6.

2 THE OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

An operational amplifier is a high-gain de amplifier with two inputs and one output. The output is
equal to the difference between the voltages on the two inputs multiplied by the gain of the amplifier. The
gain of different op amps ranges from 104 to 107, with 105 being a typical value. An op amp requires
both a positive and a negative voltage supply, labeled +Vce and – Vce, respectively. Two more inputs are
provided for offset null adjustments, bringing the total number of terminals to seven. Op amp come in
several different IC packages, including the popular eight-lead MINIDIP package.

The operating characteristics of an operational amplifier circuit depend almost entirely on

components external to the amplifier. The gain, input impedance, output impedance, and frequency
response depend on the external resistors and capacitors in the circuit, not on the gain, input impedance,
or output impedance of the amplifier. This means that the behavior of an op-amp circuit can be made to
fit a particular application by proper selection and placement of a few resistors and capacitors. Also, the
stability of these components can be selected to meet the requirements of the application . with this
versatility and ease of design, it is not hard to understand why the op amp has become such a popular
component in control systems.

Op amp Equivalent Circuit

Figure 6.1 shows the circuit symbol and an equivalent circuit of an operational amplifier. The two
inputs are called the inverting input and the non-inverting input. We will use the symbol v1 for the voltage
at the inverting input, v2 for the positive supply at the non-inverting input, vout for the voltage at the output
terminal. Vcc for the positive supply voltage, and –Vcc for the negative supply voltage. The currents of
interest are the current entering the inverting input, i1, the current entering the non-inverting input, i2, and
the current leaving the output terminal, iout , Notice that i1=-i2 , and we needed to define only one of the
two currents. However, it is useful in analyzing op-amp circuits to be able to refer to both i1 and i2.

Figure 6.1 Circuit symbol and equivalent circuit for an operational amplifier. Typical values for a 741 op-amp are Ri = 20MΩ ,
R0 = 75Ω . and A = 105. In many applications, the op-amp can be considered to be ideal, with Ri equivalent to an open circuit, R0
equal to zero, and A approaching infinity.
(pic 100)
Example 6.1
Determine the value of v2-v1 that will saturate an op-amp if the gain, A, is 105, and the supply voltages are
-20 V and +20V
Solution: The amplifier will saturate at 80% of the supply voltages, about -16V and +16V, At + 16V, the
difference is
16
v2 − v1 = = 0.16mV
105
At -16V, the difference is
−16
v2 − v1 = = −0.16mV
105
Ideal Op-Amp Model
Figure 6.2 shows a graph of the open-loop of an op amp. The sloping straight line in the center of the
graph is called the linear operating region. The horizontal lines on either side make up the saturation
region. Some op-amp applications utilize the saturation region, but most op-amp circuits are designed to
operate in the linear region.
Five simplifying assumptions are used to define the model of an ideal op amp operating in the linear
region. These assumptions greatly simplify the analysis of linear op-amp circuits, often with negligible
effect on the accuracy of the results. The five assumptions are as follows:
Assumption Result
1. Infinite gain, A = ∞ v1=v2
2. Infinite input resistance, R1 = ∞ i1 = i2 = 0 A
3. Zero output resistance R0 = 0Ω
4. Infinite slew rate No frequency limit
5. No offsets Ignore offset error

Figure 6.2 open-loop response of an op-amp with a gain of 105 and supply voltages of ± 20V. the
straight line in the middle of the graph is called the linear operating region. The straight lines at the
top and bottom of the graph are called the saturation region.
Example 6.1 showed us that the difference between v1 and v2 is only a
fraction of a millivolt. Assumption 1 states that we can neglect this difference in
most applications. The practical result assumption 1 is stated in Equation (6.3):
v1 = v2 (6.3)
the internal resistance between the two input terminals, Ri, is large, ranging from 50kΩ to over 100MΩ. a
typical value of Ri is 2 MΩ. the small value of v2-v1 and the large value of Ri combine to limit i2 to
extremely small values. For the conditions in Example 6.1 with Ri = 2MΩ, the value of i2 at positive
v2 − v1 1.6 × 10−4
saturations is i2 = = = 8 × 10−11
Ri 2 × 10 6

the value of current i2 is so small that we say it is virtually zero.

Assumption 2 states that we can neglect currents i1 and i2 in most applications. The practical
result of assumption 2 is stated in Equation (6.4): i1 = i2 = 0A
Assumption 3 is stated in Equation (6.5): Re = 0Ω
The slew rate is the maximum rate at which the output of an op amp change. Assumption 4 states
that there is no such limit and the output can change instantaneously from one value to another.
Assumption 5 states that there are no offset errors in the op-amp circuit. The five assumptions define what
is called the ideal operational amplifier. We will use this model frequently in analyzing op-amp circuits.
Common-Mode Rejection Ratio
In an ideal op amp, the output depends only on the difference between v2 and v1, not on the level of the
two voltages. Consider the following two sets of conditions
Condition 1: v1 = -50 µV Condition 2: v1= 99.95 mV
V2= +50 µV v2 = 100.05 mV
5
A = 10 A = 105
In both conditions, v2 – v1 = 100 µV and A(v2 – v1) = 10.0V. Thus the output of an ideal op amp is 10.0V
for both conditions 1 and 2.
In real life, operational amplifiers are not ideal, and the output will be different for the two
conditions. The reason for the difference is the slight differences in the way the op amp handles the two
inputs. The input are amplified by slightly different gains, with the result that the common level of the
two signals is amplified and added to the output. We call this common level the common-mode voltage,
vc. the common-mode voltage is simply the average of v1 and v2:
v1 + v2
vc = (6.6)
2
In a practical op amp, the common-mode voltage is multiplied by the common-mode gain, Ac,
and then added to the output of the op amp. The output consists of the following two components:
vout = Ac vc + A( v2 − v1 ) (6.7)
Let’s continue our example of the two conditions by assuming a common-mode gain, Ac, of 10. The
outputs including the common-mode component are
50 + −50
Condition 1: vc = = 0µV
2
vout = Ac vc + A( v2 − v1 ) = 10(0) + 105 [50 − ( −50)] × 10−6 = 10,0V
99.5 + 100.5
Condition 2: vc = = 100mV
2
vout = Ac vc + A( v2 − v1 ) = 10(0.1) + 105 [100.05 − 99.95)] × 10−3 = 11.0V
Thus a common mode of only 0.1V results in a 10% increase in the output voltage. If the
common mode is raised to 1V, the op amp will saturate. Clearly, common-mode voltage can be a problem
in applications where it is present. The ability of the differential gain of the op amp, A, divided by the
common-mode gain. Ac. this is called the common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR):
 A
CCMR = (6.8)
AC
The common mode rejection (CMR) is the logarithm of CMRR expressed in decibel units:
A
CMR = 20 log10 ( ) (6.9)
AC
105
The CMRR and CMR of our example are CMRR = = 104 ; CMR = 20log10 (104 ) = 80dB
10
EXAMPLE 6.2 in a certain application of an op amp, a differential voltage (v2 - v1) of 120 µV has a
common-mode voltage that varies from 0 to 2V. the amplifier differential gain, A, is 105. The common-
mode error must not be greater than 1.5% of the output when the common-mode voltage is 0. Specify the
common-mode rejection for this application.
Solution:
First, determine the output with no common-mode voltage; second, determine the maximum allowable
output voltage with a common mode of 2V; third, determine the common-mode gain; and fourth,
determine the value of CMRR.
vout v1 =0 = A( v2 − v1 ) = (1E + 5)(120 E − 6) = 12V
101,5
vout v2 =2 = 12( ) = 12,18V
100
12,18 − 12 0,18
Ac = = = 0,09
vc 2
1E + 5
CMRR = = 1,11 × 105
0,09
CMR = 121dB
6.3 OP-AMP CIRCUITS
This section covers a number of op-amp circuits that are used in control systems. The op-amp model used
in the circuits assumes that i1=i2=0, v1=v2, and R0=0.
Comparator
A comparator is a circuit that accepts two input voltages and indicates which voltages is greater. It is the
simplest operational-amplifier circuit. All we need to make a comparator is an op amp in the open-loop
configuration with no feedback or input resistors.
The comparator circuit in Figure 6.3 uses a 12-V indicator lamp to indicate the output of the
comparator. An analysis of this circuit will show that the lamp is OFF when v2 is less then v1 , and it is
ON when v2 is greater than v1 by more than a fraction of a millivolt. The op amp in Figure 6.3 has a gain
of 105, a positive supply voltage (Vcc) of 15V, and a negative supply voltage (-Vcc ) of 0V. the supply
voltages limit the op-amp output to the following voltage range:
0V ≤ vout ≤ (0,8)(15)V
0 V ≤ vout ≤ 12 V
The graph in Figure 6.3 shows the output voltage versus the difference between the
input voltages (v2 – v1). The graph can be divided into the following three regions:
1. Negative saturation region: (v2 – v1) < 0 V
a. v2 is less than v1
 b. vout = 0 V
c. lamp is OFF

Figure 6.3 an op-amp comparators signals which of two input voltages is greater. The 12 V indicator lamp
is OFF when v2<v1. The lamp goes ON as v2 increases from v1 +0,12 mV and stays ON when v2 > v1
+0,12 mV
2. linear operating region: 0V ≤ (v2-v1) ≤ 0,12mV
a. v2 is slightly greater than v1
b. vout goes from 0V to 12V as (v2-v1) increases
c. lamp goes from OFF to ON as (v2-v1) increases
3. Positive saturation region: (v2-v1) > 0,12 mV
a. v2 is more than 0,12mV greater than v1
b. vout = 12V
c. Lamp is ON
The effect of the linear operation region is small enough that we can make the following practical
statements about the comparator circuit in Figure 6.3
PRACTICAL OPERATION OF TH COMPARATOR CIRCUIT IN FIGURE 6.3
The lamp is OFF when v2 is less than v1.
The lamp is OFF when v2 is greater than v1.
One practical application of a comparator circuit is the voltage-level indicators illustrated in Figure 6.4.
the high-level indicator in figure 6.4a uses a voltage divider and a 10-V source to produce an 8-V
reference voltage. The op amp compares the input voltage with the 8-V reference and operates the HI
lamp as follows.
PRACTICAL OPERATION OF THE HIGH-LEVEL INDICATOR IN FIGURE 6.4A
When vin ≤ 8V , the HI lamp is OFF.
When vin > 8V , the HI lamp is ON.

a) A high-level indicator. When vin < 8V, the HI lamp is OFF, As vin increases from 8V to
8,00012V, the HI lamp goes from OFF to ON. When vin > 8,00012V, the HI lamp is ON.
 b) A low-level indicator. When vin < 1,99988V, the LO lamp is ON. As vin increases from 1,99988V
to 2V, the LO lamp goes from ON to OFF. When vin > 2V, the LO lamp is OFF.

c) A high-low-level indicator combines the high-level and low-level indicators into a single circuit.
In this circuit, the HI and LO lamps operate the same as they do in (a) and (b) above.
Figure6.4 these voltage-level indicator circuits use a voltage divider to produce reference voltages of 2 V
AND 8V.
A low-level indicator is shown in Figure 6.4b. Notice the reversed position of the two inputs of the op
amp. In this circuit, the input voltage is connected to the negative input of the op amp and the 2-V
reference voltage is connected to the positive input. The op amp compares the input voltage with the 2-V
reference and operates the LO lamp as follows.
PRACTICAL OPERAION OF THE LOW LEVEL INDICATOR IN FIGRURE 6.4B
When vin < 2V , the LO lamp is ON
When vin ≥ 2V , the LO lamp is OFF
The high-low-level indicator in Figure 6.4is simply a combination of the two circuits in Figures 6.4a and
6.4b. the HI and LO operate exactly the same as described in the preceding boxes.
Voltage Follower
A voltage follower is another simple application of an op amp. The output voltage is equal to the input
voltage. At this point, the obvious question. If the voltage is not changed, why use it? The answer is that
although the voltage is the same, the impedance is not.
We can look at impedance changes from perspectives. Consider placing or not placing a voltage follower
between a primary sensing element and a signal conditioning amplifier. If the voltage follower is not
used, the primary sensor “sees” the input impedance of the amplifier. This might be 50 kΩ. with the
voltage follower in place, the primary sensor sees the input impedance of the op amp, which could be 100
MΩ. So the effect of the voltage follower is to increase the impedance as seen by the primary sensor. This
higher load impedance is a decided advantage because it reduces the current output of the primary sensor,
thus reducing self-heating errors and nonlinearities caused by high current levels.
Now let’s examine the second perspective. The amplifier also sees an impedance when it looks toward the
primary element. If the voltage follower is not used, the amplifier sees the The1venin equivalent of the
primary element. This could be 1,10 , or 100 kΩ. with the voltage follower in place, the amplifier sees the
output impedance of the op amp, which could easily be less than 100 kΩ. just as a high load impedance is
good for the primary element, a low source impedances in both directions.
The operation of a voltage follower s limited to the linear to the linear operating region of the op amp.
This is also true of the remaining op-amp circuits in this section. the following of the op amp. This is also
true of the remaining op-amp circuits in this section, the following analysis applies only to an op amp in
the linear operating region.
A voltage follower is shown in Figure 6.5a. notice that the output terminal is connected to the inverting
input terminal, making v1=vout. Also, the input voltage is connected to the non inverting input, making
v2=vin. in an ideal op amp, v2=v2 which, in turn, makes vout=vin.

Figure 6.5 an op-amp voltage follower has unity voltage gain and a very high input impedance (typically
100MΩ). a voltage follower may be inserted between the primary sensing element and the signal
conditioner of a measuring instrument, thereby reducing the current produced element current reduces
errors by self-heating and loading effects.
VOLTAGE FOLLOWER IN THE LINEAR OPERATING REGION
vout = vin
Figure 6.5b shows a voltage follower used as a bidirectional impedance transformer in a measuring
instrument.
Inverting amplifier
The inverting amplifier changes the sign and the level of the input signal. It can either increase,
decrease, or not change the size of the signal, based on the values of two resistors, one between the input
signal and the inverting input, the other between the inverting input and the output terminal. The gain of
the inverting amplifier is the ratio of the second resistor over the first. The diagram of an inverting
amplifier is shown in Figure 6.6

Figure 6.6 an inverting amplifier has a gain that can be less than 1, equal
to 1, or greater than 1.
The analysis of the equivalent circuit of the inverting amplifier begins with the observation that voltage v2
is equal to zero and the current through resistor Rin is equal to the current through resistor Rf. Then we
apply Ohm’s law to replace the current by voltage drops divided by resistance values.

(6.11)
INVERTING AMPLIFIER IN THE LINEAR OPERATING REGION
vout = - (Rf / R in ) v in

EXAMPLE 6.3 A primary element produces an output voltage that ranges from 0 to 100 mV as the
measured variable goes from the fower range limit to the upper range limit. Design an inverting amplifier
that will take the output of the primary element and produce an output range of 0 to -5V.
Solution
The required gain is 5/0.1 = 50. if we choose the value of Rin to be 1kΩ, the required value of Rf is
Rf = 50Rin = 50 (1000) = 5 kΩ

Noninverting Amplifier
The noninverting amplifier circuitcan increase the size of the signal, but it cannot decrease the
size. In the extreme case, it can leave the size of the signal unchanged, but that reduces the cuircuit to the
simple voltage-follower circuit.
Figure 6.7 shows the circuit diagram of a noninverting amplifier. Notice that the positions of the
input voltage and the groundconnection are interchanged from their positions in the inverting amlifier.
The analysis of the equivalent circuit is similar to the analysis of the inverting amplifier.
 (6.13)

Figure 6.7 noninverting amplifier has a gain that cannot be less than 1

EXAMPLE 6.4 Repeat the amplifier design from Example 6.3 using the noninverting amplifier
Solution: The required gain is 50. we will use a 1 - kΩ resistor for Rin. the gain is given by the first term
enclosed in parentheses in Equation (6.14)
R f + 1000
50 = = 50
1000
R f = 49k Ω

Figure 6.8 A summing amplifier forms the inverted and weighted sum of its inputs. The weighting factor
is the feedback resistance. Rf, divided by the input resistor, Ra Rb R or Ri.
SUMMING AMPLIFIER IN THE LINEAR OPERATING REGION
R   Rf   Rf 
vout = −  f  va −   vb −   vc (6.15)
 Ra   Rb   Rc 

The resistor ratio Rf/Ra is the weighting factor for input voltage va, ratio Rf/Ra is the weighting factor for
input voltage vb, and so on.
EXAMPLE 6.5 design a circuit that produces an output voltage that is the average of three input voltages.
An inversion of the output signal is permissible.
Solution The design can be implemented with a three-input summing amplifier with weighting factors of
1/3 on each input. We will select a 3.33-kΩ resistor for Ra, Rb and Rc .
Integrator
An integrator circuit produces an output that is proportional to the integral of the input voltage. An
inverting amplifier can be converted to an integrator by replacing resistor Rf by a capacitor. Figure 6.9
shows an integrator circuit and a graphical interpretation of the integral.

Figure 6.9 An integrator produces an output that is proportional to the integral of the input voltage. On a
graph of input voltage versus time, the integral between time t1 and time t2. The speedometer of a car
displays the integral of the speed (y’ )