finally, the last two forms of execution are death by firing
squad and by hanging. These two forms of capital
punishment are very rarely ever used. In 1999 there were only
two hangings and one death by firing squad. The convicted
sometimes have the opportunity to decide how they wish to
be executed, which was the case in these three executions.
Religious people, especially those faithful to the Catholic
Religion believed that the death penalty is morally wrong. The This paragraph, the writer begins to
Catholic Church believes that all human life is sacred and that argue against capital punishment.
we as Catholics are obligated to protect all forms of human The first argument focuses on the
life. Life is a gift from God. God is our creator and only he has teaching of the Catholic church.
the right to give or take away a life, man should not have the Keep in mind that many times
power to take another man’s life in any situation. The Catholic professors do not allow faith-based
Church does not believe that capital punishment is the (religious) arguments in research
solution to or cure for the violent crime or murder. Capital papers.
punishment fails to create a society free from crime because
we are still committing a murder upon the perpetuator. The
death penalty is enforced to teach that every life should be
valued and respected. Consequently it is not right to teach
that killing is wrong by killing. Those who disagree with the
Catholic community say an eye for an eye which can be found
in the Bible. This verse is referring to God and God only, he is
the only one who can take away a life.
The belief that execution costs less than less that The paragraph begins a discussion of
imprisonment is false. The cost of the apparatus and new topic, but it fails to include a
maintenance of the procedures of the death penalty, transition to correct connect paragraph.
including death row and the endless appeals far outweigh Note the writer’s use of statistics to
the expense of maintaining in prison the tiny fraction of support the arguments in this
criminals who would otherwise be slain (Anderson, 46). In paragraph.
most states the price of life without parole ranges from 76,000 Remember, a position paper is not
to 1.1 million. While this might sound expensive, it is pennies merely your opinion. You must use
when compared to the expense of killing a criminal. Statistics evidence form sources to support your
have shown that the average price in trying, convincing, and arguments.
sentencing a killer with the added expense of death row for Here the writer provides effective
years, equals to around $3 million. That is the same amount it examples and statistics to create a
takes to hold a three prisoners in a maximum-security cell for strong argument.

83
40 years. It has been estimated that California could save as
much as $90 million a year if they abolish death penalty. In
New York $118 million could be saved, more than any state.
Other states that could also save money include New Jersey
$16 million annually, Kansas 11.4 million annually and
Indiana $5 million annually (Prothrow-Stith, 134). In California
the average cost for the death penalty is $3.2 million and $2.3
million in Texas. Life without parole is the only way to go to
costs less than a third of what it cost to execute a person on
death row.
The death penalty is irrevocable. In case of mistake, the
executed prisoner cannot be given another chance. Justice Again, this paragraph begins a new
can miscarry. There have been cases where innocent people topic, but it is missing a transition.
have been executed. In the last hundred years there have Here, the writer uses an example of a
been more than 75 documented cases of wrongful conviction real person who was falsely accused of
of criminal homicide. The death sentences were carried out in murder and was almost executed.
twenty-three of these cases. Undoubtedly, many other cases Using this type of example humanizes
of mistaken conviction and execution occurred and remain the argument and is an effective
undocumented (Anderson, 47). One case that was actually strategy to convince readers.
documented was that of James Richardson. Richardson has
been accused of killing his seven children in 1968. He was
sentenced to death. During his trial, many documents and
files were hidden, by the prosecutor, which would have
proven Richardson’s innocence. It was not until twenty-one
years later when someone learned of these files and stole
them. The thief turned the files over to the press who
published them. The files proved that it was his neighbor not
he who killed his children. This lead to the release in 1989
(Cabana, 64-65), James Richardson was an extremely lucky
man, but what about those died knowing the whole time that
they were innocent. A prisoner discovered to the blameless
can be freed but neither releases nor compensation is possible
for a corpse.

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Another huge question in our American society is whether or The paragraph begins another
not the death penalty is constitutional. In our U.S. Constitution argument against the death penalty:
under Amendment 8 it states that cruel and unusual whether or not capital punishment is
punishment should not be inflicted upon lawbreaker. Making constitutional.
a person sit on death row for multiple years is cruel. In 1967 The writer uses first person again in this
the death penalty was suspended in order for the federal sentence. The sentence should be
appellate courts to decide on its constitutionality. In 1972, in written in third person or deleted.
Furman V. Georgia, the Supreme Court ruled the death
penalty unconstitutional in the way it was being
implemented. The Supreme Court ruled that states were
applying the death penalty arbitrarily and irregularly. In one The author does a nice job of
swoop, every death penalty was rejected as unconstitutional. integrating outside evidence into the
In 1976, in Gregg V. Georgia, the supreme court decided that paper to bolster the argument.
capital punishment was constitutional but states had to This is a great bit of evidence to include
implement it fairly. I would totally have to disagree with this as it comes from a credible and valuable
ruling. On March 10, 1992, Robyn Parks reacted source (police chiefs).
spasmodically due to lethal injection, then choked to death
(Gross, 92.) That incident sounds pretty cruel and unusual to
me. The death penalty is an insufficient and inhumane form
of punishment because it is cruel and inhumane and clearly
goes against U.S. Constitution.

Contrary to popular belief, the death penalty does not act as

deterrence to crime. Expert after expert and study after study
have emphasized the lack of correlation between the threat
of capital punishment and the occurrence of violent crime
(Prothrow-Stith, 69.) Isaac Ehrlichs study on the deterrent
effect of capital punishment in America reveals this. It spans
twenty-five years, 1957-1982, and shows that in the first year
the study was conducted there were 8,060 murders in 1957
and 65 executions. However, in the last year of study, there
were 22,520 murders committed and only one execution
performed. The absence of deterrence is clearly shown. One
other example that helps show the death penalty does not
deter crime is the stance that many police chiefs take. Less
than 2% of police chiefs surveyed see the death penalty as an
effective toll to help reduce crime (Jackson, 1). This proves to
support the death penalty is wrong; capital punishment does
not deter potential murderers. This proves those who support
the death penalty wrong, that say the capital punishment
actually deters potential murderers.

85
An alternative to the death penalty should be that the
offender is required to compensate the victim’s family with
the offenders own income from employment or community The writer again uses an effective
service while in jail. There is no doubt that someone can do example of an incarcerated person to
more alive than dead. By working, the criminal inadvertently humanize the argument.
pays back society and also their victims’ family. There is no
reason for the criminal to received compensation for his work.
Money is of no value in jail. One of the most well-known
examples of the criminal contributing to the betterment of the
society is the case of Leopold and Loeb. Leopold and Loeb
were nineteen years old when they committed one of the
crimes of the century. In 1924 they kidnapped and murdered
fourteen-year-old boy just to see what it was like. They both
spared the death penalty and sentenced to life imprisonment.
Together their accomplishments include working at hospitals,
teaching illiterates to read, creating a correspondence school,
making significant development in the World War II Malaria
project and writing a grammar book. An inestimable amount
of people were directly help by Leopold and Loeb, both of
them making a conscious commitment to atone by service
others (Horwitz, 109) Imagine all that could be accomplished
if those on death rows lives were spared.
The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language,
Third Edition defines execution as the act of or instance of The topic of this paper is capital
putting to death or being put to death as a lawful penalty, this punishment, so the writer can assume
statement is false. The death penalty has been a gross failure. that readers have a general
The bottom line is that one method of execution is just as understanding of the subject.
brutal and as barbaric as the next. Beyond its horror and Do not include dictionary definitions to
incivility it has neither protected the innocent nor deterred define such basic terms.
the wicked. The recurrent spectacle of publicity suctioned This definition especially unnecessary in
killing has cheapened human life and dignity. Capital the concluding paragraph.
punishment is not just and should be abolished from all
remaining states that it still exists in.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Rauch, Jonathan, Death by Mistake. New York: Times Books, This paper is written in MLA format, so
1998 the final page should be titled Works
Frame, Randy. A matter of Life and Death. Boston: Northern Cited.
University Press, 1994
Prothrow, Deborah. Deadly Consequences. New York: Work Cited entries should alphabetized
Harbor Collins Publisher, 1991 by the author’s last name,
Anderson, David. Crimes of Justice. Brooklyn: Times Books,
1988
Williams, Mike. The Last Supper. Chicago: Times Books, 1989
Cabana, Donald. Death at Midnight. Boston: Northeastern
University Press, 1996
Gross, Samuel. Death and Discrimination. Boston:
Northeastern University Press, 1989
Baker, Robert. Capital Punishment. Boston: Northeastern
University Press, 1987
Shapiro, Joseph. The Wrong Man on Death Row. Chicago:
University of Illinois Press, 1988
Jackson, Bruce. Law and Order. Chicago: University of Illinois
Press, 1984
86
Read the following manifesto and analyze the argument/s used by the writer.

The Other Side of E-Mail

Robert Kuttner
(1) A few years ago, when my daughter was a college freshman, I wrote a column singing
the praises of e-mail. We were, suddenly, corresponding. It was, I decided, the revenge of print
on electronics - whole generation raised on the tube and the phone, rediscovering the lost
art of writing letters. How utterly charming.

(2) Now I’m not so sure. Like all new media, e-mail has a dark side. To be sure, it saves a great
deal of time and paperwork and has facilitated new, unimagined forms of affinity. However,
e-mail is also a thief. It steals our time and our privacy. It deceives us into thinking we have
endless additional hours in the day to engage in far-flung communications that we may or
may not need or want.

(3) All of a sudden, on top of everything else we have to do, e-mail is one more garden
demanding tending.

(4) E-mail brings a kind of pseudo-urgency that demands an instant response. It creates false
intimacies. Recently, I got an e-mail message from a perfect stranger, a student who had read
one of my articles and wanted help on a term paper. I was touched, but alas, there aren’t
enough hours in the day. Yet something about the message made me feel I needed to
apologize for not being able to do her homework. With e-mail, it’s too easy to hit the reply
key, with results you may regret. One acquaintance, thinking she was just responding to a
note from a close friend, accidentally sent a highly personal message to the friend’s entire
mailing list.

(5) I recently had a painful quarrel triggered by e-mail messages. A dear friend and I were
both having a busy week and imposing on each other’s time. Without quite intending to, we
ended up firing salvos of e-mail back and forth of escalating testiness until we had quite
insulted each other. We apologized, in person.

(6) This mishap could not have occurred either by phone or by ordinary mail. When talking
to someone, you pay attention to tonality. And when you write a letter, you read it over a few
times before sending it. But e-mail is tone-deaf and all too instant. It is ephemeral, yet
irrevocable. Once you’ve banged out your message and sent it into the ether, you can’t take
it back.

(7) E-mail is a great convenience-for the sender. The recipient is presumed to have infinite time
and interest. It is the equivalent of endless Christmas letters from boring distant relatives all
year long.

(8) Bosses get in the habit of sending down incessant e-mail messages from on high, as if
anyone cared. (Now hear this…) A large corporation with which I am vaguely affiliated sends
me more messages than I could possibly want to have, let alone answer.

(9) E-mail is also not secure. The magazine that I edit regularly gets highly personal missives,
sent by mistake to the wrong e-mail address thanks to a typo. With the phone, you know as

87
soon as you have a wrong number. And mis-addressed letters either get returned or end up
in the dead letter office.
(10) At one company, two people carrying on an affair were incautiously sending each other
intimate e-mail, which a supervisor discovered. To make matters worse, they were making
snide comments about the supervisor. Security escorted from the premises.

(11) E-mail is also easily forwarded and deliberately or mistakenly put into mass circulation.
Don’t e-mail anything private unless you are prepared to see it crop up all over the World
Wide Web. E-mail, like talk radio, reduces inhibitions; it is democratic to the point of moronic.
And I’ve not even gotten to mass junk e-mail, known in the trade as spam.
(12) I know, I know, the Internet is a marvel. And it is. And sure, e-mail is great for scheduling
meetings, for sending and receiving research materials, for allowing people in remote
locations to collaborate on projects. But novelty and low cost tend to breed excess.

(13) Like every new tool, from the wheel to nuclear energy, electronic communication will
take a while to find its proper etiquette and niche. In the meantime, it is an awkward
adolescent that has borrowed the family car, hormones raging and radio blaring, with little
regard for the rules of the road.

(14) “Of course, some fans of e-mail may find these words controversial or offensive. So if you
have any comments on this column, my e-mail address is … no, actually, send me a letter talk,”
Wardhaugh explains that trust, shared experience, and expectations of universal truths play
a vital role in the success of social conversation. Margaret Wheatly discusses how conversation
has the power to effect social change in “Some Friends and I Started Talking.” David Grambs
explains why he feels defeated by “uptalk” and misuse of the word like, which seems to have
permeated the speech of the younger generation. After years of trying to fight this insidious
invader, Grambs reveals his fear that “like” is here to stay in “The Like Virus.” And Robert
Kuttnerr discusses what he feels are the detrimental effects of the instant nature of e-mail in
“The Other Side of E-Mail.” The section closes with a review of some common IM and text
messaging terms and slang in “r u online?” by Kris Axtman.

88
LESSON 11 WRITING THE RESEARCH REPORT

“Research report is a research document that contains basic aspects of the research project”.

What is a Report?
A report is a document that presents information in an organized format for a
specific audience and purpose. Types of reports include memos, minutes, lab reports, book
reports, progress reports, justification reports, compliance reports, annual reports, and policies
and procedures.
Reports can fulfill four different, and sometimes related, functions. They can be used as
controls to ensure that all departments are functioning properly, to give information, to
provide an analysis, and to persuade others to act.

Report Format:
There is no one best format for all reports. Format depends on several relevant variables. One
must employ a suitable format to create desirable impression with clarity. Report must be
attractive. It should be written systematically and bound carefully. A report must use the
format (often called structure) that best fit the needs and wants of its readers. Normally,
following format is suggested as a basic outline, which has sufficient flexibly to meet the most
situations.

Research report is divided into three parts as:

I. First Part (Formality Part):
ADVERTISEMENTS:
(i) Cover page
(ii) Title page
(iii) Certificate or statement
(iv) Index (brief contents)
(v) Table of contents (detailed index)
(vi) Acknowledgement
(vii) List of tables and figures used
(viii) Preface/forwarding/introduction
(ix) Summary report

II. Main Report (Central Part of Report):

(i) Statement of objectives
(ii) Methodology and research design
(iii) Types of data and its sources
(iv) Sampling decisions
(v) Data collection methods
(vi) Data collection tools
(vii) Fieldwork

(viii) Analysis and interpretation (including tables, charts, figures, etc.)

(ix) Findings
(x) Limitations
(xi) Conclusions and recommendations

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(xii) Any other relevant detail

III. Appendix (Additional Details):

(i) Copies of forms used
(ii) Tables not included in findings
(iii) A copy of questionnaire
ADVERTISEMENTS:
(iv) Detail of sampling and rate of response
(v) Statement of expenses
(vi) Bibliography – list of books, magazines, journals, and other reports
(vii) Any other relevant information

Key Considerations/Factors:

While preparing research report, following issues must be considered:

(i) Objectives
(ii) Type of problem/subject
(iii) Nature and type of research
(iv) Audience or users of research work
(v) Size of report
(vi) Form of writing – handwritten, typed, or computerized.
(vii) Time and cost
(viii) Language
(ix) Contents of report
(x) Order of contents
(xi) Number of copies
(xii) Format – type and size of paper; lengths width, and depth of report; and pattern of writing
including paragraph, indent, numbering, font size and type, coloring, etc.
(xiii) Binding (for soft, and, particularly, for hard copy) – type, quality of material, color, etc.,
related issues.

Writing Various Reports

Reports generally involve presenting your investigation and analysis of information or an
issue, recommending actions and making proposals.
There are many different types of reports, including business, scientific and research reports,
but the basic steps for writing them are the same. These are outlined below.
 Step 1: Decide on the 'Terms of reference'
 Step 2: Decide on the procedure
 Step 3: Find the information
 Step 4: Decide on the structure
 Step 5: Draft the first part of your report
 Step 6: Analyze your findings and draw conclusions
 Step 7: Make recommendations
 Step 8: Draft the executive summary and table of contents
 Step 9: Compile a reference list
 Step 10: Revise your draft report

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Some of the research papers in various fields are the survey report, the field report, and the
laboratory or scientific technical report.

 A SURVEY REPORT is a thorough study on a research topic summarizing the existing

studies in an organized manner. It is an important step in any research project. Survey
reports make recommendations based on a careful analysis of data tallied and
organized from survey findings. A good survey report requires you to systematically
move from a big-picture summary down to your specific recommendations. How you
write it determines whether you convince others to follow your advice or you are
ignored.
 A FIELD REPORT is usually used in the social sciences to describe the observation of
people, places, and/or events and to analyze that observation data in order to identify
and categorize common themes in relation to the research problem underpinning the
study. The content represents the researcher's interpretation of meaning found in data
that has been gathered during one or more observational events.
 A SCIENTIFIC, ENGINEERING, OR TECHNICAL REPORT informs readers about research
you've conducted. (In your science classes, they may be called Lab Reports).

Writing a Survey Report

Once you have finished conducting a survey all that is left to do is write the survey report. A
survey report describes a survey, its results, and any patterns or trends found in the survey.
Most survey reports follow a standard organization, broken up under certain headings. Each
section has a specific purpose. Fill out each section correctly and proofread the paper to create
a polished and professional report.

Before designing your survey it is essential that you first identify your objectives, or the reason
why you are conducting the survey. The following questions will help you to clarify your
objectives to the survey. Consider and make note of the answers to these questions as you
begin to develop your survey:

 What are you trying to learn from the survey results?

o Having a clear understanding of the purpose of your survey will help you identify the
type of information you must collect in order to meet your objectives.
 Who is the target population, i.e., who will you be surveying?
o Identifying the characteristics of your population (e.g., education level, age range) will
help you to determine the type of information that you will be able to collect from
them. It will also help you to understand what factors, if any, may influence their
responses to your questions.
 Who is your audience, i.e., who will use the information from your survey?
o Determining the type of information your audience (e.g., decision-makers, the
academic community) is looking for will help you to identify the questions that will
address their needs.
 How will the information be used?

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Understanding the way in which the information you collect will be used also helps to identify
what questions to include. For instance, if you need to make comparisons between different
groups of people, you must include a question that will help you group them appropriately.

Writing a Field Report

Field reports require the researcher to combine theory and analysis learned in the classroom
with methods of observation and practice applied outside of the classroom. The purpose of
field reports is to describe an observed person, place, or event and to analyze that observation
data in order to identify and categorize common themes in relation to the research problem(s)
underpinning the study. The data is often in the form of notes taken during the observation
but it can also include any form of data gathering, such as, photography, illustrations, or audio
recordings.

Field reports are most often assigned in the applied social sciences [e.g., social work,
anthropology, gerontology, criminal justice, education, law, the health care professions]
where it is important to build a bridge of relevancy between the theoretical concepts learned
in the classroom and the practice of actually doing the work you are being taught to do. Field
reports are also common in certain science and technology disciplines [e.g., geology] but
these reports are organized differently and for different purposes.

Professors will assign a field report with the intention of improving your understanding of key
theoretical concepts through a method of careful and structured observation of and reflection
about real life practice. Field reports facilitate the development of data collection techniques
and observation skills and allow you to understand how theory applies to real world
situations. Field reports are also an opportunity to obtain evidence through methods of
observing professional practice that challenge or refine existing theories.
We are all observers of people, their interactions, places, and events; however, your
responsibility when writing a field report is to create a research study based on data
generated by the act of observation, a synthesis of key findings, and an interpretation of their
meaning. When writing a field report you need to:
 Systematically observe and accurately record the varying aspects of a situation. Always
approach your field study with a detailed plan about what you will observe, where you
should conduct your observations, and the method by which you will collect and
record your data.
 Continuously analyze your observations. Always look for the meaning underlying the
actions you observe. Ask yourself: What's going on here? What does this observed
activity mean? What else does this relate to? Note that this is an on-going process of
reflection and analysis taking place for the duration of your field research.
 Keep the report’s aims in mind while you are observing. Recording what you observe
should not be done randomly or haphazardly; you must be focused and pay attention
to details. Enter the field with a clear plan about what you are intending to observe
and record while, at the same time, be prepared to adapt to changing circumstances
as they may arise.
Consciously observe, record, and analyze what you hear and see in the context of a
theoretical framework. This is what separates data gatherings from simple reporting. The
theoretical framework guiding your field research should determine what, when, and how
you observe and act as the foundation from which you interpret your findings.
92
93
REFERENCES
Barrot, Jessie & Sipacip, Philippe John, Communicate Today English for
Academic and Professional Purposes, c & E Publishing, 2016
http://www.lcc.uma.es/~eat/pdf/sw.pdf
https:///examples.yourdictionary.com
https://academicguides.waldener.edu
https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/57a08c31ed915d3cfd001
21a/cordfieldrepjulsep06.pdf
https://kib.ki.se
learnline.cdu.edu
mako.cc/writing
Mondez, Remilyn G., English for Academic and Professional Services,
DIWA Books, 2016
oregonliteracypd.uoregon.eedu
portal.uea.ac.uk
Rappler.com
study.com
Vibal Group Inc. & Wyson, John Daryl B., English for Academic and
Professional Purposes, 2016
www.inquirer.net
www.managementstudyhq.com
www.midmich.edu
www.nsbsd.org
www.temple.edu
www.theclassroom.com
www.uea.ac.uk
www.uefap.com

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