PATNA(History)

The name Patnais thought to be adapted from Patan, the name of

the Hindu goddess Patan devi. Another theory considers it to be
derived from Patliputra the original name of Patna. Patliputra was
started by Ajatsatru as a fort on the junction of 4 rivers,
particularly the Ganga and Sone. This was to defend the kingdom
of Magadh from the army of the Licchavis that used to cross the
river Ganga and harass the citizens on the other side of the river.
Patna has been called by several names depending upon the ruler
of the city, Pataligram, Pataliputra, Kusumpur, Pushpapura,
Azimabad, and the present day Patna. Another point of
noteworthiness is that it has "Putra" attached to Patli. A story
goes that Patli was a princess who have birth to a child and the
parents decided to live there at the very spot the child was born
hence it came to be known as Patliputra. Nonetheless, no city in
India has this unique name of having a suffix of Putra. Putra in
Sanskrit is Son.
More on Bihar and Patna
Patna
Bihar news
Bihar Police
Book on Bihar
Reasons to envy Bihar
History of Bihar
More on Bihar
Amarpali
Pali
Bihar Maths
Chandragupta
Jainism
Buddhism
Life of Buddha
Initially the fort was maintained by some soldiers. One of them
was particularly fond of roses and planted some. Hence the fort
came to be known as Patligram and later Kusumpur Again Patli
and Kusum is another name of the flower rose while gram is a
village in the Hindi/Sanskrit language.
Another interesting story is that while hunting at the jungles of
Bihar Sharif king Ajatsatru happened to go across the river to
Vaishali where the people made fun of his physical features. "How
could the son of beautiful Bimbisar and Chella be so ugly"? This
really upset Ajatsatru and decided to destroy Vasishali. Ajatsatru
being a good military strategist decided to convert this region into
a fort to defend from and attack on the Licchavis of Vaishali. He
must have decided to make a city on the banks taking into
account the vicinity of the river and Ganga.
Later on the city was built under the guidance of Ajatsatru's
trusted ministers Sunidh and Vaskar. The credit goes to Udayin,
the son of Ajatsatru to actually build Patliputra to a famous city
and to use it as his capital of Magadh. The Gargi-Samhita, Yug
Puran, Vayu Puran mentions that Udayin magnificently built
Kusumpur. In the later years it became the grandiose capitale of
Magadh and India that rose to its highest pinnacle during the rule
of Ashoka the great.
The current name Patna was given by Sher Shah Suri, whose
tomb is at Sasaram, a place near Patna and is a well known
tourist spot for locals and foreigners alike. Patna is now the
capital of Bihar.

Patna has magnificently combined the rich heritage and culture of the past with modernity and
has emerged as an important center for tourism in the entire Eastern region. Apart from that,
Patna is also known for its rich past since it was the center for learning and spiritual
enlightenment in ancient India. Patna occupies a significant place for the tourists on pilgrimage
belonging to different castes such as Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism. There are many things
about Patna that make it stand apart from the rest of the tourist destinations in the eastern region.
There are magnificent tourist attractions in Patna strewn all over the town.
Touristplacesinindia.com offers valuable inputs about Patna that would be of great help to those
who are planning for a tour to Patna.

Fast Facts

Area : 107.08 sq. km

Altitude : 53 metres above the sea level
Languages : Hindi and English
Best time to visit : October to March
STD code : 0612
History

Patna was original known as Pataliputra or Patalipattan and its recorded history
dates back to the 600 B.C. It was the capital of Chandragupta Maurya, the first
recorded emperor of India, but gradually it lost its importance after the decline of
the Mauryan Empire. During the medieval era, it rose to prominence again under
Shershah Suri who ruled at the beginning of the 16th century A.D. People have the
belief that Patna was founded by Ajatashatru and he adopted several measures to
protect the town from the incessant foreign invasions. The great Mauryan emperor
Ashoka also ruled from here. The later Guptas, including Chandragupta
Vikramaditya and Samudragupta, made Pataliputra their capital.

The famous Chinese travelers Fa-Hien and Hiuen-Tsang visited this town in the
3rd and 7th century respectively. Patna was a repository of knowledge and wisdom
in the historic times. Scholars like Kautilya created their remarkable works by
staying here. The grandson of Aurangzeb, Azim-us-Shan came to Patna in the year
1703 as its governor. Due to his efforts he transformed Patna into a gorgeous town
gave it the name ‘Azimabad’. The city came under the control of the British after
the decline of the Mughals. They had started a factory here in 1620 for the trade of
calico and silk. In the year 2000, a separate state called Jharkhand was separated
from Bihar.
Best Season, Climate, and Clothing

Patna experiences hot and humid climate during the summers and has a pleasant
climate during the winters. The temperature often rises to 43°C in summers and
falls to around 5°C or even below during the winters. Patna receives average to
heavy rainfall during the monsoon. Cotton clothing is advised during the summers
while woolens would be required during the winter season. However, the best
period to visit would be from October to March.

Touristplacesinindia.com is your authentic travel guide on Patna and provides

useful information about Patna and other nearby destinations.

PATNA the provincial capital of Bihar dates back in the Indian

history when the town was called Patliputra and later on it was
also called Kusumpura. The city was visited by Lord Buddha in the
6th century B.C. Patliputra, in the time of Ashoka became the
centre from where messengers of peace and international
understanding were sent to all over India and beyond. The glories
of the city revived with the rise of the Gupta Empire in the early
4th century A.D. and Chandragupta I, who was the first emperor of
the Gupta dynasty, had his capital here. Fahian, Chinese pilgrim,
who visited this city in early 5th century A.D, has left a very rich
description of the place.
In the Muslim period, The King Sher Shah Suri (1488 –1545), the
Afghan emperor, revived his capital and constructed a fort here
on a strategic location and put a boundary around Patna. Later
the Mughals acknowledged the importance of Patna when
Humayun (1508 – 1556) the eldest son of the Emperor Babar, who
succeeded his father to the throne in 1530, defeated the Suri
dynasty and became the emperor of Hindustan. Subsequently,
Akbar (1542 – 1605) the Mughal emperor of India who established
a tolerant policy of co-operation with the Hindu population, and
whose reign saw the zenith of Mughal power brought Patna into
his own kingdom. The city was extended and beautified by
different Mughal Governors, who built a large number of buildings
for religious as well as administrative and public purposes. TOP
Patna played an important part when Mir Qasim Ali Khan who was
enthroned in 1760 and he tried to throw off the yoke of the
British. Mir Qasim fled from Monghyr to Patna and had 50
Englishmen executed by his German General Samru – the
cemetery of those executed Englishmen lies behind the present
City Hospital building. But in November 1763 Patna was captured
by the British troops and Mir Qasim fled to Oudh. In 1764, in the
famous battle of Buxer, Mir Qasim was defeated along with his
allies by the British and he had to escape. He died, in 1777, in
exile.

MUGHAL EMPIRE

The Mughal Empire (Persian: ‫شاهان مغول‬, Shāhān-e Moġul; Urdu: ‫مغلی‬
‫ ;ہ سلطنت‬self-designation: ‫گوركانى‬, Gūrkānī), or Mogul (also Moghul)
Empire in former English usage, was an Indian imperial power
that ruled a large portion of the Indian subcontinent. It began in
1526, invaded and ruled most of India by the late 17th and early
18th centuries, and ended in the mid-19th century.[4]
The Mughal emperors were descendants of the Timurids, and at
the height of their power around 1700, they controlled most of
the Indian Subcontinent—extending from Bengal in the east to
Balochistan in the west, Kashmir in the north to the Kaveri basin
in the south.[5] Its population at that time has been estimated as
between 110 and 150 million, over a territory of over 3.2 million
square kilometres (1.2 million square miles).[1]
The "classic period" of the Empire started in 1556 with the
accession of Jalaluddin Mohammad Akbar, better known as Akbar
the Great. It ended with the death and defeat of Emperor
Aurangzeb in 1707 by the rising Hindu Maratha Empire,[6]
although the dynasty continued for another 150 years. During this
period, the Empire was marked by a highly centralized
administration connecting the different regions. All the significant
monuments of the Mughals, their most visible legacy, date to this
period which was characterised by the expansion of Persian
cultural influence in the Indian subcontinent, with brilliant literary,
artistic, and architectural results.
Following 1725 the empire declined rapidly, weakened by wars of
succession, agrarian crises fueling local revolts, the growth of
religious intolerance, the rise of the Maratha, Durrani, and Sikh
empires and finally British colonialism. The last king, Bahadur
Zafar Shah II, whose rule was restricted to the city of Delhi, was
imprisoned and exiled by the British after the Indian Rebellion of
1857.
The name Mughal is derived from the original homelands of the
Timurids, the Central Asian steppes once conquered by Genghis
Khan and hence known as Moghulistan, "Land of Mongols".
Although early Mughals spoke the Chagatai language and
maintained Turko-Mongol practices, they were essentially
Persianized.[7] They transferred the to India, thus forming the
base for the Indo-Persian culture.[7]
Contents
[hide]
•1 Early history
•2 Mughal dynasty
•2.1 Decline
•3 List of Mughal emperors
•4 Influence on the Indian subcontinent
•4.1 Urdu language
•4.2 Mughal society
•5 Science and technology
•5.1 Astronomy
•5.2 Technology
•6 See also
•7 Further reading
•8 References
•9 External links
Early history
Zahir ud-din Muhammad Babur learned about the riches of
Hindustan and conquest of it by his ancestor, Timur Lang, in 1503
at Dikh-Kat, a place in the Transoxiana region. At that time, he
was roaming as a wanderer after losing his principality, Farghana.
In his memoirs he wrote that after he had acquired Kabul (in
1514), he desired to regain the territories in Hindustan held once
by Turks. He started his exploratory raids from September 1519
when he visited the Indo-Afghan borders to suppress the rising by
Yusufzai tribes. He undertook similar raids up to 1524 and had
established his base camp at Peshawar. In 1526, Babur defeated
the last of the Delhi Sultans, Ibrahim Shah Lodi, at the First Battle
of Panipat. To secure his newly founded kingdom, Babur then had
to face the formidable Rajput Rana Sanga of Chittor, at the Battle
of Khanwa. Rana Sanga offered stiff resistance but was defeated.
Babur's son Humayun succeeded him in 1530, but suffered
reversals at the hands of the Pashtun Sher Shah Suri and lost
most of the fledgling empire before it could grow beyond a minor
regional state. From 1540 Humayun became ruler in exile,
reaching the court of the Safavid rule in 1554 while his force still
controlled some fortresses and small regions. But when the
Pashtuns fell into disarray with the death of Sher Shah Suri,
Humayun returned with a mixed army, raised more troops, and
managed to reconquer Delhi in 1555.
Humayun crossed the rough terrain of the Makran with his wife.
The resurgent Humayun then conquered the central plateau
around Delhi, but months later died in an accident, leaving the
realm unsettled and in war.
Akbar succeeded his father on 14 February 1556, while in the
midst of a war against Sikandar Shah Suri for the throne of Delhi.
He soon won his eighteenth victory at age 21 or 22. He became
known as Akbar, as he was a wise ruler, setting high but fair
taxes. He was born in a Hindu Rajput household. He was a more
inclusive in his approach to the non-Muslim subjects of the
Empire. He investigated the production in a certain area and
taxed inhabitants one-fifth of their agricultural produce. He also
set up an efficient bureaucracy and was tolerant of religious
differences which softened the resistance by the locals. He made
alliances with Rajputs and appointed Hindu generals and
administrators. Later in life, he devised his own brand of religion
based on tolerance, and inspired by viewpoints of Hinduism and
Islam. After his death, this religion did not become popular, but is
still remembered for its noble intentions of bringing people and
minds together.
Jahangir, son of Emperor Akbar, ruled the empire from 1605–
1627. In October 1627, Shah Jahan, son of Emperor Jahangir
succeeded to the throne, where he inherited a vast and rich
empire. At mid-century this was perhaps the greatest empire in
the world. Shah Jahan commissioned the famous Taj Mahal (1630–
1653) in Agra which was built by the Persian architect Ustad
Ahmad Lahauri as a tomb for Shah Jahan's wife Mumtaz Mahal,
who died giving birth to their 14th child. By 1700 the empire
reached its peak under the leadership of Aurangzeb Alamgir with
major parts of present day India, Pakistan, and most of
Afghanistan under its domain. Aurangzeb was the last of what are
now referred to as the Great Mughal kings, living a shrewd life but
dying peacefully.
Mughal dynasty/wiki/File:Mughal_Genealogical_Table.gif
/wiki/File:Mughal_Genealogical_Table.gif
/wiki/File:Mughal_Genealogical_Table.gifGenealogy of the Mughal
Dynasty
The Mughal Empire was the dominant power in the Indian
subcontinent between the mid-16th century and the early 18th
century. Founded in 1526, it officially survived until 1858, when it
was supplanted by the British Raj. The dynasty is sometimes
referred to as the Timurid dynasty as Babur was descended from
Timur.
The Mughal dynasty was founded when Babur, hailing from
Ferghana (Modern Uzbekistan), invaded parts of northern India
and defeated Ibrahim Shah Lodhi, the ruler of Delhi, at the First
Battle of Panipat in 1526. The Mughal Empire superseded the
Delhi Sultanate as rulers of northern India. In time, the state thus
founded by Babur far exceeded the bounds of the Delhi Sultanate,
eventually encompassing a major portion of India and earning the
appellation of Empire. A brief interregnum (1540–1555) during the
reign of Babur's son, Humayun, saw the rise of the Afghan Suri
Dynasty under Sher Shah Suri, a competent and efficient ruler in
his own right, and Hindu king Hem Chandra Vikramaditya, also
called Hemu. However, Sher Shah's untimely death and the
military incompetence of his successors enabled Humayun to
regain his throne in 1555. However, Humayun died a few months
later, and was succeeded by his son, the 13-year-old Akbar the
Great.
The greatest portions of Mughal expansion was accomplished
during the reign of Akbar (1556–1605). The empire was
maintained as the dominant force of the present-day Indian
subcontinent for a hundred years further by his successors
Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb. The first six emperors, who
enjoyed power both de jure and de facto, are usually referred to
by just one name, a title adopted upon his accession by each
emperor. The relevant title is bolded in the list below.
Akbar the Great initiated certain important policies, such as
religious liberalism (abolition of the jizya tax), inclusion of Hindus
in the affairs of the empire, and political alliance/marriage with
the Hindu Rajput caste, that were innovative for his milieu; he
also adopted some policies of Sher Shah Suri, such as the division
of the empire into sarkar Rajs, in his administration of the empire.
These policies, which undoubtedly served to maintain the power
and stability of the empire, as the Hindu populace had shown
resistance to the Islamic conquest in its years in the Indian
subcontinent. These were preserved by his two immediate
successors but were discarded by Aurangzeb, who followed a
more strict interpretation of Islam and followed a stricter policy of
intolerance to the practice of religions than his own. Furthermore,
Aurangzeb spent nearly his entire career seeking to expand his
realm into the Deccan and south India, Assam in the east; this
venture sapped the resources of the empire while provoking
strong resistance from the Marathas, Rajputs, Sikhs of Punjab,
Ahoms of Assam. Ahoms in Assam successfully resisted the
Mughal invasions, the last battle being the Battle of Saraighat. It
is interesting to note in this regard that while the Mughals ruled
India for a nearly three hundred years they never ruled the
complete geographical extent of the Indian subcontinent. The
power was mostly centred around Delhi, which was for historical
reasons considered a strategic stronghold.
Decline
After Emperor Aurangzeb's death in 1707, the empire fell into
decline. Beginning with Bahadur Shah I, the Mughal emperors
progressively declined in power and became figureheads, being
initially controlled by sundry courtiers and later by various rising
warlords. In the 18th century, the Empire suffered the
depredations of invaders like Nadir Shah of Persia and Ahmed
Shah Abdali of Afghanistan, who repeatedly sacked Delhi, the
Mughal capital. The greater portion of the empire's territories in
India passed to the Marathas, who sacked Delhi reducing the once
powerful and mighty empire to just a lone city before falling to
the British. Other adversaries included Sikh Empire and
Hyderabad Nizams. In 1804, the blind and powerless Shah Alam II
formally accepted the protection of the British East India
Company. The British had already begun to refer to the weakened
emperor as "King of Delhi", rather than "Emperor of India". The
once glorious and mighty Mughal army was disbanded in 1805 by
the British; only the guards of the Red Fort were spared to serve
with the King Of Delhi, which avoided the uncomfortable
implication that British sovereignty was outranked by the Indian
monarch. Nonetheless, for a few decades afterward the BEIC
continued to rule the areas under its control as the nominal
servants of the emperor and in his name. In 1857, even these
courtesies were disposed. After some rebels in the Sepoy
Rebellion declared their allegiance to Shah Alam's descendant,
Bahadur Shah Zafar (mostly symbolically, as he was just a
figurehead for the purpose of rebellion), the British decided to
abolish the institution altogether. They deposed the last Mughal
emperor in 1857 and exiled him to Burma, where he died in 1862.
Thus the Mughal dynasty came to an end, which formed a
momentous chapter in the history of India.
There are still many Mughals living in the Indian Subcontinent.
The term Mughal in the current socio-political context also does
not have decisive meaning, as the blood lines of the original
Mughals are now mixed with the other Muslim populations of India
and have South-Asian identities which are stronger than any
original Turkic or Mongoloid origins.[citation needed]
List of Mughal emperors
Main article: Mughal emperors
Certain important particulars regarding the Mughal emperors is
tabulated below:
Emperor Bi Rei De Notes
rt gn at
h Peri h
 od
Fe De
b 152 c
Zaheeruddin 23 6– 26 Founder of the Mughal Dynasty.
Muhammad Babur , 153 ,
14 0 15
83 30
Reign interrupted by Suri Dynasty.
Ma
153 Ja Youth and inexperience at
Nasiruddin r
0– n ascension led to his being
Muhammad 6,
154 15 regarded as a less effective ruler
Humayun 15
0 56
08 than usurper, Sher Shah Suri.

154 Ma
14 0– y Deposed Humayun and led the
Sher Shah Suri
72 154 15 Suri Dynasty.
5 45
2nd and last ruler of the Suri
154
c.1
5– 15 Dynasty, claims of sons Sikandar
Islam Shah Suri 50
155 54 and Adil Shah were eliminated by
0 Humayun's restoration.
4

Ma Restored rule was more unified

155 Ja
Nasiruddin r
5– n and effective than initial reign of
Muhammad 6,
155 15 1530–1540; left unified empire for
Humayun 15
6 56 his son, Akbar.
08
Jalaluddin No 155 Oc Akbar greatly expanded the
Muhammad Akbar v 6– t Empire and is regarded as the
14 160 27 most illustrious ruler of the
, 5 , Mughal Dynasty as he set up the
15 16 empire's various institutions; he
42 05 married Mariam-uz-Zamani, a
Rajput princess. One of his most
famous construction marvels was
 the Lahore Fort.
Jahangir set the precedent for
sons rebelling against their
emperor fathers. Opened first
Oc 160 relations with the British East
Nooruddin
t 5– 16 India Company. Reportedly was
Muhammad
15 162 27 an alcoholic, and his wife Empress
Jahangir
69 7
Noor Jahan became the real power
behind the throne and
competently ruled in his place.
Under him, Mughal art and
architecture reached their zenith;
Ja
162 constructed the Taj Mahal, Jama
Shahaabuddin n
7– 16 Masjid, Red Fort, Jahangir
Muhammad Shah 5,
165 66 mausoleum, and Shalimar
Jahan 15
8
92 Gardens in Lahore. Deposed and
imprisoned by his son Aurangzeb.
He reinterpreted Islamic law and
presented the Fatawa-e-Alamgiri;
he captured the diamond mines of
the Sultanate of Golconda; he
Oc spent more than 20 years of his
Ma
t 165 life defeating major rebel factions
Mohiuddin r
21 8–
Muhammad 3, in India; his conquests expanded
, 170
Aurangzeb Alamgir 17 the empire to its greatest extent;
16 7
07 the over-stretched empire was
18
controlled by Nawabs, and faced
challenges after his death. He
made two copies of the Qur'an
using his own calligraphy.

Bahadur Shah I Oc 170 Fe First of the Mughal emperors to

t 7– b preside over a steady and severe
14 171 17 decline in the territories under the
 empire's control and military
power due to the rising strength
, of the autonomous Nawabs. After
16 2 12 his reign, the emperor became a
43 progressively insignificant
figurehead.

171 Fe
16 2– b He was highly influenced by his
Jahandar Shah
64 171 17 Grand Vizier Zulfikar Khan.
3 13
In 1717 he granted a firman to the
171 English East India Company
16 3– 17 granting them duty free trading
Furrukhsiyar
83 171 19 rights for Bengal and confirmed
9
their position in India.

Un
kn 171 17
Rafi Ul-Darjat
ow 9 19
n
Un
Rafi Ud-Daulat kn 171 17
a.k.a Shah Jahan II ow 9 19
n
Un
kn 171 17
Nikusiyar
ow 9 43
n
Un
kn 172 17
Muhammad Ibrahim
ow 0 44
n
Muhammad Shah 17 171 17 Suffered the invasion of Nadir-
02 9– 48 Shah of Persia in 1739.
 172
0,
172
0–
174
8
Mughal forces massacred by the
174
Ahmad Shah 17 17 Maratha during the Battle of
8–
Bahadur 25 54 Sikandarabad;
54

175
16 4– 17
Alamgir II
99 175 59
9
consolidation of the Nizam of
Un Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, during
In 17
kn
Shah Jahan III 175 70 the Battle of Buxar. Hyder Ali
ow
9 s becomes Nawab of Mysore in
n
1761;
Ahmed-Shah-Abdali in 1761
175
17 9– 18 defeated the Marathas during the
Shah Alam II
28 180 06 Third Battle of Panipat; The fall of
6 Tipu Sultan of Mysore in 1799;

180
17 6– 18 Titular figurehead under British
Akbar Shah II
60 183 37 protection
7
The last Mughal emperor was
183
17 7– 18 deposed by the British and exiled
Bahadur Shah Zafar
75 185 62 to Burma following the First War
7 of Independence of 1857.

Influence on the Indian subcontinent

A major Mughal contribution to the Indian subcontinent was their
unique architecture. Many monuments were built by the Muslim
emperors, especially Shahjahan, during the Mughal era including
the UNESCO World Heritage Site Taj Mahal, which is known to be
one of the finer examples of Mughal architecture. Other World
Heritage Sites includes the Humayun's Tomb, Fatehpur Sikri, Red
Fort, Agra Fort, and Lahore Fort.
The palaces, tombs, and forts built by the dynasty stands today in
Delhi, Aurangabad, Fatehpur Sikri, Agra, Jaipur, Lahore, Kabul,
Sheikhupura, and many other cities of India, Pakistan,
Afghanistan, and Bangladesh.[8] With few memories of Central
Asia, Babur's descendents absorbed traits and customs of the
Indian Subcontinent,[9] and became more or less naturalised.
Mughal influence can be seen in cultural contributions such
as[10]:
•Centralised,
imperialistic government which brought together
many smaller kingdoms.[11]
•Persian art and culture amalgamated with Indian art and
culture.[12]
•New trade routes to Arab and Turkic lands.
•The development of Mughlai cuisine.[13]
•Mughal Architecture found its way into local Indian
architecture, most conspicuously in the palaces built by
Rajputs and Sikh rulers.
•Landscape gardening
Although the land the Mughals once ruled has separated into
what is now India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Afghanistan, their
influence can still be seen widely today. Tombs of the emperors
are spread throughout India, Afghanistan,[14] and Pakistan. There
are 16 million descendants spread throughout the Subcontinent
and possibly the world.[15][unreliable source?]
Urdu language
Although Persian was the dominant and "official" language of the
empire, the language of the elite later evolved into a form of
Hindustani today known as Urdu. Highly Persianized and also
influenced by Arabic and Turkic, the language was written in a
type of Perso-Arabic script known as Nastaliq, and with literary
conventions and specialized vocabulary being retained from
Persian, Arabic and Turkic; the new dialect was eventually given
its own name of Urdu. Compared with Hindi, the Urdu language
draws more vocabulary from Persian and Arabic (via Persian) and
(to a much lesser degree) from Turkic languages where Hindi
draws vocabulary from Sanskrit more heavily.[16] Modern Hindi,
which uses Sanskrit-based vocabulary along with Urdu loan words
from Persian and Arabic, is mutually intelligible with Urdu.[17]
Mughal society
This section does not cite any references or sources.
Please help improve this article by adding citations to
reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and
removed. (November 2010)
The Indian economy remained as prosperous under the Mughals
as it was, because of the creation of a road system and a uniform
currency, together with the unification of the country.
Manufactured goods and peasant-grown cash crops were sold
throughout the world. Key industries included shipbuilding (the
Indian shipbuilding industry was as advanced as the European,
and Indians sold ships to European firms), textiles, and steel. The
Mughals maintained a small fleet, which merely carried pilgrims
to Mecca, imported a few Arab horses in Surat. Debal in Sindh
was mostly autonomous. The Mughals also maintained various
river fleets of Dhows, which transported soldiers over rivers and
fought rebels. Among its admirals were Yahya Saleh, Munnawar
Khan, and Muhammad Saleh Kamboh. The Mughals also protected
the Siddis of Janjira. Its sailors were renowned and often voyaged
to China and the East African Swahili Coast, together with some
Mughal subjects carrying out private-sector trade. Cities and
towns boomed under the Mughals; however, for the most part,
they were military and political centres, not manufacturing or
commerce centres. Only those guilds which produced goods for
the bureaucracy made goods in the towns; most industry was
based in rural areas. The Mughals also built Maktabs in every
province under their authority, where youth were taught the
Quran and Islamic law such as the Fatawa-e-Alamgiri in their
indigenous languages.
The nobility was a heterogeneous body; while it primarily
consisted of Rajput aristocrats and foreigners from Muslim
countries, people of all castes and nationalities could gain a title
from the emperor. The middle class of openly affluent traders
consisted of a few wealthy merchants living in the coastal towns;
the bulk of the merchants pretended to be poor to avoid taxation.
The bulk of the people were poor. The standard of living of the
poor was as low as, or somewhat higher than, the standard of
living of the Indian poor under the British Raj; whatever benefits
the British brought with canals and modern industry were
neutralized by rising population growth, high taxes, and the
collapse of traditional industry in the nineteenth century.
Science and technology
Astronomy
The 16th and 17th centuries saw a synthesis between Islamic
astronomy, where Islamic observational techniques and
instruments were employed techniques. While there appears to
have been little concern for theoretical astronomy, Mughal
astronomers continued to make advances in observational
astronomy and produced nearly a hundred Zij treatises. Humayun
built a personal observatory near Delhi, while Jahangir and Shah
Jahan were also intending to build observatories but were unable
to do so. The instruments and observational techniques used at
the Mughal observatories were mainly derived from the Islamic
tradition. In particular, one of the most remarkable astronomical
instruments invented in Mughal India is the seamless celestial
globe (see Technology below).
Technology
See also: History of gunpowder: India
Fathullah Shirazi (c. 1582), a Persian-Indian polymath and
mechanical engineer who worked for Akbar the Great in the
Mughal Empire, developed a volley gun.[20]
Considered one of the most remarkable feats in metallurgy, the
seamless globe was invented in Kashmir by Ali Kashmiri ibn
Luqman in 998 AH (1589–90 CE), and twenty other such globes
were later produced in Lahore and Kashmir during the Mughal
Empire. Before they were rediscovered in the 1980s, it was
believed by modern metallurgists to be technically impossible to
produce metal globes without any seams, even with modern
technology. Another famous series of seamless celestial globes
was produced using a lost-wax casting method in the Mughal
Empire in 1070 AH (1659–1960 CE) by Muhammad Salih Tahtawi
with Arabic and Persian inscriptions. It is considered a major feat
in metallurgy. These Mughal metallurgists pioneered the method
of wax casting while producing these seamless globes.[21]

ADVERTISING

Advertising is a form of communication intended to persuade an audience (viewers, readers or

listeners) to purchase or take some action upon products, ideas, or services. It includes the name
of a product or service and how that product or service could benefit the consumer, to persuade a
target market to purchase or to consume that particular brand. These messages are usually paid
for by sponsors and viewed via various media. Advertising can also serve to communicate an
idea to a large number of people in an attempt to convince them to take a certain action.
Commercial advertisers often seek to generate increased consumption of their products or
services through branding, which involves the repetition of an image or product name in an effort
to associate related qualities with the brand in the minds of consumers. Non-commercial
advertisers who spend money to advertise items other than a consumer product or service include
political parties, interest groups, religious organizations and governmental agencies. Nonprofit
organizations may rely on free modes of persuasion, such as a public service announcement.
Modern advertising developed with the rise of mass production in the late 19th and early 20th
centuries. Mass media can be defined as any media meant to reach a mass amount of people.
Different types of media can be used to deliver these messages, including traditional media such
as newspapers, magazines, television, radio, outdoor or direct mail; or new media such as
websites and text messages.
In 2010, spending on advertising was estimated at more than $300 billion in the United States[1]
and $500 billion worldwide[citation needed].
Internationally, the largest ("big four") advertising conglomerates are Interpublic, Omnicom,
Publicis, and WPP.
Contents
[hide]

•1 History

•1.1 Public service advertising

•2 Marketing mix

•3 Types of advertising

•3.1 Digital advertising

•3.2 Physical advertising

•4 Sales promotions

•5 Media and advertising approaches

•6 Current trends

•6.1 Rise in new media

•6.2 Niche marketing

•6.3 Crowdsourcing

•6.4 Global advertising

•6.5 Foreign public messaging

•6.6 Diversification

•6.7 New technology

•6.8 Advertising education

•7 Criticisms

•8 Regulation

•9 Advertising research

•10 See also

•11 References

•12 Bibliography

•13 External links

[edit] History

/wiki/File:Edo_period_advertising_in_Japan.jpg
/wiki/File:Edo_period_advertising_in_Japan.jpg

/wiki/File:Edo_period_advertising_in_Japan.jpg Edo period advertising flyer from

1806 for a traditional medicine called Kinseitan
Egyptians used papyrus to make sales messages and wall posters. Commercial messages and
political campaign displays have been found in the ruins of Pompeii and ancient Arabia. Lost and
found advertising on papyrus was common in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. Wall or rock
painting for commercial advertising is another manifestation of an ancient advertising form,
which is present to this day in many parts of Asia, Africa, and South America. The tradition of
wall painting can be traced back to Indian rock art paintings that date back to 4000 BC.[2]
History tells us that Out-of-home advertising and billboards are the oldest forms of advertising.
As the towns and cities of the Middle Ages began to grow, and the general populace was unable
to read, signs that today would say cobbler, miller, tailor or blacksmith would use an image
associated with their trade such as a boot, a suit, a hat, a clock, a diamond, a horse shoe, a candle
or even a bag of flour. Fruits and vegetables were sold in the city square from the backs of carts
and wagons and their proprietors used street callers (town criers) to announce their whereabouts
for the convenience of the customers.
As education became an apparent need and reading, as well as printing, developed advertising
expanded to include handbills. In the 17th century advertisements started to appear in weekly
newspapers in England. These early print advertisements were used mainly to promote books
and newspapers, which became increasingly affordable with advances in the printing press; and
medicines, which were increasingly sought after as disease ravaged Europe. However, false
advertising and so-called "quack" advertisements became a problem, which ushered in the
regulation of advertising content.
As the economy expanded during the 19th century, advertising grew alongside. In the United
States, the success of this advertising format eventually led to the growth of mail-order
advertising.
In June 1836, French newspaper La Presse was the first to include paid advertising in its pages,
allowing it to lower its price, extend its readership and increase its profitability and the formula
was soon copied by all titles. Around 1840, Volney B. Palmer established a predecessor to
advertising agencies in Boston.[3] Around the same time, in France, Charles-Louis Havas
extended the services of his news agency, Havas to include advertisement brokerage, making it
the first French group to organize. At first, agencies were brokers for advertisement space in
newspapers. N. W. Ayer & Son was the first full-service agency to assume responsibility for
advertising content. N.W. Ayer opened in 1869, and was located in Philadelphia.[3]
/wiki/File:Get_fat3.jpg

/wiki/File:Get_fat3.jpg /wiki/File:Get_fat3.jpgAn 1895 advertisement for a weight

gain product.
At the turn of the century, there were few career choices for women in business; however,
advertising was one of the few. Since women were responsible for most of the purchasing done
in their household, advertisers and agencies recognized the value of women's insight during the
creative process. In fact, the first American advertising to use a sexual sell was created by a
woman – for a soap product. Although tame by today's standards, the advertisement featured a
couple with the message "The skin you love to touch".[4]
In the early 1920s, the first radio stations were established by radio equipment manufacturers and
retailers who offered programs in order to sell more radios to consumers. As time passed, many
non-profit organizations followed suit in setting up their own radio stations, and included:
schools, clubs and civic groups.[5] When the practice of sponsoring programs was popularised,
each individual radio program was usually sponsored by a single business in exchange for a brief
mention of the business' name at the beginning and end of the sponsored shows. However, radio
station owners soon realised they could earn more money by selling sponsorship rights in small
time allocations to multiple businesses throughout their radio station's broadcasts, rather than
selling the sponsorship rights to single businesses per show./wiki/File:Ad_Encyclopaedia-
Britannica_05-1913.jpg

/wiki/File:Ad_Encyclopaedia-Britannica_05-1913.jpg
/wiki/File:Ad_Encyclopaedia-Britannica_05-1913.jpgA print advertisement for the
1913 issue of the Encyclopædia Britannica
This practice was carried over to television in the late 1940s and early 1950s. A fierce battle was
fought between those seeking to commercialise the radio and people who argued that the radio
spectrum should be considered a part of the commons – to be used only non-commercially and
for the public good. The United Kingdom pursued a public funding model for the BBC,
originally a private company, the British Broadcasting Company, but incorporated as a public
body by Royal Charter in 1927. In Canada, advocates like Graham Spry were likewise able to
persuade the federal government to adopt a public funding model, creating the Canadian
Broadcasting Corporation. However, in the United States, the capitalist model prevailed with the
passage of the Communications Act of 1934 which created the Federal Communications
Commission.[5] However, the U.S. Congress did require commercial broadcasters to operate in
the "public interest, convenience, and necessity".[6] Public broadcasting now exists in the United
States due to the 1967 Public Broadcasting Act which led to the Public Broadcasting Service and
National Public Radio.
In the early 1950s, the DuMont Television Network began the modern practice of selling
advertisement time to multiple sponsors. Previously, DuMont had trouble finding sponsors for
many of their programs and compensated by selling smaller blocks of advertising time to several
businesses. This eventually became the standard for the commercial television industry in the
United States. However, it was still a common practice to have single sponsor shows, such as
The United States Steel Hour. In some instances the sponsors exercised great control over the
content of the show—up to and including having one's advertising agency actually writing the
show. The single sponsor model is much less prevalent now, a notable exception being the
Hallmark Hall of Fame.
The 1960s saw advertising transform into a modern approach in which creativity was allowed to
shine, producing unexpected messages that made advertisements more tempting to consumers'
eyes. The Volkswagen ad campaign—featuring such headlines as "Think Small" and "Lemon"
(which were used to describe the appearance of the car)—ushered in the era of modern
advertising by promoting a "position" or "unique selling proposition" designed to associate each
brand with a specific idea in the reader or viewer's mind. This period of American advertising is
called the Creative Revolution and its archetype was William Bernbach who helped create the
revolutionary Volkswagen ads among others. Some of the most creative and long-standing
American advertising dates to this period.
The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the introduction of cable television and particularly MTV.
Pioneering the concept of the music video, MTV ushered in a new type of advertising: the
consumer tunes in for the advertising message, rather than it being a by-product or afterthought.
As cable and satellite television became increasingly prevalent, specialty channels emerged,
including channels entirely devoted to advertising, such as QVC, Home Shopping Network, and
ShopTV Canada.
Marketing through the Internet opened new frontiers for advertisers and contributed to the "dot-
com" boom of the 1990s. Entire corporations operated solely on advertising revenue, offering
everything from coupons to free Internet access. At the turn of the 21st century, a number of
websites including the search engine Google, started a change in online advertising by
emphasizing contextually relevant, unobtrusive ads intended to help, rather than inundate, users.
This has led to a plethora of similar efforts and an increasing trend of interactive advertising.
The share of advertising spending relative to GDP has changed little across large changes in
media. For example, in the US in 1925, the main advertising media were newspapers, magazines,
signs on streetcars, and outdoor posters. Advertising spending as a share of GDP was about 2.9
percent. By 1998, television and radio had become major advertising media. Nonetheless,
advertising spending as a share of GDP was slightly lower—about 2.4 percent.[7]
A recent advertising innovation is "guerrilla marketing", which involve unusual approaches such
as staged encounters in public places, giveaways of products such as cars that are covered with
brand messages, and interactive advertising where the viewer can respond to become part of the
advertising message.Guerrilla advertising is becoming increasing more popular with a lot of
companies. This type of advertising is unpredictable and innovative, which causes consumers to
buy the product or idea. This reflects an increasing trend of interactive and "embedded" ads, such
as via product placement, having consumers vote through text messages, and various innovations
utilizing social network services such as Facebook.

[edit] Public service advertising

The same advertising techniques used to promote commercial goods and services can be used to
inform, educate and motivate the public about non-commercial issues, such as HIV/AIDS,
political ideology, energy conservation and deforestation.
Advertising, in its non-commercial guise, is a powerful educational tool capable of reaching and
motivating large audiences. "Advertising justifies its existence when used in the public interest—
it is much too powerful a tool to use solely for commercial purposes." Attributed to Howard
Gossage by David Ogilvy.
Public service advertising, non-commercial advertising, public interest advertising, cause
marketing, and social marketing are different terms for (or aspects of) the use of sophisticated
advertising and marketing communications techniques (generally associated with commercial
enterprise) on behalf of non-commercial, public interest issues and initiatives.
In the United States, the granting of television and radio licenses by the FCC is contingent upon
the station broadcasting a certain amount of public service advertising. To meet these
requirements, many broadcast stations in America air the bulk of their required public service
announcements during the late night or early morning when the smallest percentage of viewers
are watching, leaving more day and prime time commercial slots available for high-paying
advertisers.
Public service advertising reached its height during World Wars I and II under the direction of
more than one government. During WWII President Roosevelt commissioned the creation of The
War Advertising Council (now known as the Ad Council) which is the nations largest developer
of PSA campaigns on behalf of government agencies and non-profit organizations.

[edit] Marketing mix

The marketing mix has been the key concept to advertising. The marketing mix was suggested
by Jeremy McCarthy, professor at Harvard Business School, in the 1960s. The marketing mix
consists of four basic elements called the four P’s Product is the first P representing the actual
product. Price represents the process of determining the value of a product. Place represents the
variables of getting the product to the consumer like distribution channels, market coverage and
movement organization. The last P stands for Promotion which is the process of reaching the
target market and convincing them to go out and buy the product.Geana, Mugur Valentin.[8]

Types of advertising/wiki/File:Advertisingman.jpg
/wiki/File:Advertisingman.jpg /wiki/File:Advertisingman.jpgPaying people to hold
signs is one of the oldest forms of advertising, as with this Human billboard pictured above
Virtually any medium can be used for advertising. Commercial advertising media can include
wall paintings, billboards, street furniture components, printed flyers and rack cards, radio,
cinema and television adverts, web banners, mobile telephone screens, shopping carts, web
popups, skywriting, bus stop benches, human billboards, magazines, newspapers, town criers,
sides of buses, banners attached to or sides of airplanes ("logojets"), in-flight advertisements on
seatback tray tables or overhead storage bins, taxicab doors, roof mounts and passenger screens,
musical stage shows, subway platforms and trains, elastic bands on disposable diapers,doors of
bathroom stalls,stickers on apples in supermarkets, shopping cart handles (grabertising), the
opening section of streaming audio and video, posters, and the backs of event tickets and
supermarket receipts. Any place an "identified" sponsor pays to deliver their message through a
medium is advertising.

[edit] Digital advertising

Television advertising / Music in advertising
The TV commercial is generally considered the most effective mass-market advertising
format, as is reflected by the high prices TV networks charge for commercial airtime during
popular TV events. The annual Super Bowl football game in the United States is known as
the most prominent advertising event on television. The average cost of a single thirty-second
TV spot during this game has reached US$3 million (as of 2009). The majority of television
commercials feature a song or jingle that listeners soon relate to the product. Virtual
advertisements may be inserted into regular television programming through computer
graphics. It is typically inserted into otherwise blank backdrops[9] or used to replace local
billboards that are not relevant to the remote broadcast audience.[10] More controversially,
virtual billboards may be inserted into the background[11] where none exist in real-life. This
technique is especially used in televised sporting events[12] [13] Virtual product placement
is also possible.; Infomercials: An infomercial is a long-format television commercial,
typically five minutes or longer. The word "infomercial" combining the words "information"
& "commercial". The main objective in an infomercial is to create an impulse purchase, so
that the consumer sees the presentation and then immediately buys the product through the
advertised toll-free telephone number or website. Infomercials describe, display, and often
demonstrate products and their features, and commonly have testimonials from consumers
and industry professionals.
Radio advertising
Radio advertising is a form of advertising via the medium of radio. Radio advertisements are
broadcast as radio waves to the air from a transmitter to an antenna and a thus to a receiving
device. Airtime is purchased from a station or network in exchange for airing the
commercials. While radio has the obvious limitation of being restricted to sound, proponents
of radio advertising often cite this as an advantage.
Online advertising
Online advertising is a form of promotion that uses the Internet and World Wide Web for the
expressed purpose of delivering marketing messages to attract customers. Examples of online
advertising include contextual ads that appear on search engine results pages, banner ads, in
 text ads, Rich Media Ads, Social network advertising, online classified advertising,
advertising networks and e-mail marketing, including e-mail spam.
Product placements
Covert advertising, also known as guerrilla advertising, is when a product or brand is
embedded in entertainment and media. For example, in a film, the main character can use an
item or other of a definite brand, as in the movie Minority Report, where Tom Cruise's
character John Anderton owns a phone with the Nokia logo clearly written in the top corner,
or his watch engraved with the Bulgari logo. Another example of advertising in film is in I,
Robot, where main character played by Will Smith mentions his Converse shoes several
times, calling them "classics," because the film is set far in the future. I, Robot and
Spaceballs also showcase futuristic cars with the Audi and Mercedes-Benz logos clearly
displayed on the front of the vehicles. Cadillac chose to advertise in the movie The Matrix
Reloaded, which as a result contained many scenes in which Cadillac cars were used.
Similarly, product placement for Omega Watches, Ford, VAIO, BMW and Aston Martin cars
are featured in recent James Bond films, most notably Casino Royale. In "Fantastic Four:
Rise of the Silver Surfer", the main transport vehicle shows a large Dodge logo on the front.
Blade Runner includes some of the most obvious product placement; the whole film stops to
show a Coca-Cola billboard.

[edit] Physical advertising

Press advertising
Press advertising describes advertising in a printed medium such as a newspaper, magazine,
or trade journal. This encompasses everything from media with a very broad readership base,
such as a major national newspaper or magazine, to more narrowly targeted media such as
local newspapers and trade journals on very specialized topics. A form of press advertising is
classified advertising, which allows private individuals or companies to purchase a small,
narrowly targeted ad for a low fee advertising a product or service. Another form of press
advertising is the Display Ad, which is a larger ad (can include art) that typically run in an
article section of a newspaper.
Billboard advertising: Billboards are large structures located in public places which display
advertisements to passing pedestrians and motorists. Most often, they are located on main
roads with a large amount of passing motor and pedestrian traffic; however, they can be
placed in any location with large amounts of viewers, such as on mass transit vehicles and in
stations, in shopping malls or office buildings, and in stadiums.
/wiki/File:Redeye_Sailboat.jpg
/wiki/File:Redeye_Sailboat.jpg

/wiki/File:Redeye_Sailboat.jpg /wiki/File:Redeye_Sailboat.jpgThe RedEye

newspaper advertised to its target market at North Avenue Beach with a sailboat billboard on
Lake Michigan.
Mobile billboard advertising
Mobile billboards are generally vehicle mounted billboards or digital screens. These can be
on dedicated vehicles built solely for carrying advertisements along routes preselected by
clients, they can also be specially equipped cargo trucks or, in some cases, large banners
strewn from planes. The billboards are often lighted; some being backlit, and others
employing spotlights. Some billboard displays are static, while others change; for example,
continuously or periodically rotating among a set of advertisements. Mobile displays are used
for various situations in metropolitan areas throughout the world, including: Target
advertising, One-day, and long-term campaigns, Conventions, Sporting events, Store
openings and similar promotional events, and Big advertisements from smaller companies.
In-store advertising
In-store advertising is any advertisement placed in a retail store. It includes placement of a
product in visible locations in a store, such as at eye level, at the ends of aisles and near
checkout counters, eye-catching displays promoting a specific product, and advertisements in
such places as shopping carts and in-store video displays.
Coffee cup advertising
Coffee cup advertising is any advertisement placed upon a coffee cup that is distributed out
of an office, café, or drive-through coffee shop. This form of advertising was first
popularized in Australia, and has begun growing in popularity in the United States, India, and
parts of the Middle East.[citation needed]
Celebrity branding
This type of advertising focuses upon using celebrity power, fame, money, popularity to gain
recognition for their products and promote specific stores or products. Advertisers often
advertise their products, for example, when celebrities share their favorite products or wear
clothes by specific brands or designers. Celebrities are often involved in advertising
campaigns such as television or print adverts to advertise specific or general products. The
use of celebrities to endorse a brand can have its downsides, however. One mistake by a
celebrity can be detrimental to the public relations of a brand. For example, following his
performance of eight gold medals at the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing, China, swimmer
Michael Phelps' contract with Kellogg's was terminated, as Kellogg's did not want to
associate with him after he was photographed smoking marijuana.

[edit] Sales promotions

Sales promotions are another way to advertise. Sales promotions are double purposed because
they are used to gather information about what type of customers you draw in and where they
are, and to jumpstart sales. Sales promotions include things like contests and games,
sweepstakes, product giveaways, samples coupons, loyalty programs, and discounts. The
ultimate goal of sales promotions is to stimulate potential customers to action. [16]

[edit] Media and advertising approaches

Increasingly, other media are overtaking many of the "traditional" media such as television, radio
and newspaper because of a shift toward consumer's usage of the Internet for news and music as
well as devices like digital video recorders (DVRs) such as TiVo.
Advertising on the World Wide Web is a recent phenomenon. Prices of Web-based advertising
space are dependent on the "relevance" of the surrounding web content and the traffic that the
website receives.
Digital signage is poised to become a major mass media because of its ability to reach larger
audiences for less money. Digital signage also offer the unique ability to see the target audience
where they are reached by the medium. Technological advances have also made it possible to
control the message on digital signage with much precision, enabling the messages to be relevant
to the target audience at any given time and location which in turn, gets more response from the
advertising. Digital signage is being successfully employed in supermarkets.[17] Another
successful use of digital signage is in hospitality locations such as restaurants.[18] and malls.[19]
E-mail advertising is another recent phenomenon. Unsolicited bulk E-mail advertising is known
as "e-mail spam". Spam has been a problem for email users for many years.
Some companies have proposed placing messages or corporate logos on the side of booster
rockets and the International Space Station. Controversy exists on the effectiveness of subliminal
advertising (see mind control), and the pervasiveness of mass messages (see propaganda).
Unpaid advertising (also called "publicity advertising"), can provide good exposure at minimal
cost. Personal recommendations ("bring a friend", "sell it"), spreading buzz, or achieving the feat
of equating a brand with a common noun (in the United States, "Xerox" = "photocopier",
"Kleenex" = tissue, "Vaseline" = petroleum jelly, "Hoover" = vacuum cleaner, "Nintendo" (often
used by those exposed to many video games) = video games, and "Band-Aid" = adhesive
bandage) — these can be seen as the pinnacle of any advertising campaign. However, some
companies oppose the use of their brand name to label an object. Equating a brand with a
common noun also risks turning that brand into a genericized trademark - turning it into a
generic term which means that its legal protection as a trademark is lost.
As the mobile phone became a new mass media in 1998 when the first paid downloadable
content appeared on mobile phones in Finland, it was only a matter of time until mobile
advertising followed, also first launched in Finland in 2000. By 2007 the value of mobile
advertising had reached $2.2 billion and providers such as Admob delivered billions of mobile
ads.
More advanced mobile ads include banner ads, coupons, Multimedia Messaging Service picture
and video messages, advergames and various engagement marketing campaigns. A particular
feature driving mobile ads is the 2D Barcode, which replaces the need to do any typing of web
addresses, and uses the camera feature of modern phones to gain immediate access to web
content. 83 percent of Japanese mobile phone users already are active users of 2D barcodes.
A new form of advertising that is growing rapidly is social network advertising. It is online
advertising with a focus on social networking sites. This is a relatively immature market, but it
has shown a lot of promise as advertisers are able to take advantage of the demographic
information the user has provided to the social networking site. Friendertising is a more precise
advertising term in which people are able to direct advertisements toward others directly using
social network service.
From time to time, The CW Television Network airs short programming breaks called "Content
Wraps," to advertise one company's product during an entire commercial break. The CW
pioneered "content wraps" and some products featured were Herbal Essences, Crest, Guitar Hero
II, CoverGirl, and recently Toyota.
Recently, there appeared a new promotion concept, "ARvertising", advertising on Augmented
Reality technology.

[edit] Current trends

[edit] Rise in new media
With the dawn of the Internet came many new advertising opportunities. Popup, Flash, banner,
Popunder, advergaming, and email advertisements (the last often being a form of spam) are now
commonplace. Particularly since the rise of "entertaining" advertising, some people may like an
advertisement enough to wish to watch it later or show a friend. In general, the advertising
community has not yet made this easy, although some have used the Internet to widely distribute
their ads to anyone willing to see or hear them. In the last three quarters of 2009 mobile and
internet advertising grew by 18.1% and 9.2% respectively. Older media advertising saw declines:
−10.1% (TV), −11.7% (radio), −14.8% (magazines) and −18.7% (newspapers ).[citation needed]
[edit] Niche marketing
Another significant trend regarding future of advertising is the growing importance of the niche
market using niche or targeted ads. Also brought about by the Internet and the theory of The
Long Tail, advertisers will have an increasing ability to reach specific audiences. In the past, the
most efficient way to deliver a message was to blanket the largest mass market audience
possible. However, usage tracking, customer profiles and the growing popularity of niche
content brought about by everything from blogs to social networking sites, provide advertisers
with audiences that are smaller but much better defined, leading to ads that are more relevant to
viewers and more effective for companies' marketing products. Among others, Comcast
Spotlight is one such advertiser employing this method in their video on demand menus. These
advertisements are targeted to a specific group and can be viewed by anyone wishing to find out
more about a particular business or practice at any time, right from their home. This causes the
viewer to become proactive and actually choose what advertisements they want to view.[20]

[edit] Crowdsourcing
The concept of crowdsourcing has given way to the trend of user-generated advertisements.
User-generated ads are created by consumers as opposed to an advertising agency or the
company themselves, most often they are a result of brand sponsored advertising competitions.
For the 2007 Super Bowl, the Frito-Lays division of PepsiCo held the Crash the Super Bowl
contest, allowing consumers to create their own Doritos commercial.[21] Chevrolet held a
similar competition for their Tahoe line of SUVs.[21] Due to the success of the Doritos user-
generated ads in the 2007 Super Bowl, Frito-Lays relaunched the competition for the 2009 and
2010 Super Bowl. The resulting ads were among the most-watched and most-liked Super Bowl
ads. In fact, the winning ad that aired in the 2009 Super Bowl was ranked by the USA Today
Super Bowl Ad Meter as the top ad for the year while the winning ads that aired in the 2010
Super Bowl were found by Nielsen's BuzzMetrics to be the "most buzzed-about".
This trend has given rise to several online platforms that host user-generated advertising
competitions on behalf of a company. Founded in 2007, Zooppa has launched ad competitions
for brands such as Google, Nike, Hershey’s, General Mills, Microsoft, NBC Universal, Zinio,
and Mini Cooper. Crowdsourced advertisements have gained popularity in part to its cost
effective nature, high consumer engagement, and ability to generate word-of-mouth. However, it
remains controversial, as the long-term impact on the advertising industry is still unclear.[24]

[edit] Global advertising

Advertising has gone through five major stages of development: domestic, export, international,
multi-national, and global. For global advertisers, there are four, potentially competing, business
objectives that must be balanced when developing worldwide advertising: building a brand while
speaking with one voice, developing economies of scale in the creative process, maximising
local effectiveness of ads, and increasing the company’s speed of implementation. Born from the
evolutionary stages of global marketing are the three primary and fundamentally different
approaches to the development of global advertising executions: exporting executions, producing
local executions, and importing ideas that travel.[25]
Advertising research is key to determining the success of an ad in any country or region. The
ability to identify which elements and/or moments of an ad that contributes to its success is how
economies of scale are maximised. Once one knows what works in an ad, that idea or ideas can
be imported by any other market. Market research measures, such as Flow of Attention, Flow of
Emotion and branding moments provide insight into what is working in an ad in any country or
region because the measures are based on the visual, not verbal, elements of the ad.[26]

[edit] Foreign public messaging

Foreign governments, particularly those that own marketable commercial products or services,
often promote their interests and positions through the advertising of those goods because the
target audience is not only largely unaware of the forum as vehicle for foreign messaging but
also willing to receive the message while in a mental state of absorbing information from
advertisements during television commercial breaks, while reading a periodical, or while passing
by billboards in public spaces. A prime example of this messaging technique is advertising
campaigns to promote international travel. While advertising foreign destinations and services
may stem from the typical goal of increasing revenue by drawing more tourism, some travel
campaigns carry the additional or alternative intended purpose of promoting good sentiments or
improving existing ones among the target audience towards a given nation or region. It is
common for advertising promoting foreign countries to be produced and distributed by the
tourism ministries of those countries, so these ads often carry political statements and/or
depictions of the foreign government's desired international public perception. Additionally, a
wide range of foreign airlines and travel-related services which advertise separately from the
destinations, themselves, are owned by their respective governments; examples include, though
are not limited to, the Emirates airline (Dubai), Singapore Airlines (Singapore), Qatar Airways
(Qatar), China Airlines (Taiwan/Republic of China), and Air China (People's Republic of China).
By depicting their destinations, airlines, and other services in a favorable and pleasant light,
countries market themselves to populations abroad in a manner that could mitigate prior public
impressions. See: Soft Power

•See also: International Travel Advertising

[edit] Diversification
In the realm of advertising agencies, continued industry diversification has seen observers note
that “big global clients don't need big global agencies any more”.[27] This is reflected by the
growth of non-traditional agencies in various global markets, such as Canadian business TAXI
and SMART in Australia and has been referred to as "a revolution in the ad world".[28]

[edit] New technology

The ability to record shows on digital video recorders (such as TiVo) allow users to record the
programs for later viewing, enabling them to fast forward through commercials. Additionally, as
more seasons of pre-recorded box sets are offered for sale of television programs; fewer people
watch the shows on TV. However, the fact that these sets are sold, means the company will
receive additional profits from the sales of these sets. To counter this effect, many advertisers
have opted for product placement on TV shows like Survivor.
[edit] Advertising education
Advertising education has become widely popular with bachelor, master and doctorate degrees
becoming available in the emphasis. A surge in advertising interest is typically attributed to the
strong relationship advertising plays in cultural and technological changes, such as the advance
of online social networking. A unique model for teaching advertising is the student-run
advertising agency, where advertising students create campaigns for real companies.[29]
Organizations such as American Advertising Federation and AdU Network partner established
companies with students to create these campaigns.

[edit] Criticisms
Main article: Criticism of advertising
While advertising can be seen as necessary for economic growth, it is not without social costs.
Unsolicited Commercial Email and other forms of spam have become so prevalent as to have
become a major nuisance to users of these services, as well as being a financial burden on
internet service providers.[30] Advertising is increasingly invading public spaces, such as
schools, which some critics argue is a form of child exploitation.[31] In addition, advertising
frequently uses psychological pressure (for example, appealing to feelings of inadequacy) on the
intended consumer, which may be harmful.

[edit] Regulation
Main article: Advertising regulation
In the US many communities believe that many forms of outdoor advertising blight the public
realm.[32] As long ago as the 1960s in the US there were attempts to ban billboard advertising in
the open countryside.[33] Cities such as São Paulo have introduced an outright ban[34] with
London also having specific legislation to control unlawful displays.
There have been increasing efforts to protect the public interest by regulating the content and the
influence of advertising. Some examples are: the ban on television tobacco advertising imposed
in many countries, and the total ban of advertising to children under 12 imposed by the Swedish
government in 1991. Though that regulation continues in effect for broadcasts originating within
the country, it has been weakened by the European Court of Justice, which had found that
Sweden was obliged to accept foreign programming, including those from neighboring countries
or via satellite. Greece’s regulations are of a similar nature, “banning advertisements for
children's toys between 7 am and 10 pm and a total ban on advertisement for war toys".[35]
In Europe and elsewhere, there is a vigorous debate on whether (or how much) advertising to
children should be regulated. This debate was exacerbated by a report released by the Kaiser
Family Foundation in February 2004 which suggested fast food advertising that targets children
was an important factor in the epidemic of childhood obesity in the United States.
In New Zealand, South Africa, Canada, and many European countries, the advertising industry
operates a system of self-regulation. Advertisers, advertising agencies and the media agree on a
code of advertising standards that they attempt to uphold. The general aim of such codes is to
ensure that any advertising is 'legal, decent, honest and truthful'. Some self-regulatory
organizations are funded by the industry, but remain independent, with the intent of upholding
the standards or codes like the Advertising Standards Authority in the UK.
In the UK most forms of outdoor advertising such as the display of billboards is regulated by the
UK Town and County Planning system. Currently the display of an advertisement without
consent from the Planning Authority is a criminal offense liable to a fine of £2,500 per offence.
All of the major outdoor billboard companies in the UK have convictions of this nature.
Naturally, many advertisers view governmental regulation or even self-regulation as intrusion of
their freedom of speech or a necessary evil. Therefore, they employ a wide-variety of linguistic
devices to bypass regulatory laws (e.g. printing English words in bold and French translations in
fine print to deal with the Article 120 of the 1994 Toubon Law limiting the use of English in
French advertising).[36] The advertisement of controversial products such as cigarettes and
condoms are subject to government regulation in many countries. For instance, the tobacco
industry is required by law in most countries to display warnings cautioning consumers about the
health hazards of their products. Linguistic variation is often used by advertisers as a creative
device to reduce the impact of such requirements.