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Heat Transfer
Mechanisms
Lecture 2 – ME 426B – Heat Transfer

Heat Transfer Mechanisms

• Heat can be transferred in three different modes;
• Conduction
• Convection
• Radiation
• All modes require the EXISTENCE of TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE.
• All modes are from the HIGH-TEMPERATURE MEDIUM to a LOWER-
TEMPERATURE ONE.

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Conduction
• Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic
particles of a substance to the adjacent less energetic ones as a result
of interactions between the particles.
• Conduction can take place in solids, liquids, or gases.
• SOLIDS. In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of the
molecules in a lattice and the energy transport by free electrons.
• LIQUIDS or GASES. due to the collisions and diffusion of the
molecules during their random motion.

Conduction

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Conduction Heat Transfer

• The RATE OF HEAT
CONDUCTION through a
medium depends on the
ff:
• GEOMETRY of the
medium,
• THICKNESS of the
medium
• MATERIAL of the
medium
• TEMPERATURE
DIFFERENCE across the
medium.

Conduction Heat Transfer

• 𝑄 is doubled when
• TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE
is doubled.
• AREA normal to the
direction of heat transfer is
doubled.
• 𝑄 is halved when
• WALL THICKNESS (∆𝒙 = 𝑳)
is doubled

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Conduction Heat Transfer

• Where:
• 𝑘 − 𝑇𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦, measure of the ability
of a material to conduct heat
• 𝑇1 − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
• 𝑇2 − 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
• ∆𝑥 = 𝐿 − 𝑡𝑕𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠

Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction

• In the limiting case of ∆x →0, the equation reduces
to the differential form:

• dT/dx is the temperature gradient, which is the

SLOPE of the temperature curve on a T-x diagram
(the rate of change of T with x), at location x.
• Heat is conducted in the direction of decreasing
temperature, and the temperature gradient
becomes negative when temperature decreases
with increasing x.

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Conduction Heat Transfer

SPECIFIC HEAT AND THERMAL

CONDUCTIVITY
• Specific Heat. A measure of a material’s ability
to store heat
• Thermal Conductivity. Measure of a material
to conduct heat

𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝐶𝑃 = 0.45 𝐶𝑃 = 4.187
𝑘𝑔 −0 𝐶 𝑘𝑔 −0 𝐶

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SPECIFIC HEAT AND THERMAL

CONDUCTIVITY
• Specific Heat. A measure of a material’s ability
to store heat
• Thermal Conductivity. Measure of a material
to conduct heat

𝑊 𝑊
𝑘 = 80.2 𝑘 = 0.613
𝑚 −0 𝐶 𝑚 −0 𝐶

Thermal Conductivity

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Thermal Conductivity

Thermal Diffusivity
• The product 𝝆Cp, which is frequently encountered in heat transfer analysis,
is called the heat capacity of a material.
• Both the specific heat Cp, expressed in per unit MASS, and the heat capacity
𝝆Cp, expressed in per unit VOLUME represent the heat storage capability of
a material.
𝑱 𝑱
• 𝑪𝒑 is expressed in while 𝝆𝑪𝒑 is expressed in
𝒌𝒈−𝟎 𝑪 𝒎 𝟑 −𝟎 𝑪
• Thermal diffusivity, which represents how fast heat diffuses through a
material and is defined as

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Thermal Diffusivity
• The larger the thermal diffusivity, the faster the
propagation of heat into the medium.
• A small value of thermal diffusivity means that heat
is mostly absorbed by the material and a small
amount of heat will be conducted further.

Conversion of SI to ENGLISH:
• An engineer who is working on the heat transfer analysis of a brick
building in English units needs the thermal conductivity of brick. But
the only value he can find from his handbooks is 0.72 W/m · °C, which
is in SI units. To make matters worse, the engineer does not have a
direct conversion factor between the two unit systems for thermal
conductivity. Can you help him out?

CHANGE IN TEMPERATURE
CONVERSION:

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Convection
• Convection is the mode of energy transfer between a solid surface
and the adjacent liquid or gas that is in motion, and it involves the
combined effects of CONDUCTION and FLUID MOTION.

Convection
• Convection is the mode of energy transfer
between a solid surface and the adjacent
liquid or gas that is in motion, and it involves
the combined effects of CONDUCTION and
FLUID MOTION.
• The FASTER the FLUID MOTION, the GREATER
the CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER.
• In the absence of any bulk fluid motion, heat
transfer between a solid surface and the
adjacent fluid is by pure conduction.
• The presence of bulk motion of the fluid
enhances the heat transfer between the solid
surface and the fluid

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Convection

Convection
• Forced Convection. If the fluid
is forced to flow over the
surface by external means
such as a fan, pump, or the
wind.
• Natural (or free) convection.
If the fluid motion is caused
by buoyancy forces that are
induced by density differences
due to the variation of
temperature in the fluid.

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Convection Formula:
• Despite the complexity of convection, the rate of convection heat transfer is
observed to be proportional to the temperature difference, and is conveniently
expressed by Newton’s law of cooling as:

• Where:
𝑊 𝐵𝑡𝑢
• 𝑕 − 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑟 ,
𝑚2 · °𝐶 ℎ · 𝑓𝑡2 · °𝐹
• 𝐴𝑠 − 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑡𝑕𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔𝑕 𝑤𝑕𝑖𝑐𝑕 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠
• 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
• 𝑇∞ − the temperature of the fluid sufficiently far from the surface.

Thermal Coefficient
• The convection heat transfer coefficient
h is not a property of the fluid.
• It is an experimentally determined
parameter whose value depends on all
the variables influencing convection such
as:
• Surface geometry,
• The nature of fluid motion,
• the properties of the fluid,
• and the bulk fluid velocity.

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Radiation
• Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form of
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES (or photons) as a result of the changes in
the electronic configurations of the atoms or molecules.
• Unlike conduction and convection, the transfer of energy by radiation
does not require the presence of an intervening medium.
• Energy transfer by radiation is fastest (at the speed of light) and it
suffers no attenuation in a vacuum.

Radiation
• In heat transfer studies we are interested in
THERMAL RADIATION, which is the form of
radiation emitted by bodies because of their
temperature.
• All bodies at a temperature above absolute
zero emit thermal radiation.
• Radiation is a VOLUMETRIC PHENOMENON,
and all solids, liquids, and gases emit, absorb,
or transmit radiation to varying degrees.
• However, radiation is usually considered to be
a SURFACE PHENOMENON for solids that are
opaque to thermal radiation such as metals,
wood, and rocks.

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Radiation Heat Transfer Formula

• The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted from a surface at an
absolute temperature Ts (in K or R) is given by the Stefan–Boltzmann law

𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝜎 − 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑓𝑎𝑛 − 𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝐴𝑠 − 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑇𝑆 − 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
• The idealized surface that emits radiation at this maximum rate is called a
blackbody and the radiation emitted by a blackbody is called blackbody
radiation.

Radiation Heat Transfer Formula

• The radiation emitted by all real surfaces is
less than the radiation emitted by a
blackbody at the same temperature

Where:
• 𝜖 − 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒,
• The property emissivity, whose value is in
the range 0 ≤ 𝜖 ≤ 1, is a measure of how
closely a surface approximates a blackbody
for which 𝜖 = 1.

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Emissivity
• Emissivity is measured with the use of an Emissivity Measurement
Apparatus.
𝑽𝑰𝑩𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒌 − 𝑽𝑰𝑻𝒆𝒔𝒕 = 𝝐𝑩𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒌 − 𝝐𝑻𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝝈𝑨(𝑻𝒔 − 𝑻𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒓 )

Absorptivity
• Absorptivity. The fraction of the radiation energy incident on a surface that is
absorbed by the surface. Like emissivity, its value is in the range 0 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 1. A
blackbody absorbs the entire radiation incident on it. That is, a blackbody is a
perfect absorber 𝛼 = 1 as it is a perfect emitter.
• In general, both 𝜖 and 𝛼 of a surface depend on the temperature and the
wavelength of the radiation.
• Kirchhoff’s law of radiation states that the emissivity and the absorptivity of a
surface at a given temperature and wavelength are equal.

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Incident, Absorptivity and Reflectivity

Incident, Absorptivity and Reflectivity

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Radiation Emitted and Radiation

Absorbed

Radiation Heat Transfer

• The net rate of heat transfer by
radiation between two surfaces
is a complicated matter since it
depends on the following:
• Properties of the surfaces,

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Radiation Heat Transfer

• The net rate of heat transfer by
radiation between two surfaces
is a complicated matter since it
depends on the following:
• Properties of the surfaces,
• Their orientation relative to
each other,
• Interaction of the medium
between the surfaces with
radiation.

Radiation Heat Transfer

• When a surface of emissivity (𝜖) and
surface area As at an absolute
temperature Ts is completely enclosed by
a much larger (or black) surface at
absolute temperature Tsurr separated by
a gas (such as air) that does not intervene
with radiation, the net rate of radiation
heat transfer between these two surfaces
is given by:

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Combined Heat Transfer Coefficient

• Radiation heat transfer to or from a surface surrounded by a gas such
as air occurs parallel to conduction (or convection, if there is bulk gas
motion) between the surface and the gas.
• Thus the total heat transfer is determined by adding the contributions
of both heat transfer mechanisms. For simplicity and convenience,
this is often done by defining a combined heat transfer coefficient
𝒉𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 .

Combined Heat Transfer Coefficient

• Note that the combined heat transfer coefficient is essentially a
convection heat transfer coefficient modified to include the effects of
radiation.

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Combined Heat Transfer Coefficient

• Note that the combined heat transfer coefficient is essentially a
convection heat transfer coefficient modified to include the effects of
radiation.

Simultaneous Heat Transfer

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Modes of Heat Transfer

Problems
Heat and Mass Transfer

Example Problem 1:
• The roof of an electrically heated
home is 6 m long, 8 m wide, and 0.25
m thick, and is made of a flat layer of
concrete whose thermal conductivity
is k=0.8 W/m · °C The temperatures
of the inner and the outer surfaces of
the roof one night are measured to
be 15°C and 4°C, respectively, for a
period of 10 hours. Determine (a)
the rate of heat loss through the roof
that night and (b) the cost of that
heat loss to the home owner if the
cost of electricity is $0.08/kWh.

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Example Problem 2:
• Consider steady heat transfer between two
large parallel plates at constant
temperatures of T1 = 300K and T2 = 200K that
are L=1 cm apart, as shown. Assuming the
surfaces to be black (emissivity𝜖 = 1),
determine the rate of heat transfer between
the plates per unit surface area assuming the
gap between the plates is (a) filled with
atmospheric air, (b) evacuated (vacuum), (c)
filled with urethane insulation, and (d) filled
with superinsulation.
• Thermal Conductivities:
• 0.0219 W/m · °C for air
• 0.026 W/m · °C for urethane insulation
• 0.00002 W/m · °C for the superinsulation.

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Example Problem 3:
• A thin metal plate is insulated on the back
and exposed to solar radiation at the
front surface. The exposed surface of the
plate has an absorptivity of 0.6 for solar
radiation. If solar radiation is incident on
the plate at a rate of 700 W/m2 and the
surrounding air temperature is 25°C,
determine the surface temperature of the
plate when the heat loss by convection
and radiation equals the solar energy
absorbed by the plate. Assume the
combined convection and radiation heat
transfer coefficient to be 50 W/m2 · °C.

Example Problem 4:
• The inner and outer surfaces of a 5-m x 6-
m brick wall of thickness 30 cm and
thermal conductivity 0.69 W/m · °C are
maintained at temperatures of 20°C and
5°C, respectively. Determine the rate of
heat transfer through the wall, in W.

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Example Problem 5:
• The inner and outer surfaces of a 0.5-cm-
thick 2-m x 2-m window glass in winter
are 10°C and 3°C, respectively. If the
thermal conductivity of the glass is 0.78
W/m · °C, determine the amount of heat
loss, in kJ, through the glass over a period
of 5 hours. What would your answer be if
the glass were 1 cm thick?

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