HUMAN GROWTH, LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT

PREPARED BY MPAS

I. Principles of Human Growth and Development

Principle Focus Application-
Classroom Situation
1. The development  The process of heredity Teachers to take note or
of an organism is and environment are consider the family background
the result of the interdependent and of the child as well as the
interaction complimentary. Neither environment where he/she was
between appears to be dominant. born or grew up to better
heredity (nature)  Height while largely understand him/her especially
and environment determined by heredity is his/her behavior.
(nurture) also affected to an extent
by nutrition.
2. Growth is  Growth follows an orderly Teachers to know in what stage
sequential sequence which in general in a particular aspect of growth
is the same for all the child is so he/she would
individuals. know what to expect and also
 All aspects of development what to do to prepare the child
be it in language, motor, for the next stage of
social, occur sequentially development.
3. Each stage of  Characteristic traits vary at Knowledge of characteristic
development has each stage of development traits at different stages can be
characteristic  Traits become more considerable value for teachers
traits complex as the child gets in choosing the appropriate
older. activities as well as the methods
of teaching.
4. Maturation or  Definite degrees of Knowledge of characteristic
readiness should maturity are prerequisite traits at different stages can be
precede certain to various types of learning of considerable value for
types of learning teachers in choosing the
appropriate activities as well as
the methods of teaching.
5. The body tends  There is a wisdom of the Teacher to be a keen observer
to maintain a body. Strives to preserve a so he/she can do something
state of constant internal when signs of uneasiness or
equilibrium environment despite boredom on the part of the
called changing conditions, students is shown or exhibited,
homeostasis whether internal or while he/she is teaching or
external. observing the students to
something.
6. Development  The speed of development Teacher to understand that girls
rates vary is not even mature earlier than boys.
 Each part of the body has Growth rate maybe retarded by
its own particular rate of illness and certain types of
growth deprivation such as prolonged
 Children tend to inherit the poor nutrition.
physique of their parents
7. Growth is  There are no two identical Children should never be

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patterned growth patterns compared unless their rate and

 Each child has his/her own pattern of growth have been
characteristic rate taken into account.

II. Theories of Human Development

 All theories of human development have had an effect upon decisions made in research, in
classroom and parental management.
 They are not necessarily contradictory or entirely exclusive. All are concerned with the
interaction of the organism and his/her environment.
 They do tend to place an emphasis on certain concepts and certain facets of behavior.
 They all contain elements of truth.
 It is suggested that beginning students / teachers become well acquainted with varied points of
view in child development early so that they may have enough information to guide them in
future decisions, either personal or professional (that they make) in working children.
 These theories differ in many respects
• They make different assumptions about children and the developmental process.
• They rely on different research methods to test assumptions and hypothesis.
• They emphasize different aspects of development.

A. The Psychoanalytic Theory – Sigmund Freud

- Freud believes that all human beings pass through a series of psychosexual stages.
- Each stage is dominated by the development of sensitivity in a particular erogenous or
pleasure giving spot in the body.
- Each stage poses for individuals a unique conflict that they must resolve before they go to
the next higher stage.
- If individuals are unsuccessful in resolving the conflict, the resulting frustration become
chronic and remains a central feature of their psychological make-up.
- Individuals may become so addicted to the pleasure of a given stage that they are unwilling
to move to the later stages. Fixation – tendency to stay at a particular stage.

Psychosexual Stages

Stage Age Range Characteristics

1. Oral Birth to 1 year  Center of pleasure is the mouth
 Infants derive much pleasure in sucking (fingers,
toes, nipples),chewing, spitting and biting.
 Infants learn about their environment by such
activities involving the mouth.
 When an infant experiences frustration in not
being able to meet needs through oral
activities, the needs may continue to resurface

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at a later period in life in such forms as eating as

smoking.
2. Anal 1-3 years  Attention is directed to the anal region as the
sphincter muscles begin to mature
 Voluntary defecation become the primary
method of gratifying the sex instinct
 Parents put emphasis to toilet training
 Parents over attention or lack of attention to
children’s toilet training maybe the cause of
problems associated with fixation of
development
3. Phallic 3-6 years  Freud’s view was the four-year-old children have
matured to the point that their genitals have
become an interesting and sensitive area of the
body.
 Children derive pleasure from activities
associated with stroking and manipulating their
sex organs
 Stage where boys experience the state of
Oedipus complex (young boys experience rivalry
with their father for their mother’s attention
and affections and regards their father as a sex
rival) and girls experience the state of Electra
complex (sees mother as a rival for father’s
attention)
4. Latency 6-12 years  Child sex instincts are relatively calm and
continue until puberty
 Focus of child is on school work and vigorous
play that consume most of his physical and
psychic energy
 Many of the disturbing and conflicting feelings
of children are buried in the subconscious mind
5. Genital 12 years onwards  Longest stage and lasts from puberty to old age
 Aim of the sex instinct is reproduction
 Oedipus / Electra feelings are reactivated and
directed toward other persons of the opposite
sex
 Provided that strong fixations at earlier stages
have not taken place, dependence on parents is
overcome and the young person is on the way
to establishing a satisfying life of his own.

B. The Psychosocial Theory – Erik Erikson

- People progress through a series of eight stages

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- Each stage is characterized by a “conflict of crisis” that the individual must successfully
resolve in order to develop in a healthy direction.
- Focus is an important socio-cultural determinants of human development and less on the
sex instinct.
- An Individual who fails to resolve one or more of the life crisis is almost certain to encounter
problems to resolve one or more of the life crisis is almost certain to encounter problems in
the succeeding stages of development or in the future.

Stage Age Characteristics

1. Trust vs. Birth to 1 Whether children come to trust or mistrust themselves and
Mistrust year other people depends on their early experiences
 Infants are met,  When a child is
cuddled, fondled and chaotic, unpredictable
shown genuine and rejecting as
affection evolve a brought about by his
sense of a world as environment, he
safe and dependable approaches the world
place with fear and suspicion
2. Autonomy vs. 1-3 years As children begin to walk, climb, etc., a new conflict confronts
Shame and them that is whether to assert their will or not.
Doubt  When parents are  When children are not
patient, cooperative, allowed such freedom
encouraging, children and are over-
acquire a sense of protected, they
independence and develop an excessive
competence sense shame and
doubt.
3. Initiative vs. 3-6 years The repertoire of motor and mental abilities and greatly
Guilt expands
The healthy child learns to broaden his skills to cooperate and
to lead as well as to follow
 Parents who give  Parents who curtail
their children this freedom are giving
freedom to do things children a sense of
like running, riding, themselves as
skating, etc., are nuisances and inept
allowing them to intruders in the adult
develop initiative. world. Rather than
being active they may
become passive.
4. Industry vs. 6-12 yrs Elementary years – children concerned with how things
Inferiority work and how they are made.
Children learn to win recognition by being productive.
Work becomes pleasurable and they learn to
persevere.

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 Parents, teachers  Those who ignore,

who support, rebuff, deride
rewards and praise children’s effort are
children are strengthening feelings
encouraging industry of inferiority.
5. Industry vs. 12-20 yrs It is reached at the time of puberty when childhood is left
Role Confusion behind and the transmission to adulthood begins. Individual
has to develop an integral and coherent sense of self. He seeks
answers to the question “Who am I”.
 To find an identity,  When the adolescent
adolescents try on fails to develop a
many new roles as centered identity
they grope with he/she becomes
romantic trapped in either role
involvement, confusion a “negative
vocational choice and identity”. Role
adult statuses confusion implies
uncertainty of
appropriate behavior.
6. Intimacy vs. 20-40 yrs As Erikson views intimacy, it is capacity to reach out and make
Isolation contact with other people and to fuse one’s identity with that
of others. Capable of experiencing the intimacy of enduring
friendship or marriage.
 Central to intimacy is  Fear of self-
the ability to share abandonment results
with and care about in a feeling of isolation.
another person
without fear of losing
oneself in the process
7. Generativity vs. 40-65 yrs Individual is able to work productivity and creativity.
Stagnation  Generativity –  Stagnatio – condition
Parental in which individuals are
responsibility, preoccupied with their
interest in producing material possessions or
and guiding the next physical well-being.
generation. Entails
selflessness
8. Ego Integrity vs. Old Age to Stage of facing reality, recognizing and accepting it.
Despair death Individuals take stock of the years that have gone before.
 Some feel a sense of  Others experience
satisfaction with the despair, the feeling that
accomplishment. the time is too short for
an attempt to start
another life and to try
out alternative roads to
integrity.

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C. Cognitive Development Theory – Jean Piaget

- Major contributor – Jean Piaget, a Swiss scholar who studied children’s intellectual
development during the 1920’s
- Children are neither driven by undesirable instincts nor molded by environmental influences
- Piaget and followers view children as constructivists, that is, as curious active explorers who
respond to the environment according to their understanding of it’s essential features.
- Piaget divided intellectual development into four major periods

a) Sensorimotor – (birth to two years)

 Infants use sensory and motor capabilities to explore and gain a basic
understanding of the environment
 At birth they have only innate reflexes with which to engage the world. By the
end of the sensorimotor period, they are capable of complex sensorimotor
coordination.
 Infants learn that objects continue to exist when they are out of sight (object
permanence) and begin to internalize behavioral schemata to produce images
of mental schemata.

b) Preoperational (two or seven years)

 Children use symbolism images and language) to represent and understand
various aspects of the environment.
 Thought is egocentric, meaning that children think everyone sees the world in
much the same way that they do.
 Children become imaginative in their play activities. They gradually begin to
recognize that other people may not always perceive the world as they do.

c) Concrete Operations (seven to eleven years)

 Children are no longer fooled by appearances. By relying on cognitive
operations, they understand the basic properties of and relations among objects
and events in the everyday world.
 Able to solve concrete (hands-on) problem in logical fashion.
 Understand laws of conservation and are able to classify and seriate.
Understands reversibility.
 Becoming much more proficient at inferring motives by observing others’
behavior and the circumstances in which it occurs.

d) Formal Operations (eleven years and beyond)

 Able to solve abstract problems in logical fashion
 Becomes more scientific in thinking

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 No longer is logical thinking limited to the concrete or the observable. Children

enjoy pondering hypothetical issues and as a result may become rather
idealistic.
 Capable of systematic, deductive reasoning that permits them to consider may
possible solutions to a problem and pick the correct answer.

D. Sociohistoric - Lev Semanovich Vygotsky

- Russian psychologist who highly stressed the importance of the social environment to
development
- Social interaction is the way in which children develop increasingly more complex thinking.
Children gin knowledge and skills through “shared experiences” between themselves and
adults or older peers.
- Cognitive development is concerned as dependent on social mediation. The child is socially
dependent at the beginning of this cognitive life and becomes increasingly independent on
his thinking through many experiences in which adults or older peers help.
- The child acquires new skills and information with the zone of proximal development (ZPD),
the level at which a child finds a task too difficult to complete alone, but which he can
accomplish with the assistance or support of an adult or older peer.
- This story suggest that, in addition to providing a stimulating environment, early childhood
educators need to promote discovery, explaining and providing suggestions to suit each
child’s zone of proximal development.

E. The Learning Theory (Behaviorism) – John Watson

- John Watson proclaimed that he could take a dozen healthy infants and train them to be
whatever he chose – doctor, lawyer, beggar, and so on.
- Basic premise of Watson’s “behaviorism”
 That the mind of an infant is a “tabula rasa” and that learned associations between
stimuli and responses are the building blocks of human development.
 Development does not proceed through series of stages
 It is a continuous process marked by the gradual acquisition of new and more
sophisticated behavioral pattern, or habits.
 He believed that only the simplest of human reflexes (for example, the sucking
reflex) are inborn and that important behavioral tendencies, including traits, talents,
values and aspirations are learned.

- The behaviorists of the 1980’s are more moderate in their values. They recognize that
heredity and maturation play meaningful roles in human development and that no amount
of prompting or environmental enrichment could transform a severely retarded person into
a lawyer or a brain surgeon.
- However, these contemporary learning theorists believe that biological factors merely place
limits on what children are capable of learning.

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- To this day, theorists who favor the learning approach feel that the most significant aspects
of human behavior – those habits and qualities that make us “human” – are learned.

F. The Moral Development Theory – Lawrence Kohlberg

- The moral development of each successive generation is of obvious significance to society.
Although moral standards may vary from culture to culture, every society has devise rules
that its constituents must obey in order to remain members in good standing.
- Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on Piaget’s studies of moral development by making moral
dilemmas that could be appropriate for older children. Thus in 1963, he developed the
description of the three levels and six stages of moral reasoning.

a) Level One – Pre-conventional Morality (0-9 yrs)

 This is typical of children up to age nine.
 Called pre-conventional because young children do not really understand the
conventions or rules of a society.

Stage 1: Punishment – Obedience Orientation (toddler to 7)

 The physical consequence of an action determines goodness or badness.

 Those in authority have superior power and should be obeyed.
 Punishment should avoided by staying out of trouble.

Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation (pre-school to school age)

 An action is judged to be right if it is instrumental or satisfying one’s own needs or

involve an even exchange.
 Obeying rules should bring some sort of benefits in return.

b) Level Two – Conventional Morality ( 9-20 yrs)

 Typical of nine to twenty years old)
 Called conventional since 9 to 20 year olds conform to the convention of
society because they are rules of a society.

Stage 3: Good Boy – Nice Girl Orientation

 The right action is one that would be carried out by someone whose behavior is likely to
please or impress others.

Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation

 To maintain the social order, fixed rules must be established and obeyed. It is essential
to respect authority.

c) Level Three – Post-conventional Morality (after age 20)

 This is usually reached only after age 20 and by only a small proportion of
adults.

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 Called post-conventional level because the moral principles that underlie the
conventions of a society are understood.

Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation

 Rules are needed to maintain the social agreement at the same time the rights of the
individual should be protected.

Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principle Orientation

 Moral decisions should be made in terms of self-chosen ethical principles. Once
principles are chosen, they should be applied in consistent ways.

III. LEARNING
 A change in behavior resulting from the interaction of the organism with its
environment.
 Changes brought about by development is not learning (ex. ability to stand)
 Involves relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge which is the result of
experience or practice.
 A process of acquiring, remembering, applying skills, knowledge, attitudes and other
models of response.

Different Principles of Learning

And Their Applications in Classroom Situation
Principle Application in Classroom Situations
1. Learning by doing is Let the students have the feel of things through the hands-on
more effective than just activities. (Ex. to learn how to use the computer, a computer
sitting and listening. should be available for practice)
2. Concepts should be Teachers should be very creative, resourceful and imaginative in
presented in varied/ teaching so as not to make the students as well as themselves
different ways get bored. (Ex. If pictures were used in teaching on a Monday,
the next day the teacher may use storytelling.)
3. Learning is aided by Teaching is a two-way process. It’s not only the teachers who
formulating and asking will always do the talking and asking. Students should be given a
questions. chance to do the same thing. (Ex. Any question regarding the
discussion?)
4. Effort is put forth when In giving tasks to students, the teacher should consider that the
tasks are challenging tasks are not too difficult nor too easy and simple to do. (Ex.
asking students to write a reaction paper is not as challenging
as when you ask the student to present or interpret the story in
a creative manner.)
5. The principle of The learner must consider the student’s age in presenting
readiness is related to certain content and in expecting certain cognitive processes.
the learner’s stage of (Ex. A third grader can deal with concrete operations but cannot
development and their make inferences.)
precious learning.

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Different Principles of Learning

And Their Applications in Classroom Situation

A. Behavioral Learning Theories or Associative Learning Theories

 Prefer to concentrate on actual behavior
 Conclusions based on observations of external manifestations of learning
 Did not focus on any underlying changes that may take place in the learner

1. Ivan Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning

 Term classical means “in the established manner

 Individual learns when a previously neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned

stimulus until the neutral stimulus evokes a conditioned response

 Features of Classical Conditioning

 Stimulus Generalization - a process by which the conditioned response
transfers to other stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus
(ex.. If a pupil enters school for the first time and gets terrified at the sign of a
stern teacher, then that pupil may transfer that fear to anxiety to anything
about school to another teacher, pupil, book, building, etc.)

If you observe that a student is nervous in your class, try to discover what
caused it; take steps to introduce non-provoking stimuli with those that
caused the anxiety.

 Discrimination – a process by which one learns not to respond to similar stimuli

in an identical manner because of previous experiences. (Ex. A pupil learning to
read might have serious difficulties if he could not discriminate the letters p, b,
and d, or horizontal lines from vertical lines, left from right)

Stress to students the importance of being able to distinguish things that

seem alike but are different. One can discriminate because of prior
experiences. Provide continued practice to be used in searching for
differences

 Extinction – the process by which a conditioned response is lost. (Ex. If a

student is always scolded by the teacher for failing in the test, he/she will
develop fear in taking a test. But if in the succeeding tests, he/she passed with
flying colors and was praised by the teacher, gradually the fear in taking a test
will be extinguished.

The teacher may change his/her style or pattern of doing things so that
there will be a change of behavior or attitude on the part of the students.
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2. Edward Thorndike’s Connectionism

 Term connectionism means learning by selecting and connecting.
 Put more emphasis .on the response of the organism not limiting himself to the
association between the stimulus and the response.
 Believed that all learning is explained by bonds or connections that are formed between
the stimulus and response. These connections occur mainly through trial and error.
 Formulated the three major laws of learning
 Law of Readiness – readiness is an important condition in learning. A learner
may be satisfied or frustrated depending on his/her stage of readiness. The
learner should be biologically prepared.
A child is ready to learn if he/she shows interest / sustained interest /
improvement in performance.

 Law of Exercise – explains that any connection is strengthened in proportion to

the number of times it occurs and in proportion to the average vigor and
duration of the connection. Practice alone is not enough for improvement.

Let students practice what they have learned. Provide activities where
students can show/ perform/ apply not only in school but out of school as
well what was learned in the classroom.
 Law of Effect – when an organism’s response is accompanied or followed by a
satisfactory state, the strength of the connection is increased. If an annoying
stage accompanies or follows the response, the strength of the connection is
decreased. Rewards, successes or positive reinforcement further leaning, while
punishment, failure or negative experiences hinder it.

Teachers should consider individual differences. Things said or done may

have different effects on the behavior of students.

3. Burrhus Skinner’s Reinforcement and Operant Conditioning

 Stressed the consequence of behavior in order to learn.
 Proved that reinforcement is a powerful tool in shaping and controlling behavior in and
out of the classroom.
 Emphasized the greater influence of the environment or learning and behavior, that is
either to reinforce or eliminate.
 Reinforcer is a stimulus event that if it occurs in the proper temporal relation with a
response tends to maintain or increase the strength of a response, stimulus-response
connection.
- Primary – related to basic needs. Ex. food

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- Secondary – value of something is acquired when associated with primary

reinforce. Ex. money to buy food.

Reinforcement – not synonymous with reward. Psychologists use the term “reward”
and believed that reinforcement becomes effective when applied to specific behavior.

 Schedules of Reinforcement
1. Continuous – every time it occurs
2. Intermittent – every now and then
3. Ratio – after a set of response. Ex. for every 3 correct responses
4. Interval – after the first response made following predetermined period of
elapsed time
Teachers may use pleasant or unpleasant consequences to control the
occurrence of behavior.

4. Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Learning

 Called “observational learning’ or “social learning theory”.

 Learning takes place when one person observes and then imitates the behavior of others.
 Models are classified as
 Real life – teachers, parents
 Symbolic – oral or written symbols (ex. books)
 Representational – presented through audio – visual measures (ex. films)

Importance of Models
 Observer may inquire new responses
 May strengthen or weaken every existing response
 May cause the reappearance of responses that we apparently forgotten

Four Phases in Observational Learning

1. Attention – mere exposure does not ensure acquisition of behavior. Observer must attend
and recognize the distinctive features of the model’s response.
2. Retention – reproduction of the desired behavior implies that a student symbolically retains
the observed behavior.
3. Motor Reproduction Processes – after observation, have students demonstrate as soon as
possible. Correct behavior can be reinforced, while incorrect ones are altered.
4. Motivational Processes – although observer acquires and retains ability to perform the
modeled behavior, there will be no overt performance unless conditions are favorable.

Teachers should be aware of their behavior since children do not do just

what adults tell them to do but rather what they see adults do.

B. Cognitive Learning Theories

 Prefer to concentrate on analyzing cognitive processes
 Believe in the non-observable behavior

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 Define cognitive psychology as the study of structures and components of information

processing.

1. Kurt Lewin’s Field Theory

 View – focused on the psychological field or life and space of an individual
 Life space of an individual consists of everything one needs to know about a person in
order to understand his/her behavior in a specific psychological environment at a
specific time.
 Life space concept – it is not always possible to draw accurate conclusions simply by
observing overt behavior. To understand behavior it is often essential to be “subjective”
in the sense that the observer must see things from the subject’s point of view at a
given moment.
 Of significance to education is his view of motivation by psychological tensions
produced by the interaction of a psychological self with a psychological environment.

In a classroom for instance, each individual has his/her own psychological

field apart from others. Teachers, therefore, must try to suit the goals and
activities of the lessons to the learner’s needs.

2. Wolfgang Kohler’s Problem Solving Theory

 Insight is the
 Capacity to discern the true nature of a situation
 Imaginative power to see unto and understand immediately
 Gaining insight is a gradual process of exploring, analyzing and restructuring perceptions
until a solution is arrived.
 The more intelligent a person and the more experience he has, the more capable he will
be able for gaining insight.
 Held that animals and human beings are capable of seeing relationships between
objects and events and act accordingly to achieve their needs. They have the power of
looking into relationships involved in a problem and in coming up with a solution.
 His studies on apes led him to conclude that learning was a result of insightful solutions,
not blind trial and error.

Teachers should assist students in gaining insights by giving / presenting

activities /situations to do so they will be able to solve their problems.

3. David Ausubel’s Meaningful Learning Theory

 Meaningful learning is the acquisition of new meaning. Two important ideas in the
definition.
 Material to be learned is potentially meaningful
 Refers to the process by which students turn potentially meaningful material
into actual meaningfulness.

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 Meaningful learning occurs when the material to be learned is related to what students
already know.
 Two dimensions of learning processes
 The first relates to the two ways by which knowledge to be learned is made
available to the learner:
- Meaningfult Reception Learning - new logically, organized material is
presented in final form and the learner relates it to his / her existing .
- Rote Reception Learning – material in a kind is presented in final form
and is memorized.
 The second dimension relates to the two ways by which learner may
incorporate new information into his existing cognitive structure.
- Meaningful Discovery Learning – learner arrives at the solution to a
problem or other outcome independently and relates it to his existing
knowledge.
- Rote Discovery Learning – the solution is arrived at independently but is
committed to memory.

 This theory primarily applies to older students who can read reasonably well and who
already have a fund of basic concepts in a subject-matter field.

Teachers to take note that before actual learning is expected, the teachers may
use advance organizers – a term for an abstract, general overview of new
information.

4. Jerome Brunner’s Theory of Instruction

 Calls his view of learning “instrumental conceptualism”
 The acquisition of knowledge, whatever its form is a dynamic interactive process. A
learner is a purposive participant in the knowledge getting process who selects,
structures, retains and transforms information.
 Focused on the problem of what people do with information to achieve generalized
insights or understanding.
 Learning is seen as cognitive process that involves three (3) simultaneous processes.
 Acquisition – process of obtaining new information that can either replace or
refine something previously known
 Transformation – manipulation of information to fit new situations
 Evaluation – checking on whether or not the learned material has been
manipulated appropriately.
Teachers must strive to see a problem as the learner sees it and provide
information that is consistent with the learner’s perspective.

5. Robert Gagne’s Cumulative Learning

 Learning skills are hierarchally arranged, where there is a progression from developing
simple stimulus – response association to concepts and principles and problem solving.

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 Enumerated eight (8) levels of learning

 Signal Learning – where involuntary responses are learned. Similar to classical
conditioning. Ex. hot iron touched – flinching of the hand
 Stimulus – Response Learning – whose voluntary responses are learned. Similar
to operant conditioning. Ex. getting ready to move at the sound of a fire alarm/
 Motor /Verbal Chains Learning – two or more separate motor / verbal
responses maybe combined or chained to develop a more complex skill.
Ex. house + wife = housewife
 Discrimination Learning – learner selects a response which applies to certain
stimuli. Ex. sound of fire engine different from other sounds/ sirens.
 Concept Learning – involves classifying and organizing perceptions to gain
meaningful concepts. Ex. concept of “triangle” , discriminate triangle from other
shapes and deduce commonality among different shapes.
 Principle Learning (Rule Learning) – involves combining and relating concepts
already to form rules. Ex. Equilateral triangles are similar in shapes.
 Problem Solving – considered the most complex condition; involves applying
rules to appropriate problem situations. Ex. Solving mathematical problems
using given formula. Find the area of a square A = 1 x W

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