CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

The second chapter of the study presents some of the literature and

studies that are related to the Independent (Oyster Shells) and Dependent

(Chalk) Variables.

RELATED LITERATURE

On Oyster Shells

Foreign

According to Kakisawa and Sumimoto (2012), oysters are a viable

option for construction purposes because they are easy to acquire and

contain high amounts of CaCO3 in the shell’s nacre. Nacre, which is

commonly called “the mother of pearl”, is combined of platelets of CaCO3

within layers of an organic polymer matrix. The combination of the

platelets and organic matrix provides the strength of the shell.

Recent studies have shown that crushed oyster shells can perform as

variable aggregate or grit in concrete mortars. Not only that, oyster grit

could do a great deal to help reduce CO2 emissions. Steinmann (2013)

Oysters are a seafood delicacy that can aid local ecosystems in many

ways. Recycling oyster shells is an important source of future oysters for

food and natural diversity. The small shellfish

 9

are water filtration powerhouses. Mazzoni (2018) Adult oysters can

filter impurities from more than 2 gallons of water per hours and their

reefs provide habitat for fish, shrimp, crabs, and other sea life while

controlling erosion of surrounding shorelines. Oysters are also prolific

reproducers.

According to Chen et al. (2018), the use of crushed waste oyster shells

lowered hardened densities and mechanical properties, but increased

water absorption, water permeability, and chloride ion penetration

compared with control mortars. Increasing the curing period, however,

effectively improved the hardened densities, mechanical properties, and

transport behavior of crushed waste oyster shells mortars. Furthermore,

use of crushed oyster shells improved the cost efficiency of mortar

production.

As stated by Dierking (2018), oysters are a favorite of seafood lovers

across the United States. Oysters, a kind of shellfish, are native to U.S.

waters on both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. Now, more than 20 eateries

and other seafood businesses have joined together on a project to help the

environment. Their goal is to collect old oyster shells and use them to grow

new oysters. Project organizers say the recycled shells can also act as a

filter. They remove dirty particles from the water.

 10

Local

According to The Philippine Star (2018), the local government of

Alaminos City is also strongly promoting its oysters to encourage

eco-friendly mariculture projects that will provide additional livelihood to

the marginalized fisherfolks there. Rabadon, the focal person for the city’s

oyster development program, said they give materials needed for culture

like bamboo, rope and empty oyster shells.

Oysters are more than just a popular appetizer. Their reefs provide

habitat for a variety of aquatic species,and they break storm surges that

could otherwise devastate coastline. Oysters also help clean the water.

They are filter-feeders so they also help remove nitrogen from sewage and

incorporate it into their shells and tissues. The Philippine Star (2019)

According to Romina (2010), oyster shells have elongated rough shells,

which can reach a 20-30cm size. Although highly variable, the two valves

are sold but unequal in size and shape. The left valve is slightly convex

and the right valve is quite deep and cup shaped. Shells are sculpted with

large irregular, rounded radial folds.

Oyster is a common name used for a number of bivalve mollusks

which lives in marine or salty habitats and have a rough, irregularly

shaped shell. Piccio (2013) Some kinds of oysters are cooked or can be

consumed raw. You can’t identify the oysters by examining the shells if it’s
 11

a male or a female because they repeatedly change their gender one or

more times during its lifespan.

According to Samsin (2013), the Philippines is an archipelago which

has numerous sites suitable for oyster farming. The cultivation of oysters

in the country started in Bacoor Bay in Bacoor and Kawit towns in the

Province of Cavite. There are four species of oysters cultivated:

Crassostrea iredalei, C. cucullata, C. malabonensis and C. palmipes. Of

these four species, Crassostrea iredalei is the most commercially desirable

because it grows at faster rate to a larger size and has straight shell

margins which makes theme easier to open.

On Chalk

Foreign

According to Lord (2014), engineering in chalk describes the chalk's

geological setting, its origins, occurrence, weathering and

geomorphological situations, the material and mechanical properties. The

descriptions are supported by a comprehensive set of photographs. It

explains recommended schemes for the engineering description and

classification of chalk, building on the work presented in CIRIA PR11,

"Foundations in Chalk". The publication looks at the mechanical and

material properties of intact, in-situ and compacted chalk and considers

their implications for the design and construction of earthworks, cuttings,

retaining walls and anchorages.

 12

As stated by Hancock (2009), cretaceous chalk is a micritic limestone,

mostly debris from planktonic algae, largely in micron-sized plates, but

some still in their original circular groupings called coccoliths. Nearly all

the material was deposited as low-Mg calcite which is stable at surface

temperatures and pressures, which means that most chalk has been

spared early lithification. Early lithification has formed hard-grounds and

allowed chalk-pebble conglomerates to be formed.

Black boards which are also commonly known as chalkboards are one

of the most basic parts of a classroom. These functional pieces make

interaction between teacher and students easier. But what makes this

piece even more useful is the writing material that goes with it and that is

the chalk. Surprisingly enough, chalkboard chalk is not actually made of

natural chalk. Natural chalk or calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is too soft.

Calcium carbonate makes up more than 4% of the earth’s crust and is

found in almost every part of the world. West (2012) Its most common

natural forms are chalk, limestone, and marble, produced by the

sedimentation of the shells of small fossilized snails, shellfish, and coral

over millions of years. Chalk has been used from very early on and natural

chalk rock was used to create some of the earliest cave drawings that man

knows of. This mineral is extremely abundant, and it is widely mined all

over the world.

 13

A chalk is also defined as a white substance almost too soft to be called

rock. The English chalk must be admitted to be a mass of considerable

magnitude. Nevertheless, it covers but an insignificant portion of the

whole area occupied by the chalk formation of the globe. Chalk occurs in

north-west Ireland; it stretches over a large part of France,–the chalk

which underlies Paris being, in fact, a continuation of that of the London

basin; it runs through Denmark and Central Europe, and extends

southward to North Africa; while eastward, it appears in the Crimea and in

Syria, and may be traced as far as the shores of the Sea of Aral, in Central

Asia. Huxley (2011)

According to Meldrum (2020), scientists from The University of

Manchester and The University of Leeds report that they have successfully

reinforced calcium carbonate, or chalk, with polystyrene particles that are

used to make drinks cups. They have developed an effective method of

combining calcite crystals with polystyrene particles and have found that

this makes the material more ductile compared to its original brittle form.

They report that the polystyrene also acts as a toughening agent, assisting

the prevention of the growth of cracks. Scientists also observed that when

the reinforced material cracked, the polymer lengthened within the cracks,

a well-known mechanism for absorbing energy and enhancing toughness.

Researchers say their method allows the properties of the new material to

be tweaked by selecting particles of different shapes, sizes and

 14

composition. Dr. Stephen Eichhorn from The School of Materials at The

University of Manchester, said: "The mechanical properties of shells can

rival those of man-made ceramics, which are engineered at high

temperatures and pressures. Their construction helps to distribute stress

over the structure and control the spread of cracks.” Calcium carbonate is

the main ingredient of chalk, which is very brittle and breaks easily when

force is applied. But shells are strong and resistant to fracturing, and this

is because the calcium carbonate is combined with proteins which bind

the crystals together, like bricks in a wall, to make the material stronger

and sometimes tougher.

Local

Biological chalk from grind seashells could be a good substitute to the

commercial chalks. Steps in producing biological chalk involves drying of

shells in three days, and combining powdered seashells cornstarch and

agar-agar juice. Dozal (2012) The chalk from grind seashells can be

compared with the commercial ones in terms of its firmness and odor but

differ in color and hardness.

Chalk comes from limestone. Most of the chalk you can get today was

made almost 50 to 100 million years ago. It is chemically made of calcium

carbonate. The porous sedimentary rock naturally deep under the sea

where small circular calcite plates called coccoliths accumulate to form

limestone. In its natural form chalk can be found in colors ranging from
 15

white, grey, and yellow. The different colors occur due to various

impurities in the chalk. Chalk is mostly pressed into white sticks which

are then used for a variety of purposes from scribbling on the blackboard,

outlining designs on fabrics for tailors and making art works on sidewalks.

Some of the different uses of chalk and their types include blackboard

chalk which is made from gypsum, sidewalk chalk, agriculture chalk

made from calcium carbonate and calcium oxide. Chalk also has a variety

of other uses, it was originally used to draw those white lines that define

the court boundaries in sports like tennis, badminton and other such

sports. It is used in agriculture to treat soils that are too acidic in nature.

You can use it if you are a gymnast or rock climber to remove the

perspiration in your hand. Did you know even your toothpaste has a small

amount of chalk in it. Regina (2015)

As stated by Sembrano (2011), the sound of the chalk against the

green painted wood brings back memories of my youth in School of the

Holy Spirit in Quezon City. Leah, a classmate who’s also good in our art

subject, would often be asked to write on the board because of her

beautiful penmanship. It was a joy taking down notes, especially at the

start of the school year. But the screeching sound of the chalk unnerves

me! In my high school days in Angelicum, I always tried to get the chalk off

my navy blue skirt. There’s something about the tetoron fabric that

becomes an instant magnet to the chalk dust. In my University of the

 16

Philippines days, we hardly used chalk. Professors hardly wrote on the

board because there were overhead projectors and acetates and

whiteboard markers. We, students, used manila paper, acetates, while

some already used powerpoint at that time.

As reported by Abrahams (2011), schools still uses chalk, teachers

brave the greatest direct risk: "During teaching, entry of chalk dust in the

respiratory system through nasopharyngeal region and mouth could be

extensive in teachers due to their proximity to the board and frequent

opening of mouth during lectures and occasional gasping and heavier

breathing due to exhaustion. As per current state of knowledge on

particulate matter vis-a-vis chalk dust, it "may remain suspended in air

for some time before settling on the floor and body parts of the teachers

and pupils". The scientists acknowledge that chalk and chalkboards these

days are being supplanted, in many schools, by whiteboards and other

more modern, less intrinsically dusty technology. But chalk still enjoys

wide usage in many countries. Chalk dust could be harmful to allergic

persons and may cause lacrimation and breathing troubles in the long

run and certainly is a constant nuisance in classrooms as it may soil

clothes, body parts, audiovisual aids and study materials.

Oteiza’s Chalk Laboratory was used in the study, in which he

manipulated pieces of chalk to explore their spatial potential. The aim of

the course was to use pieces of chalk, specifically the possibilities of their
 17

spatial combinations and the condition of chalk’s materiality and ductility

to awaken students’ curiosity. Thus, the students were able to manipulate,

fracture, and combine these pieces in sequences of progressive complexity,

discovering architecture principles thought an ars combinatoria system.

Moreno (2018) In this regard, artistic disciplines like painting or sculpture

can help students understand basic concepts such as the indissoluble

relationship between figure and form, or how the relative position of

objects affects a composition.

RELATED STUDIES

On Oyster Shells

Foreign

According to the study of Ayyappan (2018) entitled “Study on

Structural Behavior of Oyster Shell Powder in Concrete”, the oyster shells

that are usually disposed are used as an alternate for making cement,

since the shell is made up of calcium. The study conducted presents the

results of experiments evaluating the use of oyster shell powder from

oyster production industry as partial replacement for ordinary Portland

cement. Cement is partially replaced with oyster shell powder as 5, 10 and

15% by weight of cement. The compressive strength and flexural strength

was determined at curing days of 7, 14 and 28 days.

Based on the study of Hiroaki and Nakanishi (2012), which is

entitled “Preparation of Calcium Phosphate with Oyster Shells”, oyster

 18

shells have received attention for use as a calcium resource. Calcium

phosphate was prepared from phosphoric acid and oyster shells. The

influences of the concentration of phosphoric acid and pH in the

preparation conditions were studied from the yields of calcium phosphate

and unreacted carbonate, and the Ca/P ratios in precipitates. The

reactivity of the oyster shells with phosphoric acid was discussed from the

yields and Ca/P ratios in precipitates.

To neutralize the acidity of recycled rainwater, oyster shells were

calcined, hydrated and foamed by adding cement and foaming agent to

produce oyster-shell foamed bricks (OSFBs). Experimental results

demonstrate that natural oyster shells could not provide an alkali

environment with sufficient metal powders for oyster-shell powder to foam,

thus creating a need for additional alkali agent or calcined oyster shells.

Chiou et al. (2014) “Using Oyster Shell Foamed Bricks to Neutralize the

Acidity of Recycled Rainwater”

According to the study of Dauphin et al. (2013) which is entitled “In

Situ Distribution and Characterization of the Organic Content of Oyster

Shells”, cultivation of commercial oysters is now facing the possible

influence of global change in sea water composition, commonly referred to

as “ocean acidification”. In order to test the potential consequence of the

predicted environmental changes, a cultivation experiment was carried

 19

out. The left and right valves of the oyster shell Crassostrea gigas differ in

their structure; moreover, lenses of non compact layers are irregular.

Based on the study of Hamester et al. (2012) entitled

“Characterization of Calcium Carbonate Obtained from Oyster and

Mussel Shells and Incorporation in Polypropylene”, there is a high content

of calcium carbonate in mussel and oyster shells, which can be used in

the formulation of medicine, in construction or as filler in polymer

materials. The main objective of the conducted study is to obtain calcium

carbonate from mussel and oyster shells and use it as filler in

polypropylene compared their properties with polypropylene and

commercial calcium carbonate composites.

Local

According to the study of Andalecio et al. (2014) which is entitled

“Consumers’ Behavior towards Cultured Oyster and Mussel in Western

Visayas”, a study was conducted to examine the consumers' attitude and

knowledge related to consumption of cultured oysters and mussels in

Western Visayas, Philippines. Survey interviews were conducted using a

validated questionnaire consisting of consumption pattern, purchasing

behavior, product information and environmental concerns. We

hypothesized that the level of consumption is influenced by demographic

and socio-economic factors. Only 32% were frequent (daily to more than

once a week) consumers of oysters and mussels during peak season. The
 20

main factors that dictate frequency of purchase and consumption are

gender, household size and those who indicated to have been to the

culture sites.

The demand for agricultural lime is high, considering its various uses

from agricultural production to processing. This study determines the

lime potential of three shellfishes, namely: Crassostrea iredalei (Oyster

shell), Decatopecten radula (Pecten shell), and Anodontia edentula

(Mangrove clam shell) as a promising raw material for lime industry in the

Philippines and can be used as alternatives for commercially produced

agricultural lime. The Hydrogen ion concentration (pH) and the lime

concentration using Calcium Carbonate Equivalent (CCE) of each

shellfish species were measured and tested for the enhancement of an

acidic soil. Hapinat (2019) “Waste from Discarded Oyster Shells: A

Promising Raw Material for Lime in The Philippines”

Based on the research of Baylon et al. (2016) entitled “The

Feasibility Study of Using Oyster Shells and Plastic as Substitute in

Manufacturing Bricks”, the alternative in brick making is considered a

solution to the increasing prices of construction materials. This approach

will lessen the problem in garbage disposal for discarded oyster shells and

non-biodegradable plastic waste. Furthermore, it promotes the use of

both waste and native materials in making cement blocks, which is low

cost, compared to synthetic or chemically manufactured ingredients.

 21

When used as a cement replacement, the chemical composition of burnt

oyster shells contains both calcium carbonate and calcium hydroxide

compared to lime which are both highly preferential for the reaction of

compendious product. Therefore, oyster shells and plastics have

comparably lower price compared to sand or other brick making product.

Thus making it more economically and environmentally efficient as a sand

substitute in making bricks.

According to Ramos et al. (2015), the researchers of the study “The

Chemical Composition of Burnt Oyster Shells”, the chemical composition

of burnt oyster shell contains similar calcium carbonate and calcium

hydroxide phases as compared to lime. Calcium carbonate does not take

part in the hydration process of cement to form structural components;

calcination of oyster shells to drive off the carbon reduces CaCO 3 to CaO

which is preferential for the reaction of cementitious products.

With 7,641 islands, the Philippines is very rich in marine resources. In

several provinces of the country, oyster farming is one of the most

important production activities for their economy. In general, most of the

oyster shells are discarded with no further use once the flesh is stripped

off, except that a small amount is used for art creation. As result, shell

piles are common in areas of oyster production with no further utilization.

It takes months or even years to get rid of this so called styro. While the

shells take days or weeks. Using them as raw materials for concrete tiles
 22

could solve the problem of disposal. Tiles should be made hard and strong,

which makes oyster shells very compatible with this project. These shells

are known as fossils capable of producing a great amount of calcium

carbonate (CaCo3) which is a good source of Calcium oxide that would

help a lot in making the tiles to be rigid and firm. And styrofoam can help

in binding the substances of powdered oyster shells with the help of

gasoline. Our Lady of Perpetual Succor College (2017) “Oyster Shells with

Styrofoam Tiles”

Chalk

Foreign Studies

According to the study of Szasz (2017) entitled “Chalk Induced Lungs

Fibrosis”, blackboard chalk contains mainly Gypsum, Calcite, Dolomite,

Kaolinite and some impurities such as silica and organic adhesives, in

combination with a different concentrations of trace elements such as Al,

Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Si and Pb. Since blackboard chalk is used as writing

tool by teacher, the amount of inhaled total dust, inorganic dust, non-SiO

2 inorganic dust, and calcium is significantly higher in the lung tissue.

Studies have been made on the association between professional exposure

to chalk dust and respiratory disorders in school teachers, such as

chronic bronchitis, asthma, upper respiratory tract symptoms, aphonia

and recurrent pulmonary tract infections and also its relationship with

pulmonary fibrosis. All of these may lead to airway narrowing and this
 23

may be cause for smaller PEFR in teachers than control patients just like

presented cased.

Chalks that are mainly made out of eggshells is now being marketed

by the Q.P. Corporation, the largest producer of mayonnaise in Japan.

They used 100% of the eggshells left over from eggs used in the processes

of manufacturing mayonnaise and other products. The company has

expanded eggshells use to school supplies, supplying them as a raw

material for blackboard chalk. Their was the first attempt to produce

chalk using completely natural ingredients. Japan FS Organizations

(2014) “Chalk made from Eggshells”

Based on the study of ACAAI (2013) entitled “Dustless Chalk May

Cause Allergy and Asthma Symptoms in Students with Milk Allergy”,

many of schools and school teachers opt for dustless chalk to keep hands

and classrooms clean. According to study of American College of Allergy,

Asthma and Immunology (ACAAI), this choice in chalk may cause allergy

and asthma symptoms in students or teachers that have a milk allergy.

Chalks that are labeled as being anti-dust or dustless still release small

particles into the air, our study or research has found, when the particles

are inhaled by children with milk allergy, coughing, wheezing and

shortness of breath can occur. Inhalation can cause nasal congestion,

sneezing and runny nose.

 24

According to the study of Narka (2009) entitled “Study of Drawing

Chalk”, drawing Chalk is made from various soft stones, There are three

main types of natural chalk, the first one is Black chalk, made from stones

such as carbonaceous shale, second is Red chalk also called sanguine,

made from red ochre, and last is White chalk its made from various

limestones, eggshells or oyster shells. Chalk drawing are known from

prehistoric times. Chalk are made from powdered pigments mixed with a

binding medium, then rolled or pressed into sticks and dried.

Commercial chalk is composed mostly of calcium carbonate with

minor amounts of silt and clay. It is normally formed underwater,

commonly on the sea bed, then consolidated and compresses during

diagnosis into the form commonly seen. Pring (2010) “Commercial Chalk”

Local Studies

Based on the study of Jenn (2014) “The Effectiveness of Chalk as Soil

Neutralizer” a study was conducted to recycle used chalks to be used for

neutralizing and undertaken in order to find means to produce costless

neutralizer in easy way. The factories disposed chemicals incorrectly and

contaminated the water and the soil itself. It could affect the economic

status of a city because farmers could not deal with this kind of problem

due to lack of ideas and resources. It would be a great help to the farmers

including all people in the whole world in growing and taking care of

plants, especially above all, to sustain their businesses and their health
 25

that the plant itself will not harm the consumer. It could greatly help our

Mother Earth in sustaining a better, greener and richer environment. The

used chalks will be pulverized in mortar and pestle and will be measured

in different amount and will be placed in same amount of soil. There will

be differences in the PH level before and after neutralizing it and also to

have costless neutralizer for acidic soils. They can use chalks that are

abundant in public schools especially in grade schools.

A study entitled “Experimentation of Chalk Dust” was conducted by

Caldea (2015) She weighed each pieces of chalk before and after using it.

She collected chalk dust from the air, and also the dust that fell on to a

long sheet of paper laid over the base of the blackboard. The experiment

featured three linds of chalks, one blackboard, an eraser, an aerosol

spectrometer to measure and record the amount of dust floating in the air

and a Cilas model 1180 particle size analyzer. She tried to ensure

maximally pure conditions for the measurements. All the windows and the

only door were closed airtight, the fans present in the classroom were not

operated and personal movement in the classroom was completely

restricted during the experiment to minimize resuspension of dust from

the floor.

According to the study of Nunga (2015) which is entitled “Effectiveness

of Oyster Shells as Alternative Chalk”, there are many different types of

chalks like, drawing chalks or colored chalks, neutralizer chalks and

 26

Insecticides chalk or insects killer. He made an experiment and called it

alternative chalk made of oyster shells. He used oyster shells as

alternative ingredient of Chalk. Oyster shells are composed of prismatic

layer, cross lamellar and foliate layer from outside to inside that are all

made of CaCO. The study on the production of chalk out of seashells were

designed to produce quality, dustless and long lasting chalk compared

with the standard existing commercialized chalks if there are any, which

are sold in the market. The chalk out of seashells are for local or non-local

schools or any educational aspects or even at home which can be formed

into different sizes and according to your will. I used the seashells to

recycle and transformed it into a useful product that will be used in our

developing community.

Shells washed up onto a beach empty and clean, the animal which is

already dead, and the soft parts having rotted away or having eaten by

either predators or scavengers. Empty seashells found by beachcombers,

and collecting these shells is a harmless hobby or study. However, the

majority of seashells, which offered for sale commercially, have been

collected alive (often in bulk) and then killed and cleaned, specifically for

the commercial trade. This type of exploitation can sometimes have a

strong negative impact on the distribution of rarer species, and on local

ecosystems. Many kinds of sea animals have exoskeletons or shells that

may, after death, wash up on the beach. And may be picked up by

beachcombers. Raboy (2012) “Chalk out of Seashells”

 27

According to the study of Uy et al. (2017) entitled “The acceptability of

Oyster Shells as an Alternative Ingredient in Making Chalk”, chalk has an

important role as a tool used specially in schools. Teachers use chalks to

write information on the black board or chalk board to interpret

thoroughly the topic that the teacher teaches. These are some of the

problems that our country is currently experiencing: chalks are not well

provided by schools, many students can't fully comprehend their lessons

because of this crisis. The researchers came up with an idea to make

chalk out of oyster shells because of the properties found in oyster shells

such as calcium carbonate and chalks are mostly made of this compound.

It would also be cheaper and would be environmental friendly to use our

product because this chalk is made out of oyster shells which are mostly

thrown away after eating oyster shells. Oyster shells are also attainable,

abundant and easy to find.