PART I: RETRIEVING AND SURFING FOR CONCEPTS AND

THEORIES IN SOCIAL SCIENCE

Social Science: An Overview

The study of society started many years ago. During the historical times, noted philosophers
such as Kung Fu Tzu, Plato, Aristotle, St. Thomas Aquinas, Niccolo Machiavelli, and Thomas Hobbes
examined the nature of human society.

Henri Saint Simon expounded between 1760 – 1825, the view that human behavior can be
determined using the method employed by natural scientists.

August Comte, a student of St. Simon, proposed the Theory of Positivism which is a means to
understand the world based on science. Comte believed that positivism is the means by which a more
rational and just society can be achieved. From there, he classified the sciences into hierarchy. The social
sciences then were divided into two major divisions – social statics - the study of the structure of
society, an social dynamics which deals with social evolution and change.

Like all other sciences, the social sciences formulate general truths and principles through
observation and experimentation. The social sciences deal with human interactions, social systems, and
social structures.

The different areas within the social sciences are:

History – a descriptive chronology of Axiology – study of ethics and value

significant past events.

Psychology – study of human behavior as Political Science – study of power

influenced by the human mind relations, political processes, and art of
government

Anthropology – the study of human and his Sociology – the study of society and social
society. It is about human behavior and interactions. It is concerned with social
human culture. relationships, social organizations,
communities and social elements
Geography - study of the conditions and
relationships of distributions of things on
Economics – the science dealing with the
earth. It aims to explain (1) how things are
production, distribution and use of goods
organized in an area, (2) the relationship
services, and wealth within societies
between the people and place
A. SOCIOLOGY AND CULTURE
 Meanings
 Society is a group of people who share a distinct and continuous way of life and
think of themselves as one, united people, a union of people for the purpose of
achieving a common end through common means

 Culture is the complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, art, law,
morals, customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by people as
members of society. It is the sum total of material and intellectual equipment
whereby humans satisfy their biological and social needs, and adopt to their
environment.

 Social Perspectives in Everyday life

Sociology and Social Sociology and Social Sociology and Social

Diversity Marginality Phenomena

A student in the campus or a Everyone belongs to a Great or important social

shopper in the mall are part
of diverse people in a
society.
particular group or category
such as race, gender,
economic status, or social
status.
events/ crisis compel us to do
sociological thinking. (Charles
Wright Mills, Sociological
Imagination, 1995

 Sociological Theories
 Structural – Functional Paradigm. A scent is a complex system whose parts
work together to promote stability.
 Social dysfunction is the undesirable effect of a social pattern on the operation
of society.
 Social-Conflict Paradigm. A society is a complex system characterized by
inequality and conflict that generate social change.

“The first impulse of the best, the wisest, and the richest is to segregate themselves from the
mass…” (William E. B. Dubois. 1899. The Philadelphia Negro: A Social Study)

 Symbolic-Interaction Paradigm. The society is continuously recreated as human

beings construct reality through interaction. We play different roles in different
social institutions.
 Evolutionary Theory is based on the belief that like biological organisms
societies develop increasing complexity in relation to their respective
environments. However, it does not necessarily mean that all changes are for
the better. Some societies may even deteriorate because of modern changes.
  Exchange Theory stands on the basic premise that rewards and costs exchanges
are part of social life. We expect gratification or satisfaction as the reward for
what we do. That sense of satisfaction is influences by our value system.

 Components of Culture
 Knowledge – the sum of information and understanding gained through
experience and study
 Symbols – basis of culture, foundation of everyday reality
 Language – the key to entering the culture of a society. Language is the bearer
and sharper of culture.
 Values – Cultural values have profound influence on us, thus shaping our
personalities. They are the standards by which members of a culture distinguish
the desirable from the undesirable, the good from the bad.
 Norms – set of rules of a society to guide the behavior of members of society.
Norms that tell us what we should do are called perspective norms while norms
that tell is what we should not do are called proscriptive norms.
 Material Culture and Technology
- Technology is the use of scientific knowledge for practical life purposes such
as the production of goods, tools, and equipment
- Material culture refers to people’s way of life as influenced by the material
objects produced by technology

 Levels of Cultural Participation

 Culture Universals
- Culture traits, complexes and patterns shared among all members of the
society such as biological needs, psychological needs, adaptation to a
particular physical environment, language, norms, and laws.
 Specialties
- Behavior expectations confined to certain subgroups requiring unusual skill
or training and reflect division of labor and hierarchy of status –
e.g. mechanics, teachers, priests, senators, doctors
 Alternatives
- Behavior expectations which permit a certain range of choice in human
behavior and specify the tolerable variations in behavior. People have
alternative ways of cooking, spending leisure time, dressing, or
worshipping God.
 Subcultures
They are smaller groups which develop norms, values, beliefs, and special
languages which make them distinct from the broader society.
Examples:
a. Tagalogs, Ilokanos, Negritos
b. Squatters, residents of Forbes Park or condominiums

 Contra culture or counter culture

They are smaller in conflict with the larger society which includes homosexuals,
drug addicts, secessionists, and rebels. They are considered deviants.

 Culture shock – feeling of being disoriented or disorganized when encountering another

culture different from one’s own culture.

 Characteristics of Culture

 Culture varies but there are also certain common features shared by many
societies.
 Culture is evolutionary.
 Culture is idealized and efforts are made to achieve these.
 Culture is integrative.
 Culture is relative – as culture varies, standards of society also vary.

 Issues in Understanding Culture

 Culture variability. There are different and varied cultures
 Cultural integration. There is an on-going process that joins/ unites the
different cultural elements.
 Cultural relativity. What is true with one culture may not be true with the other
cultures.
 Cultural diffusion. Culture spreads out.
 Ethnocentrism. It is the belief of some people that their own culture is the best.
 Xenophobia. It is fear of foreign culture.
 Xenocentrism. It is the preference for anything that is foreign. It is synonymous
who colonial mentality.
 Enculturation. People learn their culture within his/ her immediate
environment.
 Acculturation. People learn other cultures.
 People select cultural elements and use them.
 Amalgamation. Different cultural elements mix and blend to become one.

 Social Institutions
 Family. It is considered as the basic unit of society. It is the foundation of the
society. The success or failures in the family affect the society in general.
  Church. Its basic function is to impart and instill moral and religious precepts
 Government . It is the machinery of the State to implement its goals and
aspirations.
 School. Its primary function is to educate the people on things that are
considered basic and important to them to learn in order to carry out their
functions for personal and group purposes.

 Socialization
 Elements of socialization - a person’s biological inheritance and interaction
with others.
 Family – most important socialization agent
 School – transmits culture of the group such as values, knowledge, and
language
 Language – important tool in socialization

 Status and Role

 Ascribed status – naturally assigned to the individual
 Achieved status – acquired through competition

 Social Issues
 Social stratification – caste system (fixed), social class system (mobile)
 Gender inequality
 Racial/ ethnic relations
 Ways to minimize ethnic problems – accommodation, cultural pluralism
 Impact of modernization – growth of urban areas, changing values, and
lifestyles
 Population issues – teen age pregnancy, abortion, fertility control

 Social Problems
 Poverty – limited economic and social services, e.g. health, housing, sanitation,
education, and employment
 Unemployment and underemployment
 Street children
 Prostitution
 Drug Abuse
 Crimes