Outline:

 Definition of DC generator/DC motor

 Principle of working
 Induced Emf/ Induced Torque Equation
 Constructional Details
 Equivalent Circuits of DC generators/motors
 Types of DC generators/motors
 Performance Evaluation of DC machines

2
 Direct Current (DC) Machines Fundamentals
 Generator action: An emf (voltage) is induced in a
conductor if it moves through a magnetic field.
 Motor action: A force is induced in a conductor that
has a current going through it and placed in a
magnetic field.
 Any DC machine can act either as a generator or as a
motor.

3
 Outline:
 Definition of DC generator/DC motor
 Principle of working
 Induced Emf/ Induced Torque Equation
 Constructional Details
 Equivalent Circuits of DC generators/motors
 Types of DC generators/motors
 Performance Evaluation of DC machines

4
DC Generator:

5
DC Motor:

6
 Outline:
 Definition of DC generator/DC motor
 Principle of working
 Induced Emf/ Induced Torque Equation
 Constructional Details
 Equivalent Circuits of DC generators/motors
 Types of DC generators/motors
 Performance Evaluation of DC machines

7
DC Generator:

8
DC Motor:

9
 Outline:
 Definition of DC generator/DC motor
 Principle of working
 Induced Emf/ Induced Torque Equation
 Constructional Details
 Equivalent Circuits of DC generators/motors
 Types of DC generators/motors
 Performance Evaluation of DC machines

10
 DC Machines Analysis
Symbols that will be used.

 = flux per pole

p = no. of poles
z = total number of active conductors on the armature
a = no. of parallel paths in the armature winding

n = speed of rotation of the armature in rpm

wm = speed in radians per second

11
 The Internal Generated Voltage Equations
Of Real Machines
The induced voltage in any given machine depends on
three factors:
 The flux Φ in the machine
 The speed ω of the machine's rotor
 A constant depending on the construction of the machine

The voltage out of a real machine = the number of conductors per current
path x the voltage on each conductor

12
 EMF Equation
When the rotor rotates in the field a voltage is developed in the
armature.

The flux cut by one conductor

in one rotation
 p
Therefore in n rotations, the
 np
flux cut by one conductor
np
The flux cut per second by one 
conductor 60
The number of conductors in z
series 
a

13
 EMF Equation

EMF induced in the

armature windings

14
 The Induce Torque Equations Of Real
Machines
The torque in any dc machine depends on three factors:
 The flux Φ in the machine
 The armature (or rotor) current IA in the machine
 A constant depending on the construction of the machine

The torque on the armature of a real machine =the

number of conductors Z x the torque on each conductor

15
 TORQUE EQUATION
EaIa=Tem - In the DC machine losses are
expressed as rotational losses
due to friction and windage (F&W).

- The torque equation can then be

rewritten as:-

SHAFT OUTPUT TORQUE = (Te -

TF&W)

16
 Outline:
 Definition of DC generator/DC motor
 Principle of working
 Induced Emf/ Induced Torque Equation
 Constructional Details
 Equivalent Circuits of DC generators/motors
 Types of DC generators/motors
 Performance Evaluation of DC machines

17
 Construction of DC
Machines

18
 Construction of DC Machines

19
 Features of DC Machine

Field Winding

20
 Construction of DC Machines
 Field system
 Armature core
 Armature
winding
 Commutator
 Brushes

21
 Field System

22
 Field system

It is for uniform magnetic field within which

the armature rotates.
Electromagnets are preferred in comparison
with permanent magnets
They are cheap , smaller in size , produce
greater magnetic effect and field strength
can be varied

23
 Field system consists of the
following parts
Yoke
Pole cores
Pole shoes
Field coils

24
 Armature core
 The armature core is cylindrical.
 High permeability silicon steel stampings.
 Lamination is to reduce the eddy current.
loss

25
 Armature winding

26
 Armature winding
There are 2 types of winding
Lap and Wave winding
• A=P • A=2

• It is meant for high • It is meant for low

current and low voltages. current output
and high voltages.
• The armature windings
• 2 brushes
are divided into number
of sections equal to the
number of poles.
27
 Commutator
• Connect with external circuit.
• Converts ac into unidirectional current.
• Cylindrical in shape .
• Made of wedge shaped copper segments.
• Segments are insulated from each other.
• Each commutator segment is connected to armature
conductors by means of a copper strip called riser.
• Number of segments equal to number of coils.

28
 Carbon brush
• Carbon brushes are used in DC
machines because they are soft
materials.
• It does not generate spikes when
they contact commutator.
• To deliver the current through
armature.
• Carbon is used for brushes
because it has negative
temperature coefficient of
resistance.
29
 DC Machine Equivalent
Circuits
1. Magnetic equivalent
circuit
2. Electrical equivalent
30
circuit
 1. Magnetic equivalent circuit
Flux-mmf relation in
a dc machine

DC machine Cross- DC machine Magnetic

sectional view equivalent circuit

31
 Electrical equivalent
circuit
DC Generator

32
 DC Generator Equivalent circuit
 The magnetic field produced by the stator poles induces a

voltage in the rotor (or armature) coils when the generator is

rotated.

 This induced voltage is represented by a voltage source.

 The stator coil has resistance, which is connected in series.

 The pole flux is produced by the DC excitation/field current,

which is magnetically coupled to the rotor

 The field circuit has resistance and a source

 The voltage drop on the brushes represented by a battery

33
 DC Generator Equivalent circuit
Vbrush
Rf Ra Load

Iag
Vf If Eag VT

Mechanical Electrical
power in power out

 Equivalent circuit of a separately excited dc generator.

34
 DC Generator Equivalent circuit
 The magnetic field produced by the stator poles
induces a voltage in the rotor (or armature) coils
when the generator is rotated.
 The dc field current of the poles generates a magnetic
flux
 The flux is proportional with the field current if the
iron core is not saturated:
  K1 I f
 The rotor conductors cut the field lines that generate
voltage in the coils.

Eag  Ka m
35
 DC Generator Equivalent circuit
 When the generator is loaded, the load current produces a

voltage drop on the rotor winding resistance.

 In addition, there is a more or less constant 1 to 3 V voltage

drop on the brushes.

 These two voltage drops reduce the terminal voltage of the

generator. The terminal voltage is;

Eag  VT  I ag Ra  Vbrush

36
 Electrical equivalent
circuit
DC Motor

37
 DC Motor Equivalent circuit
Vbrush Electrical
Rf Ra power in

DC Power
Vf If Iam VT
Eam supply

Mechanical
power out

 Equivalent circuit of a separately excited dc motor

 Equivalent circuit is similar to the generator only the current
directions are different

38
 DC Motor Equivalent circuit
 The operation equations are:
 Armature voltage equation

VT  Eam  I am Ra  Vbrush
The induced voltage and motor speed vs angular frequency

Eam  K a  m m  2  nm
The output power and torque are:
Pout
Pout  Eam I am T  K a I am
m

39
 Classification of DC
Machines

40
41
  Separately Excited DC Machine

Ra Ia +
+
VT
E

- -
a)
+
Field
E Armature

F F
-
42 b) Separately Excited
  Series & Shunt DC Machine
+

E Armature
Field

F F
-

c) Series

A
+

E Armature
Field

F F
-
A

43 d) Shunt
  Cumulative & Differential DC machine

A
+

e) Cummulative Compound S S E Armature

Field
-
F F A

A
+

S S E Armature
d) Differential Compound
-
F Field F
44 A
  Long Shunt & Short Shunt DC Machine

A
+

S S E Armature
f) Long Shunt
-
F Field F A

A
+

S S E Armature
g) Short Shunt
-
F Field F A

45
 Exercise Problems

46
 Exercise-1
A four-pole dc machine has an armature of radius 12.5 cm and an
effective length of 25cm. The poles cover 75 % of the armature
periphery. The armature winding consists of 33 coils, each having
seven turns. The coils are accommodated in 33 slots. The average
flux density under each pole is 0.75 T.
A. If the armature is lap wound, then
a) Determine the armature constant Ka.
b) Determine the induced armature voltage when the armature
rotates at 1000 rpm.
c) Determine the current in the coil and the electromagnetic torque
developed when the armature current is 400 A.
d) Determine the power developed by the armature.

B. If the armature is wave-wound, repeat parts (a) to (d) above. The

47
current rating of the coils remains the same as in the lap-wound.
 Exercise-2

A 12-pole dc generator has a simplex wave-wound armature

containing 144 coils of 10 turns each. The resistance of each turn is
0.011 Ω. Its flux per pole is 0.05 Wb, and the machine is running at a
speed of 200 r/min.
(a) How many current/parallel paths are there in this machine?
(b) What is the induced armature voltage of this machine?
(c) What is the effective armature resistance of this machine?
(d) If a 1 kΩ resistor is connected to the terminals of this generator,
Determine the power output and the induced counter-torque on
the shaft of this generator.

48
 4.3 DC Generators
1. Equivalent Circuits

2. Voltage, current &

power relations
3. Characteristics
49
 Separately excited DC
generator

50
  Separately Excited DC Generator
 The operation equations are:
 Stator or field side:
R f  R fw  R fc
Vf  I f Rf
 Armature voltage equation:
Ea  Vt  I a Ra  Vbrush
Ea  K a m
 Load or terminal equation: Power developed in the armature:
Vt  I t RL Pa  Pg  Ea I a
Power delivered to the load:
 Current equation:
I a  It PL  Pt  Vt I t  Vt I L
51
  Characteristics
 Performance of the DC generators
are determined by terminal output
parameter IL andVT
 By Kirchhoff's voltage law, the
terminal voltage is,
I a  It Vt  Ea  I a Ra  Vbrush Terminal characteristics of separately
excited DC generator
 Since the internal generated
voltage is independent of armature
current, the generator terminal
characteristics is a straight line.
 Due to the armature voltage drop,
the characteristics show drooping
nature.
52
 Shunt DC generator

53
  Shunt (Self-Excited) DC Generator
 The operation equations are:
 Stator or field side:
Vt
I sh 
Rsh
 Armature voltage equation:
Ea  Vt  I a Ra  Vbrush
Ea  K a m
Power developed in the armature:
 Load or terminal equation:
Pa  Pg  Ea I a
Vt  I t RL
Power delivered to the load:
 Current equation: I a  I L  I sh PL  Pt  Vt I t  Vt I L
54
  Characteristics
 By Kirchhoff's voltage law, the
terminal voltage is,
I a  I t  I sh
Vt  Ea  I a Ra  Vbrush
 Since the internal generated Terminal characteristics of shunt DC
generator
voltage is independent of
armature current, the
generator terminal
characteristics is a straight
line.
 Due to the armature voltage
drop, the characteristics show
drooping nature.
55
 Series DC generator

56
  Series (Self-Excited) DC Generator
 The operation equations are:
 Stator or field side:

I se  I a  I L  I t
 Armature voltage equation:
Ea  Vt  I a ( Ra  Rse )  Vbrush
Ea  K a m
 Load or terminal equation:
Power developed in the armature:
Vt  I t RL Pa  Pg  Ea I a
 Current equation: Power delivered to the load:
I a  It  I L PL  Pt  Vt I t  Vt I L
57
  Characteristics
 By Kirchhoff's voltage law, the
terminal voltage is,
I a  I t  I se
Vt  Ea  I a ( Ra  Rse )  Vbrush
 As the load increases, the field Terminal characteristics of series DC
generator
current rises, so EA rises rapidly The
 After a while, the machine approaches
IA (RA+Rs) drop goes up too, but at saturation, and EA becomes almost
first the increase in EA goes up constant. At that point, the resistive
more rapidly than the IA(RA+Rs) drop is the predominant effect, and VT
drop rises, soVr increases. starts to fall.

58
 Compound DC
generators
Short-Shunt generator
Long-Shunt generator

59
  Short Shunt DC Generator
 The operation equations are:
 Series field side:
I se  I L  I t
 Shunt field current
Vt  I se Rse
I sh 
Rsh
 Armature voltage equation:
Ea  Vt  I a Ra  I se Rse  Vbrush
Ea  K a m Power developed in the armature:
 Load or terminal equation: Pa  Pg  Ea I a
Vt  I t RL Power delivered to the load:

 Current equation: I a  I L  I sh PL  Pt  Vt I t  Vt I L
60
  Long Shunt DC Generator
 The operation equations are:
 Series field side:
I se  I a
 Shunt field current
Vt
I sh 
Rsh
 Armature voltage equation:
Ea  Vt  I a ( Ra  Rse )  Vbrush
Ea  K a m Power developed in the armature:
 Load or terminal equation: Pa  Pg  Ea I a
Vt  I t RL Power delivered to the load:

 Current equation: I a  I L  I sh PL  Pt  Vt I t  Vt I L
61
  Characteristics

62
 4.4 DC Motors

63
 Performance of DC
Machines

65
  DC Generator
 A DC generator is a machine that takes in mechanical input
power to produce electrical power output.
 The performance of a dc generator is assessed by means of the
following:
 Generator Efficiency:

Pout Pin   Losses Pout

  100   100   100
Pin Pin Pout   Losses

 Voltage Regulation:
Vt , NL  Vt , FL
VR  100
Vt , FL
66
  DC Motor:
 A DC motor is a machine that produces mechanical output
power from the applied electrical input.
 The performance of a dc motor is assessed by means of the
following:
 Motor Efficiency:

Pout Pin   Losses Pout

  100   100   100
Pin Pin Pout   Losses

 Speed Regulation:
nm , NL  nm , FL
SR  100
nm , FL
67
 Efficiency Calculations

Power Flow & Losses in

a DC Machine

68
 Losses in DC Machines
Variable Losses

Constant Losses

All these losses appear as heat and thus raise the temperature of the machine. They
also lower the efficiency of the machine.
69
 Electrical or Copper Losses (I2R Losses)
 These losses occur due to currents in the armature and
field windings of the dc machine.
Armature copper loss: PA  I a 2 Ra
Shunt field copper loss: Psh  I sh 2 Rsh
Series field copper loss: Pse  I se 2 Rse
 Brush Losses:
 There is also brush contact loss due to brush contact resistance (i.e.,
resistance between the surface of brush and surface of commutator). This
loss is generally included in armature copper loss.
 It can also be calculated explicitly by the following relation.

PBD  VBD I a
70
 Core or Iron Losses
 As iron core of the armature is continuously rotating in a magnetic field,
there are some losses taking place in the core. This loss consists of Hysteresis
loss and Eddy current loss.
Hysteresis loss:
 Hysteresis loss is due to reversal of magnetization of the armature core. When
the core passes under one pair of poles, it undergoes one complete cycle of
magnetic reversal. The frequency of magnetic reversal if given by, f=PN/120.
The loss that takes place due to repeated magnetization & demagnetization
of the iron core contributes to the hysteresis loss.
Eddy current loss:

When the armature core rotates in the magnetic field, an emf is also induced
in the core (just like it induces in armature conductors), according to
the Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. Though this induced emf is
small, it causes a large current to flow in the body due to low resistance of the
core. This current is known as eddy current. The power loss due to this
current is known as eddy current loss.

71
 Mechanical Losses
 The mechanical losses in a dc machine are the losses associated with

mechanical effects.

 These losses are due to friction and windage.

(i) friction loss e.g., bearing friction, brush friction etc.
(ii) windage loss i.e., air friction of rotating armature.

 These losses depend upon the speed of the machine. But for a given speed,

they are practically constant.

 Mechanical and core losses are together considered as rotational losses .

72
 The Power-Flow Diagram of DC Generator

73
 The Power-Flow Diagram of DC Motor

74
 Exercise Problems

75
 Exercise-1
A separately excited dc generator running at 1200 rpm & delivers
12kW at 240 V as terminal voltage. The armature resistance is 0.3
ohms. Each brush takes 1 V drop. Pmech=600 W, Pcore=300 W and
Pstray=200 W. The field circuit resistance is 200 ohms and DC field
voltage is 250 V.
a) Draw the equivalent circuit and the corresponding power
flow diagram.
b) Find the induced voltage.
c) Determine the converted or developed power and the
induced torque.
d) Find the efficiency of the machine.

76
 Exercise-2
A 220 V shunt DC motor has an armature resistance of 0.2 ohms and
a field resistance of 110 ohms. At no-load the motor runs at 1000
rpm and it draws a line current of 7 A. At full-load, the input to the
motor is 11 kW.
a) Draw the equivalent circuit.
b) Find the rotational losses.
c) Find the speed, speed regulation and developed torque at full
load.
d) Find the efficiency of the motor.

77
 Exercise-3
A short-shunt compound generator has armature, shunt field and series field
resistances of 0.5 Ω, 100 Ω, and 0.3 Ω respectively. When supplying a load
of 8 kW at a terminal voltage of 250 V the input power supplied by the
driving motor is 10.4 kW. Calculate
(a) The generated EMF
(b) The efficiency of the generator
(c) The iron, friction and windage loss
(d) The total fixed losses

78
 Exercise-4
A 250 V shunt dc motor draws an input current I L  75 A while driving a
1000
coupled mechanical load at a speed of m 
30
. Efficiency at the point
rad / sec

of operation is known to be 92%. Also, Ra  0.1 and R f  200 .

(a) Draw the equivalent circuit and the power flow diagram for the motor.
(b) Calculate the value of output power to the mechanical load.
(c) Determine the value of rotational losses at the point of operation.
(d) Find the value of developed torque.

79