^be ©pen Court

A MONTHLY MAGAZINE

Bcvoteb to tbe Science of IRelfgfon, tbe IRelfgfon ot Science, an& tbe

Bxtensfon of tbe IReltglous parliament li^ea

Editor: Dr. Paul Carus. .

/tssormies.
I E. C. Hbgeler.
Assistant Editor: T. J. McCormack. -j
^^^^ Carus.

VOL. XIV. (no. 11) November, 1900. NO. 534

CONTENTS:
Frontispiece. The Farnese Herakies.
On Greek Religion and Mythology. The Demeter Myth. Orpheus. Her- — —
mes. — — —
Prometheus. Herakies. Heroes, With Illustrations from
the Monuments of Classical Antiquity. Editor .• 641
The Unshackling of A
Sketch of the History of the
the Spirit of Inquiry.
Conflict Between Theology and Science. (Concluded.) With Por-
traits of Roger Bacon, Giordano Bruno, and Montaigne. Dr. Ernst
Krause (Carus Sterne), Berlin 659
The Eleusinian Mysteries. II. Primitive Rites of Illumination. The Rev.
Charles James Wood, York, Penn 672
The International Arbitration Alliance. An Address Read Before the Peace
Congress, Paris, 1900. With the Constitution Presented for Adop-
tion by Mr. Hodgson Pratt. Dr. Moncure D. Conway, New York. 683
Christian Missions and European Politics in China. Prof. G. M. Fiamingo,
Rome 689
Chinese Education. With Portraits of the Chinese Philosophers, Chow-
kung, Chwang-tze, and Mencius. From Eighteenth Century Jap-
anese Artists. Communicated 694
The Congress of the History of Religions and the Congress of Bourges. Lucien
Arr6at 700
French Books on Philosophy and Science 701
The Ingersoll Lectureship on Immortality 702
Book Notices 704

CHICAGO
©be ©pen Court Ipublisbino Companie
LONDON : Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., Ltd.
Per copy, 10 cents (sixpence). Yearly, $1.00 (in the U. P. U., 58. 6d,).

Copyright, 1900, by The Open Court Publishing Co. Entered at the Chicago Post Ofi&ce as Second-Clasa Matter.
 — —

The Principles of Bacteriology

By DR. FERDINAND HUEPPE
Professor of Hygiene in the University of Prague

Translated from the German and annotated by Edwin O. Jordan,

Ph. D., Assistant Professor of Bacteriology in the University of Chicago.
28 Cuts. Five Colored Plates. Pages, 465. Price, $1.75 (gs.).

Invaluable Information for the Physician, Scientist, and General Reader.

Bacteriology is now in a state of transition. From having been de-

scriptive and classificatory, it is now becoming a genuinely organised body
of scientific knowledge, with its own principles, its own methods, and in-
dependent powers of scientific inference. Dr. Hueppe's book represents
this latest phase of development. He seeks to give to his science a critical
and logical setting, and to free it from all metaphysics. It is on its philo-
sophical character, in fact, that the greatest emphasis must be laid. The
book is new, just translated, and may be regarded as the only rigorous and
strictly scientific introduction to bacteriology yet written.

Press Commendations of the Original.

"Those who have already followed Professor Hueppe through his 'Methods' and
through his 'Forms of Bacteria' will be quite prepared to find here a philosophical treat-
ment of bacteriology such as has seldom been attempted in place of a mere repetition of
;

methods and enumeration of species Professor Hueppe has grappled with the fundamental
questions concerned and has in clear language given a cogent, philosophical, and scientific
account of bacteria and their relations to the processes with which they are said to be asso-
ciated. . It is the work of a master of the subject, who is not only a scientific man in the

sense of being an observer, but also in the sense of having a truly philosophical mind."
The Lancet, London.
"Books of bacteriological technique have been somewhat common in recent years but

nothing has hitherto appeared which, leaving out laboratory methods and systematic details,
gives a summary of the important discoveries of modern bacteriology. ... To any one who
wishes to know what bacteriology has accomplished and what problems are still undergoing
solution, nothing can serve better that this outline of Professor Hueppe."
"This work of Professor Hueppe is Those who are not
useful to two classes of readers.
bacteriologists, but who which the last quarter of a century
desire to learn the general facts
has discovered, will find here a brief but intelligible summary. Those who are already famil-
iar with the general facts will, perhaps, find the book of even more value in giving a clear
and simplified conception of the various confusing facts which have so rapidly accumulated
in recent years." Science, New York.

324 Dearborn St.

London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co., Ltd.
 THE FARNESI-: HEKAKLES.
(Naples.)

Frontispiece to The Open Court.

The Open Court
A MONTHLY MAGAZINE

Devoted to the Science of Religion, the Religion of Science, and

the Extension of the Religious Parliament Idea.

VOL. XIV. (NO. II.) NOVEMBER, 1900. NO. 534

Copyright by The Open Court Publishing Co., 1900.

ON GREEK RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY.

BY THE EDITOR.

THE DEMETER MYTH.

DEMETER (i. e., Mother Earth) is an indigenous Greek deity.

There is nothing Asiatic about her, as is the case with the

Ephesian Artemis. She is a more truly religious and less abstract
personification of earth than Gaea and thus must be counted among
the most significant figures of Greek mythology.

Demeter.
Terra cotta relief. (After Overbeck, Kunstinythologischer Atlas, pi. 16,

As the sunshine in combination with the fertile soil produces

vegetation, so Zeus begets with Demeter the goddess of flow^ers
and fruits, Persephone, also called Kora, that is, the maiden.
The Demeter myth is of great significance. The story goes
that Hades, the ruler of the dead, espied Persephone, the goddess
of vegetation, and abducted her to his dreary abode in the Under
World. The bereaved mother, Demeter, was disconsolate ; she
642 THE OPEN COURT.

wandered all over the earth in search of her daughter, bestowing

the blessings of agriculture and civilisation wherever she went, and
was determined not to return to Olympus until Zeus should send
Hermes down Hades with the command to allow Persephone
to
to return to her mother. The god of the dead obeyed, but gave
her the seeds of the pomegranate to eat, which made her a denizen

Demeter, the Queen of the Harvest Festivals.

Fresco of Pompeii. (Ahis. Borb., VI., 54.)

of the infernal regions forever. Thus the agreement arose that

fortwo thirds of the year the maiden should return to the surface
of the earth and for one third of the year, in winter, stay with her
grim husband. Hades. Demeter rejoiced at the restoration of her
daughter and had the Eleusinian Mysteries instituted to commem-
 ON GREEK RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY. 643

orate the loss and return of Persephone and to celebrate these

events as a symbol of the constant reappearance of the life of na-
ture and as a promise of the immortality of the human soul.

The Demeter myth is the subject of a most beautiful classical

hymn, commonly ascribed to Homer, which, like many other pieces
of Greek poetry, is untranslatable in its full grandeur and beauty.
The lamentations of the goddess for her lost daughter are most pa-
thetic. Demeter says :

" O me on behalf of my divine daughter, if ever either by

Sun, compassionate
word or deed have gratified thy heart and mind. My daughter whom I bore, a
I

sweet blossom, beauteous in form, whose frequent cries I have heard through the
sterile air, as though she were being forced away, but I have not beheld it with mine
eyes, — but do thou (for thou from the divine aether dost look down with thy rays

Altar of Demeter.'
(Frontispiece to Taylor's Eleusijiian and Bacchic Mysteries.)

upon all the earth and sea) tell me truly, dear son, if thou hast anywhere seen him,
of the gods or mortal men, who, without my consent, has seized her perforce and
carried her off."

Then Demeter wanders about spreading bliss wherever she

goes, and daughter is restored to her for two thirds of
at last her
the year, which time the goddess spends in "increasing the life-
giving fruit for men." At last Triptolemos, a local hero of Attica,
is sent out into the world as Demeter's messenger for the instruc-

tion of all the nations in the art of agriculture.

Schiller has cast similar ideas into German words and has
succeeded in producing a most thoughtful poem under the title of
Die Klage der Ceres, in which he describes the search of the discon-

IThe sacrifice to Demeter consists in a burning sheaf. She is worshipped by the people
whom she changes from barbarians into civilised men. Zeus approves of her mission and her
serpent guards the altar, decorated by her symbols, flowers, wheat, and fruit.
644 THfi OPEN COURt.

solate mother, the institution of agriculture together with the es-

tablishment of cities and states, the restoration of her lost child,
and the celebration of the Eleusinian harvest festival.
Grote, in his History of Greece Wo\. I., p. 55, after an admirable
analysis of Homer's Hymn to Detneter, recommends it no less as a

3-

Christ as Orpheus. •

I and 3,from paintings in the cemetery of St. Calixtus in the Catacombs

of Rome. 2, from a coin of Antoninus Pius (third century).

picture of the Mater Dolorosa than as an illustration of the nature

and growth of Grecian legend generally, saying :

"In the an Athenian, Demetfir and Persephonfi were always the

mouth of
Mother and Daughter, by excellence. She is first an agonised sufferer, and then

1 Symbols and Emblems of Early and Mediaeval Christian Art. By Louisa Twining. PI. i6-
London, 18B5.
 ON GREEK RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY. 645

finally glorified, — the weal and woe of men being dependent upon her kindly feel-
ing."
Grote adds :

" Though we now read this hymn as pleasing poetry, to the Eleusinians, for
whom it was composed, it was genuine and sacred history. They believed in the
visit of Demeter to Eleusis, and in the mysteries as a revelation from her, as im-
plicitly as they believed in her existence and power as a goddess."

ORPHEUS.
The Orphic Mysteries were similar to the Eleusinian, in ritual
as well as in significance,
and though we possess but meagre in-
formation concerning the legend and cult, which were kept secret,
we know that it inculcated in some way a belief in immortality.
646 THE OPEN COURT.

Orpheus, the singer who tamed the wild beasts of the woods by
by death; but going down to the
his music, lost his wife, Eurydice,
Under World he moved Hades by his music to suffer her to follow
him back again to the Upper World on condition that he should
not look round upon her. He violated this condition, however,
and she vanished from his sight.
The legend runs that Orpheus was slain, or, like Dionysos
Zagreus, torn to pieces by the frenzied women of Thrace. Our in-
formation is too scanty and also contradictory to allow us to form
any clear conception of the meaning of the Orphic rituals and
myths but one thing
; is certain : there were many among the early

Hermes Psychopompos and

THE Angel of Death.'
(Relief on a hollow marble
column of Ephesus )
GoRGO AS Amulet. 2

Christians who revered Christ as a redeemer from death in the same

sense as the Orphic priests believed in the efficacy of the Orphic
Mysteries; for pictures of Christ as Orpheus are quite common in
the catacombs.

HERMES.
From Maia (that is, the nourishing one, the mother goddess)
Zeus begot Hermes, the herald of the gods, the protector of com-
merce and trade, and the deity that conducted souls to Hades.
1 Between Hermes and Death stands the figure of a woman, perhaps Persephone. See Wood,
Discov.at Ephesus, London, 1877, and for illustrations of the "columna caeXdiia," Arch. Zig.,
1865, pi. 65. B. D., p. 281, and Springer, HJb., I., p. 181.

2Gem from Kertch. After Comte-Rendu, i860, pi. 4, fig. 6. (Roscher, Lex., p. 1711.) See the
illustrations on page 658 of the present Open Court,
 ON GREEK RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY. 647

Hermes is a god who gained in significance the more the be-

lief inthe Beyond grew in importance, for Hermes (even as early
as Homeric times) was the leader of souls to the Under World
(6 i/o^xoTTo/ATTos) and he, too, as we learned in the Demeter legend,
,

assists the subjects of Hades to return to the world of light and

life. He was worshipped as the resurrector, and artistic represen-
tations of this office became the prototypes of pictures of Christ
raising the dead.
The reverence for Hermes grew when he became identified
with the Egyptian Thoth, the scribe of the gods and the god of
wisdom, of learning, of science ; the deity of the word, of the writ-
ten revelation, of science, who was called Poimander, the shepherd
of men.
The Egyptian influence which, as we have seen, was very
strong in the early days of Greece, made itself felt also in the period

Prometheus Chained to the Rock and Liberated by Herakles.

Ancient sarcophagus now in the museum of the Capitol, Rome.

of decline,and many ideas, such as of Abraxas, the Adorable One,

of Thoth, the incarnate Word, of Serapis (presumably a corruption
of Osiris Apis), the slain and resurrected God, of Isis the Holy
One, the Mother of God, of Harpokrates, God the Child, as well
as the institution of monkhood practised by the followers of Sera-
pis, penetrated the Greek world at the beginning of the Christian
era and left their impression on the beliefs of the people, partly
preparing for the advent of the new religion and partly entering
into it in a modified form.

PROMETHEUS.
One Titanic figure deserves especial mention, from possessing
mankind and as the sufferer.
a peculiar significance as the shaper of
It is Prometheus, the bold, struggling genius of progress, the esprit
fort, the man who dares and does. He bestows on mankind the
648 THE OPEN COURT.

heavenly spite of the prohibition of Zeus, and is

gift of fire in

willing to suffer for on the cross (as ^Eschylus expresses it),

it

being fastened at the command of Zeus to Mount Caucasus by

Hephaestos. There daily an eagle appears to lacerate the liver of
this martyr for the cause of human welfare; and the liver grows
again over night so as to perpetuate the torture, when finally Her-
akles comes to his rescue. This hero shoots the eagle and recon-
ciles Zeus and Prometheus, the proud sovereign and the noble-

Peleus Struggling with Thetis.'

Vase-picture in Munich. (After Gerhard, Ajiserl. Vasetib., III., 227. -B.D.,i7g9.)

The Judgment of Paris. ^

Bas-relief in the Villa Ludovisi (yJ/o/z. hist., III., 29).

minded rebel. Prometheus then communicates to Zeus the secret

that Thetis, the goddess of the deep sea, whom Zeus intended to
1 When Zeus decided to have Thetis married to a mortal man, Peleus was chosen but the ;

latter had to conquer his bride, and in this task he succeeded (according to the painter of the
vase) with the assistance of the wise centaur Cheiron, the educator of Achilles. A nymph Ponto-
medusa gives the cause of her mistress up as lost and flees.
2 Hermes conducts Hera, Athene, and Aphrodite into the presence of Paris, who is tending
his flocks in company with his wife Oinone. Hera and Athene are at the right of Paris Aphro- ;

dite is at his left. Eros leans on his left shoulder. Herakles, Artemis, Helios, a river god, and
a nymph witness the scene.
 ON GREEK RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY, 649

marry, was (like Themis) destined to bear a child that would be

greater than his father.
In Hesiod's Theogony Prometheus appears as a mere mischief-
maker, but in the later development of religious thought he be-
comes the ideal of human progressiveness and courage of thought,
being a Greek anticipation of, and a parallel to, the Faust character
in the legends of the times of the Renaissance.
Prometheus, the Forethinker, is contrasted with his brother
Epimetheus, the man of after-thought. Prometheus had warned
Epimetheus not to accept any gift from Zeus, but the latter found a
woman whom he called Pandora, the "all-gift," so beautiful that
Epimetheus could not resist the temptation and received her with

ISDUBAR, THE BABYLONIAN HeRAKLES, CONQUERING THE LlON.

(Lenormant. Histoire ancienne de r Orient, Vol. V., p. 178.)

a box of gifts into his house. When the box was opened all the ills

that f^esh is heir to flew out, filling the world with woe.
The Promethean spirit is powerfully described by Goethe in
his poem Prometheus, where the bold Forethinker is characterised
as taking his stand against Zeus and building up an independent
liberty-lovinghumanity in spite of the tyrant in heaven.
Zeus was slow in granting man his liberty, but apparently he
did not mean to become an enemy to human progress. Thus Zeus
and Prometheus were reconciled and now the God is warned by
the prophetic Titan of the danger that threatened him. Zeus there-
upon has Thetis married to Peleus, a mortal, whose son Achilles
650 THE OPEN COURT.

becomes the famous hero of Homer's Iliad. The wedding of Peleus

is the beginning of the Trojan war, for Eris, the goddess of quarrel,
the only deity that was not invited, rolls into the assembly a golden
apple with the inscription, "To the fairest." Hera, Athene, and
Aphrodite contend for the prize, and Paris, the shepherd of Mount
Ida and son of King Priam, is appointed by Zeus as judge. Hera
offers him fame, Athene wisdom, and Aphrodite the most beautiful
woman on earth. Paris decides in favor of Aphrodite who helps
him to abduct Helen, Queen of King Menelaus of Lacedaemon, which
becomes the cause of the Trojan war.

HERAKLES.
The hero-myths ofGreece are specialised forms of the worship
of Zeus in his sons as saviours of mankind. All heroes are children

) A .^=^^t\
 ON GREEK RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY. 651

Historians have proved beyond the shadow of a doubt that

Herakles is none other than the Phoenician Melkarth, the Baal of
Sor (i. e., Tyre), and the Phoenician Melkarth again is none other
than Bel Merodach, the Christ of the Assyrians and Babylonians.
The Israelites knew him under the name of Samson and told
legends of him that betray his solar origin. As the nations of
Western Asia have inherited much of their civilisation as well as of
their religion from the ancient Sumero-Accadians, the assumption

Melkarth.^ The Farnesian Atlas. -

Colossal statue found at Ama-
(After a photograph. B. D.
thus. {Gazette archeologique
I., 225.)
1879, pi. XXXI.)

is justified that the legend of Herakles, the Greek Melkarth, is the

Hellenised form of a very old myth, — a venerable heirloom handed
down from prehistoric ages.
Herakles is the god-man, the sun-god incarnate, who in his

IThe god holds a lion in his hands as if on the point of tearing it in twain. His beard is
trimmed in Assyrian fashion, indicating the home of the artist's prototype. Cf. Lenormant, His
toire ancienne de I' Orient, Vol. VI., p. 566.
2AtIas (i. e., the bearer), according to Homer, carries the dome of heaven, which seems to
rest on the ocean. Artists represent him bearing the segment of a star-covered globe (see, for
instance, the illustration of the garden of the Hesperides, v. infra). Later statues show him
with a zodiacal globe on his shoulders.
652 THE OPEN COURT.

wanderings bestows blessings upon the children of the earth and

by bold deeds rescues mankind from evil. The twelve labors of

The Twelve Labors of Herakles.

Relief in the Villa Albani at Rome,
a, Herakles Nemean lion b, he rescues Theseus from the Underworld c, he tames
kills the ; ;

the horses of Diomedes, a nymph witnesses the scene; d, he conquers the Lernasan hydra in
the presence of the nymph Lerna e, he catches the Kerenitic hind /, he shoots the Stymphalian
; ;

birds, a deed which moves the pity of the local nymph; g, he carries home the Erymanthian
boar h, he tames the Kretan steer ?, he cleanses the stable of Augeas, the river god Alpheios
; ;

seated before him, furnishes the water k, he conquers the three-bodied Geryones, behind them
;

stands the nymph of Spain /, he kills the dragon who guards the apples of the Hesperides, one
;

of them being present in the scene, the goats being the animals of Libya; /«, he conquers the
centaurs (according to the common version, the Amazons).

Herakles are the accomplishments of the sun during the twelve

months. How much Herakles, as the rescuer from evil, was like
 ON GREEK RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY. 653

Christ to the Greek mind, appears from the reverence with which
philosophers speak of him as the beloved son of Zeus.
The last deed of Herakles is his death and resurrection (cyepo-ts).
He dies in the flames of the funeral pyre, but rises to renewed life
on the height of Olympus, where he is given in marriage to Hebe,
the blooming daughter of Hera.
Epictetus says of Herakles:
" He knew an orphan, but that there is a father always and
that no man is

constantly for all not only heard the words that Zeus was the
of us. He had
father of men, for he regarded him as his father and called him such and looking ;

up to him, he did what Zeus did. Therefore he could live happily everywhere."
The philosopher Seneca echoes the same sentiment when he
contrasts the unselfishness of Herakles with the ambition of other

Herakles Taken Up to Heaven by Athena in a Chariot.

(After Mon. /)ist., IV.,
Picture on a Lucanian vase in Munich. 41.)

heroes, who may be brave and courageous, lijce Alexander the Great,
for instance, but are not saviours. He says :

'
' Herakles never gained victories for himself. He wandered through the
circle of the earth, not as a conqueror, but as a protector. What, indeed, should
the enemy of the wicked, the defensor of the good, the peace-bringer, conquer for
"
himself either on land or sea !

HEROES.
Odysseus, like Herakles, is originally the sun-god and his wan-
derings through the earth are the course of the sun over the world.
Like the sun, Odysseus descends in the far West into Tartaros and
comes up again.
1 Satyrs gaze with astonishment at the pyre, the flames of which are extinguished by two
nymphs, called Arethusa and Premnusia.
654 THE OPEN COURT.

The Odyssey is the Greek version of the Rdmdyana, a Brahman

story of similar significance, while the Iliad finds its counterpart in
the Mahdbhdrata, the legend of the great war.^
Other heroes, such as Theseus (i. e., he who brings about set-
tled conditions, the organiser, or legislator), Bellerophon, Perseus,

the Dioskuri, etc., areall slayers of monsters and are, if we make

allowance for local coloring, variations of the same fundamental

1 These two Indian epics are unquestionably of great antiquity, but it is interesting to note
that (asWeber endeavors to prove) Valmiki, a late redactor of the Rfttndyana, must have been
familiar with Homer. He lived somewhat after the beginning of the Christian era when Greek
influence began to make itself felt in India.
2Between Hebe, the girlish bride, and Herakles who is here youthful and beardless, hovers
Eros. Zeus and Hera are on the left. Aphrodite with Hiineros and two of her maids, Charis and
Peitho, on the right. Underneath Dionysos arrives in his chariot, drawn by panthers. From
the opposite side Apollo and Artemis arrive, while Eunomia and Euthymia receive the guests.
 ON GREEK RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY. 655

idea that permeates the whole of Greek mythology, of the same

theme of saviourship, which is most apparent in the Herakles myth.
The story of Demeter's daughter and her sad fate finds many
parallels in the legends of dying gods and heroes, among which the
most typical is the tale of the death of Adonis. Like the Herakles
myth, it is of Phoenician origin, the name Adonis being nothing

Perseus Liberating Andromeda.

Ancient relief. Capitol. (From Springer, Hatidb., p. 256.)

else than the Greek form of the Semitic title of God, Adon, i. e..
Lord, a word which is used in the same significance in the Bible.
Adon, the sun-god and husband of Astarte, the Phoenician Venus,
dies and is resurrected. He is the same as Tammuz for whom, as

the prophet Ezekiel, Jewish women wept in the temple.

656 THE OPEN COURT.

Theseus, the Slayer of the Minotaur,

Receiving the thanks of the rescued victims. ^ (Fresco in the Campagna
from Mus. Borb., X., 50.)

i^vi?

Jason Securing the Golden Fleece. -

Vase of Naples. (Reproduced from Heydemann, Hall.
Winckelmanyisprogramyn, 1886, pi. 3.)

1 This picture, frequently copied in frescoes, has become famous through Goethe's admirable
description which appears in Vol. XXX., 425 f. of his collected works (edition Ootta).

2The hero is accompanied by Medea and two warriors. A satyr's head is visible in the tree
and the bust of Nike appears in the sky.
 ON GREEK KKI.IGION AND MY 657

The mourning with subsequent rejoicing that was

festival of
celebrated in Cyprus for Adon-Tammuz, was changed in Christian
times into a kind of Christian mystery-play of the death and resur-
rection of Lazarus. Thus the underlying ideas remain the same
with the change of time.

Jason Rescued by Athena from the jaws of the Dragon.

Attic vase from Caere. Roscher, Lex., II., p. 85.

Samples of Monsters on ^Eg^an Stones. -

{Arch. Ztg., 1883, pi. 16, Nos. 7, 3, 16.)

1 Happily the interpretation of this picture is definitely determined by both the name lASfiN
and the golden fleece hanging on the tree. The picture does not represent the common version
of the legend, but is interesting as showing that Greek mythology also possessed its Jonas who
had been in the belly of a monster. A similar legend is told of Herakles, an illustration of which
is given on page 650.

2 The ..^igaean stones, the Inselsteine of German archaeologists, so called because found on the

islands of the ^Egsean sea, exhibit the beginning of glyptic art, imported into Greece from the
Orient.
658 THE OPEN COURT.

A which is frequently chiseled on sarcophagi,

favorite legend
on account promise of the soul's return from Tartaros, is the
of its
story of Admetos and Alkestis. The hero Admetos (i. e., the in-
vincible, one of the many representatives of the god of death) woos
Alkestis (i. e. the Strong One, a form of Persephone) the daughter
,

of Pelias. He shows his prowess by appearmg in a chariot drawn

by a wild boar and a lion. The bridal chamber, however, is filled
with snakes (a symbol of the goddess of the earth) and Admetos

Amulets.'
Necklace of various votive symbols, found in the Crimea.
(Jahn, pi. v., 2.—B. D., I., 76.)

Gold Capsules, or iiuLLAE.

Worn round the neck as receptacles for amulets. (After Arch. Journ.,
VI., 113, and VIII., 166.)

is doomed to die. Apollo then pleads with the Fates to spare his
life,and the three goddesses allow him to send a substitute to the
Under World, whereupon Alkestis declares her readiness to sacrifice
herself for her husband, and becomes thus the ideal wife, faithful
unto death. Persephone in recognition of her heroism, however,
allows Alkestis to return to life.

[TO BE CONTINUED.]

1 Votive figures appear to have been used in ancient Greece and Italy as much as they ar
now by the devotees of the Greek and Roman Catholic Churches.
 THE UNSHACKLING OF THE SPIRIT OF
INQUIRY.'

BV DR. ERNSr KRAUSE (CARUS STERNE).

IMPORTANT above all in the development we have been con-

was the growing opposition which arose against the
sidering
prevailing methods of philosophy. Concerning the relation of
thought to being, and of the concepts which we form of things
to the real nature of these things, the idealism introduced by
Plato had hitherto prevailed; that is, the view that the general
concepts {jiniversalia) were actualities existing before and outside
of the objects themselves, and were originally present in the Divine
Mind as archetypes before their incorporation; and that from the
Divine Mind they had emanated to the human mind, which is de-
rived from it; whence it is possible through pure reason to find
out the essence of things, that is, truth. These notions of the
Idealists (who gave themselves the significant name of Realists),
as we have seen, although they were somewhat limited by Aris-
totle, had been opposed from olden times by the Stoics, for they
had quite correctly recognised the notions of genus and species as
mere abstractions {nomina), and in contrast to the so-called Real-
ists were called Nominalists. This had been merely an academic
dispute until the Church took the part of the Realists, and in 1092
at the Synod of Soissons condemned the canon, John Roscellinus
of Compiegne and his teaching, because he had ventured to apply
the nominalistic views to the conception of God.
The dispute became especially warm, when the Franciscan,
William of Occam, a pupil of Duns Scotus {^doctor subtilis), who
was the opponent of Thomas Aquinas, refused to concede to the
operations of the mind anything but their subjective existence and
truth. The Church felt how greatly its dogmas were endangered by

1 Conclusion of the article by the same author in the preceding Open Court.
66o THE OPEN COURT.

this intellectual revolution, and from 1339 on, repeatedly forbade

the use of the books of William of Occam, especially in France,
whence his followers took refuge in the German universities, until
in 1481 when the teachings of the Nominalists were allowed even
in Paris. At bottom the issue in this controversy was the over-
throw of the scholastic methods of teaching, and when Hugo
Spitzer in recent times praised the Nominalists as "Darwinians
before Darwin, "^ his expression was appropriate in this respect
only, that by eliminating the concepts of genus and species from
the realm of reality they dealt the methods of scholasticism just
such a blow as Darwin with his new explanation of the concepts of
genus and species dealt to scholasticism in natural history. Their
real influence was essentially critical and clarifying of positively ;

constructive contributions to knowledge, such as Darwin's, they

made few.
Much more far-reaching was the doctrine emphasised by Roger
Bacon (died 1292), called by his followers doctor ynirabilis, that we
cannot learn nature from the Bible and old books, nor interpret it
from our inner consciousness, but that we must see with our own
eyes and study the Creator in His works, and must even learn their
significance by investigation and experiment. However, for these
and other heresies he was kept in the dungeon of his monastery for
years and punished with such severe fasts that he nearly died of
hunger. Bacon's thought, that beside the old Scriptures there was
a second source of knowledge of the greatness of God, was em-
braced with the greatest enthusiasm, especially by Raymond of
Sabunde, who taught in Toulouse about 1436. Though a thoroughly
devout Christian, he did not hesitate to say in his Theologia natu-
ralis sen liber creaturaruf?i, that of the two revelations ascribed to
the same author the one found in nature was decidedly preferable
to that of the Scriptures, for all men could read the former while
the Bible was understood only by the clergy. Nature, therefore,
must constitute the alphabet of all teachers, and must be studied
first of all as the foundation and source of all the sciences. For it
could be misunderstood by no one, not even by a heretic, which
might easily occur in the case of the Scriptures, where moreover
corruption of the text was not beyond the possibilities. Though
the heathen had sometimes misunderstood nature, this could not
be so with Christians, and they would find it everywhere in har-
mony with the Bible.
The Church did not at first pay to the nature-theology of this
1 H. Spitzer, Nominalismus und Realismus, Leipsic, 1875.
 THE UNSHACKLING OK THE SPIRIT OF INQUIRY. 66

unquestionably pious teacher the attention which it certainly de-

served for he professed many ideas wholly out of harmony with
;

the teachings of the Church, notably the theory of the central po-
sition of the sun. Only when the German Cardinal and Bishop,

Roger Bacon.
;i2I4-1292.)

English monk, philosopher, and heretic. Forerunner of the renaissance of science

Nikolaus of Cusa (from Kues on the Mosel, died 1464), the most
evident forerunner of Copernicus, openly challenged scholasticism
in his work upon Learned Ignorance, and taught the motion of the
earth and the plurality of inhabited worlds, did the Church gradu-
662 I THE OPEN COURT.

ally begin to recognise the threatening danger which was involved

in the study of nature, so warmly recommended by Roger Bacon
and Raymond of Sabunde. Therefore together with the more and
more numerous religious heretics, those men were also summoned
before the tribunal of the Inquisition whose non-conforming views
and teachings were not directly concerned with religion but with
the new astronomy and natural history. Pietro d'Abano, Cecco
d'Ascoli, Giordano Bruno, Campanella, Galileo, Vanini and others
suffered not so much for their actual religious heresies as for their
and several of those who refused to renounce
scientific convictions,
their views were burned at the stake. For even in the case of her-
etics whose errors lay in the direction of natural history, the Church
in her mildness and mercy shrank from the shedding of blood and
preferred the purifying flame as a means of extermination.
Meanwhile, the art of printing, so destructive to belief on au-
thority, had been invented. Thus heresies could spread with multi-
plied rapidity over distant lands, and Pope Paul IV. felt it neces-
sary to establish in 1559 a special council, the congregation of the
Index Expurgatorius, whose incumbents were occupied with the
examination of recently composed as well as already published
works, in order to condemn to strangulation before birth or to a
subsequent death by fire those which contained truths hostile to
Church dogma. The reopened Council of Trent (1562-1563) set-
what must be believed and what regarded as heresy;
tled in detail
and the Pope, following the recommendation of Tertullian, for-
bade, under penalty of excommunication, every unauthorised dis-
cussion or interpretation of the decretals, as being the exclusive
prerogative of the Papal See. In order to set a good example, he
had one of his own writings placed in the Index. The progress of
the Reformation had made these measures seem necessary; a defi-
nite boundary had to be set between what was to be truth, and
that which must not be truth, and the list of forbidden books soon
increased like an avalanche. The Theologia Naturalis of Raymond
of Sabunde, translated into French in 1569 by Michel Montaigne,
one hundred and fifty years after its publication, underwent a pain-
ful operation in the amputation of the introduction, which treated

of the advantage of the study of nature over that of the Scriptures.

Indeed, the universe of Aristotle and the Church appeared
to have suddenly become disjointed. The discovery of America
had made untenable the formerly current views of the Church con-
cerning the form of the earth and the impossibility of the antipo-
des. A canon of Frauenburg had dealt the death blow to the be_
 THE UNSHACKLING OK THE SPIRIT OK INQUIRY. 663

the central position of the earth. Then, as always when the

lief in

current views of the universe are disturbed by great discoveries,

and the opinions hitherto regarded as certain truths are shown to
be groundless assumptions, reflexions on the danger of investiga-
tion and on the errors of human reason became prominent. The
study of those processes is so much the more important, because
we are to-day experiencing a similar intellectual revolution, begin-
ning with the work of Darwin which shattered beyond repair the
theory of creation advanced by Linnaeus and Cuvier, a theory which
was still affected by the philosophy of Aristotle, and which had
barely held its own up to that time as a thing of shreds and patches.
In that time, when men's minds were awaking and, to use the
expression of Hutton, "it was a joy to live," every one thought he
might believe what he considered reasonable without being obliged
to heed the doctrines of the Church. The French jurist and politi-
cal economist, Jean Bodin, in his Course in Historical Science (1566)
made bold to attack the story of Paradise, and to retouch the Bible
picture of the beginning of the human race, in the light of informa-
tion from America. Ridicule and satire, such as the freethinkers,
Rabelais above all others, poured out upon all things formerly be-
lieved and held sacred, grew at an alarming pace, and we can
easily understand how even men of calm and sober minds were
shaken in their inmost convictions by these attacks.
Of the greatest interest in this connexion is the attitude of the
French nobleman, Michel Montaigne, a man of independent judg-
ment and well read in the works of antiquity. He constantly
vacillated between the faith of his fathers, the philosophers, the
new views, and his own reason, and very fittingly selected for his
device a pair of scales with the motto: "What do I know?" His
attempts to justify the old views and at the same time take into
account the new knowledge, seem indeed, as Jacob Fries recently
attempted to show,^ to have been incorporated in the gloomy
brooder, Hamlet, and to have had the greatest influence upon the
conception of that character. In his longest essay, \}c\g. Justificatiofi
of Rayrnond of Sabunde, he professed (p. 2) to favor the view of the
academician, Balbus, emphasising the idea, that animals fare bet-
ter on the whole than men, in that nature has given them no more
reason than they need for their existence, while man has received
more than he can use to his profit, and yet not enough to overcome
the errors arising from the excess.

'i Shakespeare and Montaigne. An Endenvour to Explain the Tendency of Hatnlct. London,
664 THE OPEN COURT.

With the free use of our reason and the ability to govern our
actions according to our discretion and judgment, he says, there
fell also to our lot "inconstancy, indecision, uncertainty, anxiety,

Giordano Bruno.
. (1548-1600.)
Italian monk and philosopher. Burnt at the stake as a heretic.
Specially drawn for The Of en Court from an engraving in the Cabinet
des Estampes of Paris.

superstition, worry about what the future may bring, even though
it be not until after our death, arrogance, jealousy, avarice, envy,
evil and untamable passions, quarrelsomeness, falsehood, faithless-
 THE UNSHACKLING OF THE SPIRIT OK INQUIRY. 665

ness, abusiveness, and curiosity." The simple-minded man, he

says, lives withoutthought of the morrow, happy and content with
his lot, without hoping or fearing much from the future; and he
would therefore already possess that peace of mind which philos-
ophers praise as the most desirable good without ever being able
to attain it.

&JSi^fe:^jS^.^!U.^l^Mg^J ^^^/^|^.^wju^ L^ a-vm

Michel Evquem de Montaigne.

' •
. . (1533-1592-;

iTench essayist and philosopher. (From an engraving by Th. de Leu.)

He says in another passage: "In my day I have seen hun-

dreds of artisans and laborers, who lived more wisely and more
happily than the rectors of the university, and whom therefore I
should rather resemble than the latter." Much thinking, he said,
is in its very nature not conducive to the health of the body.
666 THE OPEN COURT.

"Animals, by their health, teach us plainly enough how often

mental agitation causes illness. What we are told of the inhabi-
tants of Brazil, to wit, that they die only of old age, and which is

ascribed to the purity and calmness of their climate, I ascribe

rather to the peace and serenity of their minds, free from all emo-
tions and reflexions, from all intense or disagreeable activity, as
being people who pass their lives in admirable simplicity
and ignor-
ance, without science, without law, without a king, and without
any religion whatever. How much suffering is caused by our in-
tensely morbid imagination alone! In order to realise the differ-
ence, one need only compare the life of a hypochondriac, constantly
tortured by the belief that he is ill or may become ill, with that of
a laborer who follows his natural impulses and judges things only
according to the momentary impression, without knowledge and
forethought, feeling disease onlywhen it exists, while the former
often carries the stone about in his mind before he has it in his
kidneys as if it were not enough to endure the evil when it comes,
;

he anticipates it in fancy and even runs to meet it."

The unfortunate singer oi Jerusalem Delivered whom Montaigne
visited in a madhouse at Ferrara, likewise serves him as an exam-
ple of the pernicious influence of the mind on the body. "Were
not his sufferings to be ascribed to this quickly consuming fire, this
brightness which blinded him, this acute and intense application of
the mind which deprived him of his reason, and this anxious and
diligent pursuit of the sciences which has reduced him to a level
with the brutes ?"
Then Montaigne proceeds to declaim especially against the
ever-increasing arrogance and pride of the human reason. Since
we have received from nature the faculties of discrimination and
free-will, we must use them; but, in doing so, we must never for-
get the proper caution and reserve. "Our innate defect is self-
conceit. Of all creatures man is the weakest and frailest, and yet
the most conceited. Although he finds himself lodged in the filth
and foulness of this world, in the meanest, most sluggish and most
rotten part of the universe, in the lowest story and farthest from
the vault of heaven, and although he feels himself bound to the
ground in the company of crawling beasts, yet by the power of his
imagination he sweeps out beyond the path of the moon and leaves
the heavens at his feet." Finally, man thinks that the earth was
created only for him, the sun and moon to give him light, nay,
even that God himself exists only to create and care for him. From
 THE UNSHACKLING OF THE SPIRIT OF INQUIRY. 667

this same conceit arises the mania

for finding out the connexion of
all things, misuses of reason, philosophy.
and that worst of all
"The first temptation," he says, "which was devised for the
human race by the devil, his first poison, appealed to us through
the promise which he made with reference to knowledge and under-
standing, 'Ye shall be as gods, knowing good and evil.' "Accord-
ing to Homer, the Sirens same fashion attempted to entice
in this
Ulysses into their fatal toils by offering him the gift of their knowl-
edge. His hope of mastering all knowledge is the curse of man.
This is the reason why, in our religion, ignorance is declared ab-
solutely necessary for faith and obedience." Montaigne closes
these exhortations with a summary of what philosophy has revealed
up to his time. He finds that all its efforts have accomplished
nothing except to make plainer what Socrates already knew, that
we know nothing and can know nothing, but that there is no folly
so great as not to be called truth by some philosopher. ^
Moreover, it is not to be supposed that these tirades against
the use of knowledge were heard only from the Catholic camp,
whence Agrippa of Nettesheim wrote his book De vanitate
also
scientiartwi,and Erasmus of Rotterdam, a half-heretic, to be sure,
his Praise of Folly. Luther himself, who on January 17, 1546, as-
cended the pulpit to preach against "the accursed harlot. Reason,"
regarded philosophy in the same light, although, of course, the
favorite philosopher of Rome fared the worst. He exclaims
"This doubly accursed Aristotle is a very devil, a dreadful slan-
derer, an infamous sycophant, a prince of darkness, a real Apol-
lyon, a beast, a vile deceiver of mankind, almost wholly destitute
of philosophy, an open and confessed liar, a salacious ram, a con-
firmed Epicurean." The scholastics Luther characterised with
somewhat more deserved abhorrence by the epithets, "grasshop-
and so forth. Other reformers, Me-
pers, caterpillars, frogs, lice,"
lanchthon and Calvin, for instance, sympathised with this hatred
on the whole, even though they did not give it such vigorous ex-
pression.
In the course of time this aversion for science gradually relaxed
in the Protestant Church, and since this Church lacked from the
beginning such violent means of repression as the Index and Inqui-
sition, it was able occasionally to offer philosophers a refuge, and
the whole development of philosophy from Descartes to Spinoza,

ICf. Montaigne's London Essays. 1754. Vol. IV., pp. 229, 333, 337, 340, 351 ; Vol. V., p. 126
etc.

2Cf. Draper, History of the Conflict Between Science and Religion,

668 THE OPEN COURT.

from Leibnitz and Hegel took place exclusively in

to Kant, Fichte,
Protestant states. To be was a Catholic, and at times
sure, Descartes
decorated his hat with effigies of the saints in order to remain un-
molested but in order to cultivate philosophy unhampered he had,
;

like Giordano Bruno, to seek refuge in Protestant states. Thus

even the philosophy of Descartes, in spite of its concessions touch-
ing the nature of the soul, and in spite of the efforts of Male-
branche, entirely failed to influence Catholic doctrines. The phi-
losophy of this Church still rests upon the principles of Aristotle,
and independent thinkers, such as J. C. Baltzer and Frohscham-
mer, who show the least inclination to depart in their psychology
from the views of Thomas Aquinas, are immediately called before
the pope, and their writings placed on the Index.
The consequence of this proceeding has been that free inves-
tigation and science could not prosper under the scepter of Church
authority; and that by far the greatest part of the scientific work
of recent centuries had to be done by open or disguised heretics.
True, the Church has often boasted that it could show famous sci-
entists in the ranks of its priests, such as the Jesuit fathers Schei-
ner, Kircher, and Secchi but on closer inspection the works of
;

these heroes of the faith are of little value. As in the case of

Secchi, they had to profess the duty of the sacrifice of the intellect
and stoop to dissimulation, and can in no way compete with such
Catholic investigators as Copernicus and Galileo, whose works the
Church had condemned. And yet this Church has at last been
obliged to admit, although with every possible reservation, that it

was wrong; and what formerly caused their representatives to

curse science has been for the most part taken up and digested by
the present generation without harm to body or soul. The heresies
of Copernicus and Galileo no longer rob anybody of his peace of
mind. When in the year 1820 in connexion with the examination
of an astronomical work of Settele, after a long deliberation in
Rome, the author was permitted to teach the theory of the motion
of the earth as no longer opposed to Catholic doctrine, the condition
was nevertheless imposed upon him that he should add in a note
that the statements of Galileo had been condemned because op-
posed to the general views of that time, and in their sensational
form harmful to the masses, who were not yet ready for them.^
This is the ever repeated song of those who believe with Joseph
de Maistre that people can and must be kept stupid, in order that
they may be easily ruled and kept from rebellion. It is with man-

IKarl Hase, Handbuch der protestantischen Polemik. Leipsic, 1862. Page 6io.
 THE UNSHACKLING OF THE SPIRIT OF INQUIRY. 669

kind as with children, whose curiosity especially regarding their

origin is gratified for a long time with fairy tales, until the truth
can no longer harm them. But as for the great questions of life
and humanity, the wise say that most men will remain forever chil-
dren, and will never be mature enough to understand them. Then
they cite the verses of Schiller about the man forever blind to
whom one must not give the celestial torch of light, and think that
they have thus forever disposed of this question. When in the
preceding century, the "Age of Enlightenment," people gradually
began to see that the Bible account of the six days of creation and
of the flood, despite all the efforts of Burnet, Whiston, Woodward,
Scheuchzer, and others, could no longer be reconciled with the in-
vestigation of the earth's crust and its contents, they felt anew
with full force the difficulty of harmonising the Bible with nature.
The Berlin Academy of Science in the year 1779 chose as the
theme for a prize essay the question, S'tl est utile au peuple d^etre
trompi? ( Whether it be beneficial for the masses to be deceived?') Not
less than thirty-three different treatments of this question were
submitted, of which, according to Bartholomess, in his History of
the Prussian Academy, twenty took the negative side and thirteen
the affirmative. The judges were evidently greatly embarrassed,
for they themselves did not know which side to favor, and gave a
decision which earned much derision for their "impartiality,"
awarding two prizes, one to the best argument for the affirmative,
the other to the strongest presentation of the negative.^
Formerly the prevalent opinion of philosophers affirmed this
question with Plato, and even Rousseau, 1762, replied to the Eco-
nomical Society in Bern that he would take the affirmative of the
question whether there be sacred prejudices which should be re-
spected. Even to-day there are still many anxious souls who de-
cide, though unwillingly, in favor of deception. Almost as ques-
tionable a proposition is that of the physiologist, Rudolph Wagner,
to suffer religion and science to grow independently side by side
and for the sake of peace of mind to adopt what he calls "double-
entry bookkeeping," or, in plain words, duplicity. Others have
recommended concealing one's inmost convictions, which are based
on their investigations, as soon as they prove to be opposed to the
statutes of State and Church still others would carry out the prop-
;

osition of Renan, who would teach an esoteric doctrine, a more

spiritualised religion for the educated (as the Greeks are said to
have done in the Eleusinian Mysteries), and an exoteric and more
1 Cf. John Morley's Fidelity to One's Convictions.
670 THE OPEN COURT,

earthly religion for the masses. There can be no doubt what the
answer to these propositions should be ; for theyadvocate in place
of truth a system of scientific hypocrisy, and forget moreover that
in our age of printer's ink it would be wholly impossible for the
temple guardians to preserve such a secret doctrine.
One may concede without hesitation that the positiveness of
the promises of religion are more satisfying to the soul of the un-
educated man, than the results of science, which never represent
a totum, and have no answer to final questions. The light of knowl-
edge may be painful to those unaccustomed to it, as unmodified
sunlight is to the eyes, and many may prefer to spend their days in
boudoirs with latticed windows and colored lights, but science, to
which we owe such far-reaching material and intellectual advance-
ment, the glory of our generation, cannot stop on their account,
and no demand of this sort has any prospect of winning general
approval. What is it, then, that makes the results of modern in-
vestigation appear dangerous in the eyes of so many men ? Can
the truth, as such, be harmful, and therefore objectionable, sup-
posing that we had the truth, and that it opposed all traditions?
The answer will be, no but the remark will be added that the
;

truth is no staff for halting and that dazzled eyes cannot

souls,
endure it. Consequently, the harm not in scientific knowledge,
lies

but in the weakness of souls and eyes. Here, then, is where the
mistake lies, and where relief must be administered. It is not the
new truth which threatens danger, but the old error, in which the
human mind has been kept so long, and which some would like to
retain longer. The danger is that all our institutions, home, school,
church, public life, social order, and systems of government, being
based on and adapted to these old errors, should fail to perceive
that it is their business gradually to adapt themselves to the better
knowledge. Only on condition that they do this can the widening
of the chasm and the violent collapse of what has become anti-
quated be avoided. Attempts to bridge the chasm, which are the
order of the day in France and England, where they are still try-
ing to harmonise the Bible with scientific investigation and to
make the days of creation correspond to the geological ages, only
win for those who make them the suspicion of hypocrisy and a pur-
pose to deceive the people, while they render the inevitable col-
lapse more dangerous.
In this connexion the excellent proposals of Condorcet should
not be forgotten : "The transition from error to truth," he wrote
over a century ago, "may bring with it certain evils. Every great
 THE UNSHACKLING OF THT SPIRIT OF INQUIRY. 671

change has several such and even if they are col-

evils in its train,
lectively less than the evil against v^^hich the change is directed,
yet the utmost should be done to diminish them. One must not
only do good, but must do it in a good way. Certainly we are to
remove old errors, but since they cannot all be removed in an in-
stant we should do as a good builder does in pulling down a house :

he knows how the separate parts are joined together, and directs
the tearing down so that a dangerous collapse is avoided."
It would be too much to affirm that no progress can be noted

in this direction. Truths which were considered so dangerous

several hundred years ago as to be combated with the Inquisi-
tion and the stake, may be fearlessly expressed to-day, and are
even taught in the schools. To be sure, those investigators who
add to the general conception of the universe new points of view,
and fearlessly express their convictions, will have to submit as
formerly to excommunication by the temple guards. The French
Church Journal wrote of Alexander von Humboldt, as he himself
good-humouredly reports:^ "They say the assassin of souls has
literary merit. This will be no excuse. Satan has more wit than
M. de Humboldt."
But upon the whole no one longer doubts that every one has
his incontestable right to assert and announce as truth ail that he
has recognised as correct, and that it should be the duty of the
Church willingly to surrender those doctrines which are opposed
to the general world-views of the time, —
especially if they in no way
affect the essence of religion,— and to acknowledge that they are a
part of an ancient metaphorical language of human origin. On the
other hand investigators, to meet this concession, must frankly
and honestly recognise their limitations, and in the matter of final
causes, which elude the reach and grasp of human reason, give re-
ligious feeling its rights, lest they render the mission of the Church
more difficult by an unscientific negation. Only a science, which
recognises its own limitations, while vindicating its real right in
the matter of definite knowledge, can boast of having done its duty

in both directions, and can look calmly into the future. The ideals
of mankind will of course change somewhat, for the better condi-
tion of humanity must no longer be sought in the mists and errors
of the past, but, according to the principles of the doctrine of evo-
lution, in a more enlightened future.

1 In an interesting letter of Feb. 10, 1857, to A. von Kloden in the Magazinfiir die Litteratur

des AuslanJs, 3S. Jahrg. (1869) p. 573.

 THE ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES.
BY THE REV. CHARLES JAMES WOOD.

II. PRIMITIVE RITES OF ILLUMINATION.

ON the psychologic or pathological side, now,

between the primitive sacred dramatic dance and the
parallel
we find the same

Eleusinian rites as implied in the Attic theatre. For if we examine

closely into the methods and means of a sacred secret organisation,
say that of the Sioux and of the Nagualists of the Pueblo Indians,
we find all the factors of character transformation, purifications
by water and by fire, fasts and sweats, ordeals of pain and terror,
auricular confession, narcotic and intoxicant food and drinks, pre-
scribed dances protracted to point of frenzy or hysteria, all followed
by trance, vision, and dread vows to secrecy. Less and more ob-
scurely we see allusions to these characteristics of the Eleusinian
Mysteries in the Greek plays. The playwright had to be exces-
sively guarded, but said in effect to the mystae or to the epoptae,
" He that hath ears to hear, let him hear."
Lobeck, in his Aglaophanius, quotes from Formicus, De Err.
Pr. Relig., p. 45, an account of the consummation of certain mystic
rites, in which the priest "whispers in a gentle murmur" certain

—
words of a like tenor the god, however, and not the neophyte,
strangely enough, being represented as the sufferer of severe trials
" Be of good cheer, ye initiates, in that the god is delivered ; for the deliver-
ance from his evil is of you."
Take an instance. It is evident that Euripides wrote the
Bacchae as an apology for the Dionysiac cult. The chorus sings
" Oh blessed and fortunate is he, who having come to know the mysteries of
the gods, keeps safe from polluting sin, joining Bacchic rites upon the mountains
with holy purifications."

Here is an allusion to the preliminary purifications of the can-

I SappeiTc /xuo-Tai tou ©eoO o-eo-wcr/xeVov, earai yap v^klv eV irovuiv (noTr)pCa-
 « THE ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES. 673

didates at Eleusis, by lustration or baptism. Again in the same

play, lines 902-905, the chorus sings meaningly:
" Happy is he who hath known storm at sea and found the shore. Happy
also is he who hath surmounted severe ordeals." (Cf. Lobeck, Aj/-/ao/>/iamus, 648;
Sandy, Baccliae, 199.)

In connexion with other things that follow I take this as an

allusion to some Eleusinian form of initiation.
It is not insignificant that in a fragment of the Tynnpatiista
of Sophocles, the identical thought occurs in nearly the same
words, viz.

"Ah me, what greater joy couldst thou have than attaining the beach, and that
hardly, and afterward beneath the roof with mind tranquilised, to listen to the
mighty tempest."

Add also this unmistakably dogmatic and pointed statement

of the chorus of the Iphigeneia at Tauris, 1193 :

©aAacrcra Kkvt,(.i iravTa t' av6pu)Tr<DV KaKo..

"The sea cleanses away all the sins of men."

At another place we are told that from a distance, the torches

of those who were celebrating the Mysteries of Eleusis appeared
at night like the host of stars about the shores of the bay.
The reasonable inference from this is that in the Eleusinian
mysteries there was a rite of baptism, or lustration, or ordeal by
water and possibly all in one, as in all the sacred dances and prim-
itive cults of the world, these baptisms or lustrations occur. Often
they are for the purpose of causing rain, at other times they are
simply ceremonial purifications.
Euripides seems to have supposed that the worship of bread
began prior to the adoration of wine, for Tiresias in the Bacchae,
274, delivers himself of this statement
" first elements of human life
Two, young man, are the Demeter the goddess ; ;

she is whatever name you choose, she nourishes men with dry viands
earth, call it ;

but the son of Semele, who comes as her mate, has discovered the moist drink of
the grape, and introduced it among mortals."

To any student of folklore it is apparent that at this place

Euripides touches upon the primitive worship of bread and wine.
It is true that the already developed theology of this cultus is found

in the ancient religions of India and Persia. But it is not necessary

to suppose with Euripides that the mystagogues of Eleusis derived
their ceremonies from thence. The Inca of Peru was also a ponti-
fex maximus of the sacred chalice. The cup of the holy grail is the
central point of most solemn Walpi, Moki, and Zuni ceremonials.
674 THE OPEN COURT.

The Spaniards, when first in Mexico, were horrified at what they

took for a mocking travesty of the Mass. The Nagualists were
found to have a Eucharist where they administered a narcotic
mushroom, and fiery In reality this was not invented to
pulque.
caricature the Mass, as De
Serna supposed. To the Indians it
la
was a pious immemorial rite, but the Spaniards regarded it as the
orthodox of to-day would regard a black Mass of Canon Docre or
of Abb^ Constant, or of any other declared Satanist at Rome, Paris,
or Chicago.
Aristophanes {Birds, line 436) ventures upon the irreverence
of a humorous allusion to this grail worship in the Mysteries, for
he recommends Peisthetairos to arm himself with pots and bowls.
The worship of bread and wine was not imported into Greece.
Folklore demonstrates that it is primitive and autochthonous. The
bowls of the Zuni Spider Woman, and the so-called magic bowls
of the Jews brought from Niffer, belong to the original and univer-
sal worship of the divine Potter, whether at Eleusis, or at Thebes,
or at Jerusalem.
Being primitive its antiquity is past all calculation. Is it an-
terior to the stone age ? Probably. The hoary antiquity of this
rite invests it with a sacredness and solemnity that enshrines it

upon the high altars of all the occult mysteries and secret brother-
hoods of the world.
When you read in the Avesta and the Vedic hymns how holy
and sanctifying is the drink of the Haoma or Soma, when you trace
in the more solemn and hidden worship of the Hindus, Navajos,
Moki, Sioux, and Peruvians, the adoration of the holy grail, con-
taining the elixir of life, the blood of the gods; when you perceive
how by development of doctrine the divine drink of Persia and
India became the divine Being, even God himself, you can without
difficulty understand Euripides when he declares :

"This god poured out in libations

is to the gods in order that men may thereby
acquire blessings." Bacchae, 284.

The divine drink is the cup of wisdom as well as life. Folk-

lore of Magyars and Bretons, of Russians and Arabs amply illus-
trate this. How often have we witnessed the final remnant of that
notion in divination by the teacups ! Primitive culture universally,
I think, reverences the wisdom. That it occured as a factor
cup of
in the Mysteries of Eleusis we need not doubt. The peculiar drink
of Demeter at Eleusis was called kukcojv. Though we do not know
exactly the character or ingredients of this draught, we may con-
jecture from the fact that the word KVKf.i>v is elsewhere used to de-
 THE ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES. 675

note a magic philter. It is the bowl of a Circe and of a Kriemhilda.

Aristophanes {Peact', 712) implies that it was drunk by the mystae
tocounteract the effects of the severe nervous strain to which they
had been subjected during their initiation at Eleusis. Teresias in
his address to Pentheus speaks of the divine drink under veiled
language, and the chorus of the Bacchae 298 goes on to chant
"This divinity [wine] is a prophet, for Bacchic raving and mania have much
soothsay in them."

In the world's folklore the idea of divine life or wisdom in a

mystic drink is often associated with the worship of fire. The cults
of fire and of the drink of the gods belong together. In the Veda
the heavenly bird descends upon the tree and the liquor of that
tree became a divine and inspiring draught. The divine bird was
the from heaven, lightning. (Hillebrant, Vedische Myihologie.)
fire

^Eschylus undertook to explicate exoterically the esoteric fire

doctrines of Eleusis. The theme of the Promethean trilogy was the
theft of the fire of the gods. The first play of this trilogy was
entitled Upofx-qOels Uvp4,opo<;. No wonder that ^schylus was charged
with divulging the secret of the Mysteries. He was too plain in
Prometheus is from the Sanscrit root oi pramantha,
his allusions.
a fire-mill. He was
at the same time the special patron of potters,
who made wine jars. His analogy to the serpent of Genesis is
suggestive. He gives wisdom as well as life, and teaches divina-
tion by fire.

Rightly then is lacchos, another name for Dionysos, the wine

god, addressed in that fine chorus of Sophocles's Antigone as (line
1146)^ "leader of the fire-breathing stars, president of the nightly
music of the spheres, begotten child of Zeus," and "leader also of
the torch-bearing revellers of the sacred Mysteries, who roam all

night the mountain sides." From this we may infer that fire as
well as the holy grail was an element of the Mysteries of Eleusis.
According to the myth, which is any time a summation of
at
folklore, the Eleusinian Dionysos, in and infancy, had
his birth
been nourished at the fountains, — " the fountains of Dirke and the
springs of Ismenos."
This tradition is quite consistent. That which renders the
water or wine life-giving and wisdom-giving is the spirit from lower
unseen regions, the ghost-land, the region of spirits who rising up

1 iuj TrOp TTl'eOl'TOJl'

jfopoy' ao-Tpcoi', vv\iuiv

il>0eyfxdTo}V €7Tto"«07re.

nai Zrjvbi yeyi0\ov-

—Antigone, 1146.
676 THE OPEN COURT.

thence in the, waters, and then into the vine as sap, at length may
become wine, the medium through which the god or the spirit en-
ters into man, or the manes of the departed takes possession of him,
so that he becomes gott-trunke^i, a maniac, a god's fool, or an in-
spired prophet. Personal responsibility is lost at such a time.
In the Bacchce you see how the raging women, celebrating
their Mysteries, even Agave, are not reckoned the murderers of
Pentheus, but said to be the god in them, even Dionysos from
it is

Hades with the ghosts' chalice and with murky fires.

Christian art has inherited something from this folkfaith, for
Saint John, the Evangelist of the Word, the Logos or Wisdom
principle,is represented often with a chalice, the holy grail, out of

which a serpent erects himself. Gnosticism carried this symbol

from folkfaith or from Eleusis into Christian art.
Since all wisdom-drinks come from the Under World, because
the springs well up from the earth, and the blood of the trees and
vines comes up from the ground, we need not feel surprise to find
that Dionysos merges at times into an infernal deity. 1 think that

it was a Christian father who points out that Dionysos is the Greek

Osiris, at once the king and judge of the ghosts, and also the di-
vine wine, the life-blood of the universe, who is celebrated in the
quatrains of Omar Khayyam.
According to Egyptian lore the soul of the dead became united
with Osiris, so that in the Fer-em-hru, commonly called the Book
of theDead, which compend of Egyptian theology, the dead
is the
person in question termed always Osiris N, This same belief
is

concerning the dead is expressed by Sophocles in the Electra II.,

837-840. There Amphiaraos, though defunct, still inspires the
oracles, for he has become identical with the Soul of the world
(840 7raix\j/v^o<i dvacro-ci).

Shelley utters the same belief in his Adonais, and Tennyson

verges upon it in In Memoria7n. I believe this to have been one
of the higher doctrines of Eleusis. In some instances the rites of
Dionysos are plainly a propitiation of the souls of the dead and of
the god of dead souls.
The Philoctetes of Sophocles, lines 448-450, makes a covert
allusion to this,
"
" How the gods rejoice to send back from hell the wicked and the crafty !

Also in the same play, line 797, there is an evocation of death.

"O Death, Death! Day by day, forever I call upon thee, — canst thou never
come ? O child, O thou of noble birth, come, whelm me in the Lemman, the
 % THE ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES. 677

vvished-for fire, O high-born. I, even I, thought meet to do this office for the son
of Zeus, for the sake of those weapons which now thou keepest safe."'

The same occurs in A/'ax, line 854. Perhaps then necromancy

survived in the Mysteries of Eleusis. I mean a necromancy similar
to our modern spiritism. For hypnotic suggestion was not then
unknown, even if it was not understood.
Now in undertaking to twist together these strands of folkfaith
and folklore of the Mysteries of Eleusis, to which covert references
occur in the Greek drama, some casual repetitions of detail may
be pardoned me. The substance of my inferences from the Greek
plays is that the occult ceremonies at Eleusis were a highly-devel-
oped and dramatic sacred dance, — using
^
the term sacred datice as
it is used of the liturgy and ritual of a corn festival or a wine fes-

tival, or rain or fire festivals of primitive culture.

The sacred dance is the most important institution of primi-

tive peoples, for it conserves and expresses their chief civil and
religious beliefs. It is the foundation of the primitive State and

Church. In regions as far apart as the Niger and the Yukon valley,
the Nez Perces Indians and the Arabs, the sacred dances with their
liturgies enshine all the folklore and theology, all the politics and
religion of the several peoples. Still amongst us the sacred dance

survives, in the revival meetings, in the ecclesiastical processions,

in beating the parish bounds, in civic, political, and military pro-
cessions, in the lodges of secret brotherhoods, in the cake-walk,
and in thetriumphal pomps of kings and emperors.
Out dance came the drama. As the stage of
of the sacred
Athens developed, conservatism bore away the primitive sacred
folklore of the Greeks to Eleusis, and there hid it with exaggerated
secrecy. In primitive culture it is everywhere necessary that one
should be initiated into the correct steps of the ceremonial circuit
or sacred dance before he becomes an acknowledged citizen or
member of tribe, or of his brotherhood, be it craft-guild, soldiery,
or priesthood.
Chinese freemasonry, I am told, and Mormonism, and the tribal

constitution of Congo negroes, make the learning of the secret and

traditional steps and figures of the sacred dance a condition of
fellowship. In the Abyssinian Christian Church the sacred dance
1 o) ©arare, ©ararc- ttu)? aei xaAov/iiei'OS
ovrui Kar' rifxap ov Svva /xoAeu' ttotc;

TtZ Atj/hi'o) TO) 6' ayKa\ovixefw wvpl

eni7rpr)<T0t','u) yfi'vale- Kayou'TOi iroTe
Tov Tou Alb? TvatS d;'Tl'T(oi'5e*Ta)i' '6ir\(oir,

avOv <rv<ji6fei?, TOUT eTrrjfcaxra Spoil'-

678 THE OPEN COURT.

is a peculiiim of the clergy. Something like this is the concern of

the Sacred Congregation of Rites at Rome and of the Rituale Ro-

fnanum. The Mysteries of Eleusis were probably a glorified sacred
dance, which dramatised the most ancient of the religious ideas
common to all men, and legends peculiar to the Greek tribes.

Some loans also may have been made, but it is unnecessary to as-
sume them. The psychic unity of mankind is enough to account
for similarities.
Into this secret brotherhood, which like the freemasonry of our
own time preserved in sacred secrecy the ideas, symbols, customs,
and ceremonies of folk of remote antiquity, the best men of Greece
were elected and initiated. They were taught the sacred dance of
Eleusis and all that dance comprehended. The step was learned,
which fixed their social and religious rank. This we are justified
in concluding from the opening words of the Bacchce of Euripides,
— where the god Dionysos relates how
"Throughout Persia, Arabia, and all Asia (Minor) he had established his
mysteries by dancing them (i. e., teaching the mystic steps of the holy dance), in
order that he might be an epiphany of god unto men."

Further passages from the plays it is superfluous to adduce.

This is sufficient to show the general character of the Dionysiac

rite at Eleusis.
Later development of Eleusinian doctrine ascribed to the
Mysteries power to save beyond the grave. Like the Egyptian
Book of the Dead, they assumed to teach the soul how to reach
heaven after death.
In the Frogs of Aristophanes, Hercules describes to Bacchus
the Under- World, associating the Mysteries very clearly with the
doctrine of the life after death.
'
' Hercules : Afterwards thou shalt see snakes and all manner of frightful mon-
sters.
Bacchus : O, don't try to frighten me ;
you shan't turn me back.
Hercules Then a vast swamp and eternal cesspool. And within are those
:

who have done evil. Farther on, there will be heard on all sides a sweet con-
. . .

cert of flutes, a brilliant light, as here, bowers of myrtle, happy groups of men and
women, and the loud clapping of hands.
Bacchus Who are the happy ones ?
:

Hercules; The initiated."

Foucart gives a mortuary inscription from Petilia which lies

parallel with the above. '^

1 Mr. Cecil Smith, "Orphic Myths on Attic Vases," in Journ. Hellenic Studies, XI., 346, gives
testimony to the faith that initiates had in their immunity Ixomfiost mortem penalties.
S'Lup^CTei? 6"'Ai6ao Sdjiav err' apiUTepa Kprivr^K. k- t- A.
 i^ THE ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES. 679

'
' In the house Hades you come upon a well at the left and a white cypress;
will
take care not to approach this. well. You will discover on the other side a spring
of cool water flowing from the Lake of Memory. Before it are sentinels. Say to
them, I am the child of the earth and the starry sky, but my origin is celestial.
This you know. I perish of thirst, give me quickly of the water which flows from
the Lake of Memory. They will give you to drink from this divine source, and
you will reign forever with the other heroes."

Here we find several elements of the Mysteries, a descent into

hell, the drink of everlasting life, and the twofold path. Curiously
this twofold path stands at the beginning of the Didache, or
Teaching of the Twelve.
M. Foucart recognises another fragment of the Eleusinian
ritual in an epitaph from Thurii, which runs :

"When thy soul has left the light of the sun, take the right-hand path as every
guarded person will. . . . Take the right-hand path to the fields and sacred groves
of Persephone."

The Antigone
of Sophocles takes as its theme this cultus of
the dead. So sacrosanct does Antigone regard the right of sepul-
ture that she declares that it belongs to the "unwritten laws of the
gods," vofXLfxa aypairra ©eoJv, —
" which are not of to-day or yesterday,
but abide eternally."
It is found upon examination that usually the sacred dances

of primitive peoples are accompanied with fastings, sweat baths,

and narcotic or inebriating drinks. These customs have the object
of putting the candidate into a condition to submit to hypnotism
and to such visions as may be suggested to him in such a state.
curious, even if quite reasonable according to the theory
It is

which have broached, that in the Dionysiac rites we should come

I

across a survival of the primitive serpent-dance. The serpent and

water-spring upon the Acropolis of Athens would naturally be near
Athene, the goddess of wisdom. But Dionysos himself is sup-
posed to have assumed at times the form of a dragon (lines loi,
loig of Bacchae). Also the Bacchantes are crowned with snakes,
etc.
For a like reason the frogs whom Aristophanes introduced in
covert derision, belong to the lower regions where are the wise
dead, the Under World, into which descends Bacchus to hear the
controversy between ^Eschylos and Euripides.
Now in primitive culture these snake-dances and frog-dances
were performed not only to dramatise a tradition, a myth, or a
legend, but also for a material purpose, namely, to cause rain
rain enough for copious harvests.^ The notion of sympathetic
iCf. Tusayan Snake Ceremonies, J. W. Fewkes.
68o THE OPEN COURT.

magic accompanied the performance. From more passages in

Greek plays than I need quote, we may see that this notion of
sympathetic magic had not become completely extinct in Greece,
but preserved in the esoteric functions of the Eleusinian Mysteries.
The mention of magic suggests another point hinted at in the
drama. The Knights, 409, and the Birds, 510, hint that the scepter
of the Eleusinian mystagogue was crowned with the head of a
bird. But that is not my point. What in origin were the rods of
the mystae of Eleusis, the wands of the Buddhist bonze, the rods
of the chiefs of the Walpi in the flute-dance, the thyrsae of the
bacchantes, — what were these originally but the arrow, the arrow —
which stood owner, hence the chief instrument of magic and
for its
divination, the conjuring stick which belongs to the cosmic quar-
ters? The and the wizard's wand is
folklore of the divining rod
familiar. probably had some place in the Mysteries of Eleusis,
It

and was symbolised by the thyrsos.

Another reason for the conjecture that the primitive sacred
dance was the origin of Greek drama, and the essential character
of the Greater Mysteries at Eleusis, has been already hinted. It is
the use of masks. These masks in both cases are strictly tradi-
tional and conventional. The kat9ina of the Moki and the pro-
sopon of the Athenians are essentially identical.^
Examine the collection of masks in the National Museum and
you will be struck with their identity, mask for mask, of many and
widely separated races. One idea underlies all it is the primitive
:

conviction, that he who dons a mask, persona, becomes thereby

the personage, human, diabolical, or divine, that the mask repre-
sents.
If it be true that the Greek theatre was separated from the

Greater Mysteries only by the process of differentiation in the

course of evolution, then we may infer that the sacred dance with
masks formed the basis of the secret ceremonies at Eleusis. Con-
sequently on the Greek stage all the players were masked.
It is possible that at Eleusis this liturgic dance — though ex-
panded into a dramatic ritual lasting throughout days — retained
still

something of its primal purpose as a ceremonial circuit, a circuit

made to unify the gods of the world-quarters. I have given some

reasons for suspecting that the central object of this ceremonial

circuit was at one time bread, at another wine. In some cases
primitive people unite the two in the cosmic cup. The wine-cup

ITusayan Katfinas, J. W, Fewkes,

 ^ THE ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES. 68l

of Dionysos and the corn of Demeter were brought forth as by

Melchizedek of the Semetic tradition.
Not seldom is the sacred chalice a magic cup. After primi-
tive man has propitiated the spirits of the world-quarters, drawing
upon the sand, or painting upon a skin of beast, a cross, or a
swastika, he sets in the centre the mystic cup, the world chalice,
the prototype of the Sangreal, and then begins the solemn circuit.
Perhaps he intends to learn the temper of the gods of the world-
quarters, four, six, ten, or sixty-four, according to his notion.
Hence arises magic, sortilege, divination and divinatory games. I
suppose these practices naturally had their place at Eleusis. All
gambling, games of chance, were originally for the purpose of divi-
nation.
As a contemporary folklore derived from these early
sample of
rites, let me who to change
instance the custom of a card-player
his luck rises and walks around the table or around his chair. It

is a survival of the ceremonial circuit and of propitiating the gods

of the world-quarters.
Associated with crude customs and the most barbaric cere-
monies are always anywhere in the world profound and subtle re-
ligious ideas, fine feelings, and exalting aspirations. No doubt the
intellectual progress of Greece sublimated the cruder doctrines at
Eleusis, and theosophy developed there alongside folklore. Never-
theless, the student of language becomes amazed at the spirituality
implied in the most ancient word-forms of the Indo-Germanic
languages, because these forms reveal that our Aryan ancestors,
whether on the shores of the Baltic sea, or on the slopes of the
Himalaya mountains, or on the southern coast of the Mediterranean
were capable of ideals and speculations as transcendental or spir-
itual as those of Meister Eckhart and Robert Browning. The an-
thropologist gladly testifies to the spirituality of the religious
thought of the Pueblos and the Bushmen.
We need not fear to recognise a lofty spirituality in the sacra-
ments and symbols, in the liturgic dances and prehistoric mystery
plays, which constituted the esoteric Mysteries of Eleusis. Is not
God the All-Father? And were not the ancient Greek and Hindus
and Finns and Mayas his children as well as we ? And when they
adored God, should He scorn them because their forms of worship
were grotesque and mingled with crudities?
St. Hippolytus, in connexion with the passage relating to the
exhibition of an ear of wheat in the Eleusinian celebration, goes on
ICf. Korean Games, Chess, and Playing Cards, by Stewart CuUn,
682 THE OPEN COURT.

tospeak of the esoteric doctrines, taught by the hierophant; which

Hippolytus at once contrasts with the "Lesser Mysteries," and
associates with Christian doctrine.

"But the Inferior Mysteries, he (the hierophant) says, are those of Proser-
pine below in regard of which Mysteries, and the path which leads thither, which
;

is wide and spacious, and conducts those that are perishing to Proserpine, the poet
likewise says
" '
But under her a fearful path extends.
Hollow, miry, yet best guide to
Highly-honored Aphrodite's lovely grove.'

"These, he says, are the Inferior Mysteries, those pertaining to carnal genera-

tion. Now those men who are initiated into these Inferior Mysteries ought to pause,

and then be admitted into the great or heavenly ones. . . . For this, he says, is the
gate of heaven and ; house of God, where the Good Deity dwells alone.
this is a
And into this gate, he says, no unclean person shall enter, nor one that is natural
and carnal ; but it is reserved for the spiritual only. And those who come hither
ought to cast off their garments, and become, all of them, bridegrooms, emascu-
lated through the virginal spirit. For this is the virgin who carries in her womb
and conceives and brings forth a son, not animal, not corporeal, but blessed for-
evermore."

Pindar says :

"Happy he who has seen them (the rules of Eleusis) before going to the
is

infernal regions he knows the end of life, indeed but he knows the God-given
; ;

beginning."

So also Sophocles {Fragni., 348):

" O thrice happy are those mortals who having beheld these mysteries depart
to Hades ; for to them alone there is life given but to all the rest all things there
;

are evil."

The point now reached seems to be so evident that the wonder

is why have subsequent ages not guessed the general topic of the
mystic and occult doctrines of Eleusis. Those doctrines are ecu-
menical and Catholic, They belong to the -psychic substratum of
human nature. Consequently they are common to all sacred and
significant ceremonials. They belong to all secret rites both an-
cient and modern.
In a future paper I may present some cases of survival and re-
vival, at our own day, and of influence of occult methods of the
Association of Eleusis.
THE INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION ALLI-
ANCE/
AN ADDRESS READ BEFORE THE PEACE CONGRESS AT
PARIS, 1900.

BY MONCURE D. CONWAY.

THE armaments
attained
up by many centuries, have
of nations, built
development in an age when the popular
their fullest
conscience is in revolt against bloodshed, and when the supreme
material interest of the great majority of mankind is peace.
Although such armaments are kept up theoretically on the
pretext of necessary provision for self-defence — this being the only
admissible justification of war- — the fact that in some nations least
liable to invasion they exceed in strength what would be necessary
for defence, and in others are supported to the utmost though nec-
essarily inadequate against the only invaders conceivable, proves
that the increase of military and naval establishments is largely
due to interests other than those of defence. They are the refuge
and only resource of millions of unskilled men; they are the sup-
port of many industries; they supply realms in which personal
ambition may most easily find promotion, title, rank, privilege, at
a time when the old aristocratic regime has lost authority and is
losing prestige.
1 In an address before the Free Religious Association in Boston, May, 1S98, Dr. Conway pro-

posed a new plan for international arbitration, and printed it in more detail in the South Place
Magazine, London, November, iSgS. A recently published letter of Mr. Herbert Spencer allud-
ing to it having revived interest in the plan, Dr. Conway was requested to prepare a full state-
ment of the project for the Peace Congress which assembled in Paris, September 30, 1900. Having
been recalled to America before that date, his address was read. The present article is printed
from an advance copy of the address, and is published together with the scheme, the adoption of
which was moved in the Congress by Mr. Hodgson Pratt, President of the International Peace
Association. The editorial position of The Open Court with regard to the questions here touched
upon, is pretty well indicated in the articles published in Vol. XII., pp. 436 and 691, and in Vol
XIII., p. 218, where considerations are adduced that diverge in certain respects from Mr. Con-
way's remarks and from Mr. Pratt's propositions, though without invalidating the general high
^nd laudable tenor of their position. Ed.
684 ,
THE OPEN COURT.

Above all, the armaments alone maintain national rank. Were

all Powers unarmed, there would be an equality between na-
the
tions small and and poor, which the foremost nations
large, rich
will not admit. Governments, whatever the sentiments of individ-
uals administering them, are creatures of an established system by
which for each its might is the measure of right, and its will if
successfully enforced is the divine will. The pride disguised as
patriotism, and the egoism disguised as religion, which lead pop-
ulations to worship their flag apart from any association with jus-
tice and moral greatness, render every flag to some extent a center
—
and source of international hostility, the comb of a cock flaming
its defiance to all surrounding dunghills. And even though power-
ful governments show an increasing disinclination for literal war

with nations of anything like equal strength, they generally en-

deavor to secure their will over others by menacing displays of
military and naval superiority. We live under a sort of interna-

tional reign of terror.

Thus while the supreme material interest of the peoples in our
increasingly industrial and commercial age is the continuance of
literal peace, this is consistent with wide-spread interests in war-
like establishments and almost universal acceptance of a standard
of national greatness and honor based on physical force. So uni-
versal, indeed, that in most wars the masses of the people have
been induced against their sentiments and interests to consent to
the bloodshed by a fostered fiction that their national honor was at
stake.
It is self-evident that a point of honor between nations cannot
be settled by proof that one is superior to the other in the means
of slaughter. It is equally obvious that a nation is not the rightful

judge of its own honor. It is an elementary principle that no judge

shall sit in his own case. Yet in the absence of any method by
which a human standard of honor may be upheld above national
self-assertion the standard of brute force remains; and in the ab-
sence of any impartial tribunal to check national egoism, each gov-
ernment is left to sit in its own case, without appeal.
These anomalies have been recognised by the wisest and best
of mankind for generations, but all plans of remedy have failed.
The most important effort ever made to substitute arbitration
for war was that of the recent Peace Congress at the Hague. While
it was a salient evidence of the increasing sentiment of humanity,

and was much that Peace should receive even a complimentary

decoration from nations armed to the teeth, the evil system proved
 THE INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION ALLIANCE. 685

itselfcompulsory; even the monarch who proposed disarmament

cannot himself disarm; and War, having united in the homage to
Peace, steps forth to drive his chariot through all her Hague de-
fences and fill the world anew with slaughter.
The members of that Congress, as official representatives of
Powers jealously armed against each other, entered with hands
tied. For each his ownpower was necessarily the supreme
nation's
interest, the interests of Peace subordinate. Peace was compelled
to pay for her decoration by conceding the legitimacy of War as a
civilised method. Arbitration not being obligatory, we are prac-
tically left where we were before: arbitration will continue where
self-interest dictates it, war where self-interest dictates that.
Hopes were built on the agreement that the effort of any na-
tion to induce another to accept arbitration or to bring about peace
should not be deemed by either party a hostile interference. This
provision is shown to be delusive. Each government has its own
complications to deal with, its own schemes awaiting opportunity,
and there is a governmental instinct against setting any precedent
of intermeddling which may some day return on itself with interest.
And, alas, few of the foremost nations are in a moral attitude enti-
tling them to much influence over others. As any unwelcome offer
of good offices " can be met with a tu quoque^ and would be so met
'
'

by a nation confident of victory, no such influence can be counted

on. We are more likely to see a development of the old fashion of
courteously exploiting a neighbor's difficulties to get some advan-
tage, to be paid for in moral support.
It is abundantly proved that the vicious system cannot reform

itself. Also, that whatever the benevolence of individuals deriving

power from the system, that power will inevitably support the sys-
tem, and the more virtuous the official the more potent will be his
compulsory service to the evil. His virtues will gild his chain and
ours. A corollary of this is, that for the promoters of peace to try
and carry their cause by aid of existing governments is not a mere
waste of force but an importation of weakness. For every govern-
ment proposing peace is liable to suspicion of seeking prey in
sheep's clothing. Whatever may be their several values for inter-
nal purposes, the governments, as far as the cause of international
peace concerned, necessarily enforce on each other just that kind
is

of solidarity —
the solidarity of mutually respected selfishness
which it is the task of civilisation to break up, in order that the
elements of impartiality represented in the separateness of nations
may be free to cooperate for a solidarity of justice.
686 THE OPEN COURT.

Assuming then that the armaments and the option of slaughter

can be changed only by evolutionary forces, these forces must not
be left to natural selection, the strong devouring the weak. It is hu-
man selection thatmust be introduced to check this international
cannibalism and as all appeals to the moral sentiments, to reli-
;

gion, to humanity, have only resulted in making War careful to be

always unctuously moral, pious, and humanitarian, gaining thereby
new leases, it seems absolutely necessary that a new method should
be tried.
The only method that has not been tried is that of bringing
the moral sense and the justice of mankind, represented by
all

competent men in all nations but unconnected with their govern-

ments, to deal with every particular dispute that threatens peace,
— deal with it as it arises, — and by a reasoned judgment pronounce
the adjustment required by the honor of each nation concerned.
The proposal thus made is to concentrate all the higher human
forces, and them alone, to overpower the brute and inorganic
forces. Although it may appear Utopian to confront the pride and
passion of empires with judgments that cannot be enforced, pre-
cisely there lies the only resource that has not been drawn upon.
Could we enforce a decree of peace, it would be at once sanction-
ing force and enabling her opponents to continue their easy vic-
tories over reason and right. But how can any nation combat the
unarmed, the purely spiritual force, which says: "Yes, you have
the power, you can do as you will our power is limited to proving
;

that you are in the wrong: justice is against you, law is against
you, reason is against you here are the facts, proven and weighed
;

by the wisest men, the greatest jurists, not of unfriendly nations

but of all nations it is the consensus of the competent you have
: :

the power to defy it, you can enter on a career of murder, but not
without branding your nation with guilt and dishonor."
This appeal to simple truth and justice might not restrain am-
bitious rulers and militarists, but it could hardly fail to reinforce
the party of peace in any country where the people are being ex-
cited to war by declarations that national honor is at stake, usu- —
ally the most effectual pretext. The peacemakers would be given
a powerful argument if enabled to place before the misled masses
a judgment representing the wisdom and justice of all nations
pointing out the real victory of honor, and proving that it cannot
be won by manslaughter.
The plan may not, of course, succeed in all cases. There may
be found obstructions that cannot be surmounted or tunnelled by
 THE INTERNATIONAL Akr.I IkATlON ALLIANCE. 687

our engine of peace, especially in its primitive condition. We can

but do our best. We
can but set our ablest engineers to the work
of preparing a highway for peace throughout all the world. If our

plan should be the means of preventing even one war only one —
it would more than compensate all the labors given to its inaugu-

ration. But if it could prevent one war it may prevent another,

and another; and we can hope that ultimately the people in all
countries, having found the more excellent way, may come to re-
gard their vast and costly armaments as exhausted and fruitless
trees, and ask why they should longer cumber the ground.

CONSTITUTION,
It is proposed to form an International Alliance based on the following prin-
ciples :

1. In no case whatever can a point of honor between nations be honorably

settled, nor a question of justice be justly settled, by a trial of physical strength.
2. It is inadmissible for a nation to be the sole judge of its own honor, or of
the justice of its own
any dispute with another nation.
case, in
3. The interests of all nations, both material and moral, being affected by

every disturbance of peace between two of their number. Humanity itself is neces-
sarily a party to every dispute that endangers peace, and should be represented in
each such case by a tribunal competent to investigate the same, to discover the
right and the wrong, and to affirm the adjustment required by justice and honor.

I. It shall be the duty of this Alliance to watch vigilantly all sources of differ-
ence or of irritation between nations, to study all facts and collect information,
such as might be useful to a tribunal of arbitration should the issue become seri-

ous.
Members of Associations now existing for the promotion of peace, and of
II.

such as may be formed, shall be admitted as members of the Alliance and shall
unitedly elect in their own country a Council of five.
III. Members of a Council need not belong to any other organisation. They
shall —
be persons holding no office administrative, political, military, diplomatic
under their own or any other government, such as might render them liable to act
under governmental pressure.
IV. Members of Council shall receive no payment. When summoned together
and while sitting in Council their personal expenses and pecuniary losses shall be
reimbursed by their electors.
V. There shall be no president in any Council. Should a chairman be found
desirable during any consultation, he shall be chosen by lot at the opening of each
seance.
VI. The consultations of the Council shall be in secret, and its opinion un-
signed, but every opinion shall set forth fully the facts, authentications, and ar-

guments on which it is based.

VII. Members unable to attend their Council may send written opinions and
arguments, but there shall be no voting by proxy.
VIII. Any Society of the Alliance that may believe peace imperilled should
688 tttfi OPEN COURT.

at once communicate with the Societies in other countries, and if two Societies
agree that the occasion requires action all the Councils shall assemble.
The Councils shall assemble on the demand of a Council in any nation imme-
diately involved by the dispute requiring adjustment.
Any Council may assemble profrio motu to consider the necessity of action in
a particular case, and may correspond with Councillors elsewhere, and an agree-
ment of two Councils shall cause all to be summoned.
IX. The Council of any country that is a party to the menacing dispute, shall
assemble at an early stage of the quarrel and collect all the facts relating to it, and
state its views, and copies of such facts and statement shall be forwarded to each
of the other Councils, to be used as documents in reaching their conclusions. But
the action of Councils belonging to the disputing nations shall be limited to this.
X. If the tribunal constituted by the Hague conventions fails in any instance
to bring about arbitration, or shall so delay it as to endanger peace, a General
Council shall assemble to adjudicate the dispute. The General Council shall not
decline this obligation even though one or both of the disputants should not be sig-
natories to the Hague conventions.
XI. The Councils in their several countries shall in such case confide their
respective conclusions and statements, each to two of its members : these shall
meet with similar representatives from the other Councils (from nations not parties
to the dispute) in some impartial place, and shall together constitute the General
Council, or Tribunal of Arbitration.
XII. The General Council shall not meet as mere delegates, fettered by the
letter of the conclusions of their Councils. They are to compare these several
statements, to consider freely any modifications that may be suggested, and to
weigh any new fact that may have come to light since the statements were pre-
pared. Their digest of all the statements and opinions shall be embodied in a full
and final statement and judgment which shall at once be published.
XIII. Whenever two Councils belonging respectively to the disputing coun-
tries, or three Councils of other countries, or three societies of the Alliance, shall
agree that action is too urgent for the normal procedure, as many members of the
various Councils as can gather in one place shall constitute the General Council
and pass final judgment as such.
 CHRISTIAN MISSIONS AND EUROPEAN
POLITICS IN CHINA.

BY PROF. G. U. KIAMINGO.

THE reference
pronounced at
which Lord Salisbury, in the speech which he
Exeter Hall, made to the involuntary responsi-
bilities incurred by missionaries as indirect causes of the Chinese
revolt against Western civilisation, still continues to afford ample
food for comment and discussion in the European press.
It would be impossible even for the most zealous supporter of

mission work to maintain that Lord Salisbury's accusation is wholly

unfounded. For missionaries in the Far East a certain amount of
/>us/i and of self-assertion is a necessary condition to success, and

one which Catholic missionaries, above all, take good care not to
neglect. Even at the Paris Exhibition may be seen the gorgeous
and really interesting pavillion of the Catholic missions, on the
Trocadero, for these up-to-date apostles ignore none of the secrets
of a modern mise-enscetie.
But far more interesting and important than the showy pavil-
lion at the Exhibition is the magnificent Palace of the Propaganda
at Rome, rising majestic over the Piazza di Spagna, for it is in
this sombre and imposing building that all the complicated ma-
chinery of Catholic missions throughout the world is worked by
able and ever-watchful prelates.
It was Sixtus v., that giant among Popes, who first conceived

the idea of a separate and independent organisation for the pur-

pose of spreading the Catholic religion to the uttermost ends of the
world. Indeed the Propaganda Fide may be compared to a sort of
ecclesiastical Foreign Office, whose duty it is to maintain friendly
relations not between the Holy See and foreign governments, but
between the Church of Rome and the faithful scattered all over
the orbis ierrarta/i, the number of which faithful it endeavors to in-
690 THE OPEN COURT.

crease by every means in its power, regardless of sacrifices both of

lives and treasure.
Long before this powerful
institution for the spreading of
Catholicism was founded, however, Catholic missionaries had
pitched their tents in the vast empire destined to become the scene
of endless labor, suffering, and glory to themselves and their fol-
lowers for many centuries.
And it Italy that the honor of having first violated the
is to
mystery Middle Kingdom is due. As early as 1288 Father
of the
John of Montecorvino, of the Minor Franciscans, founded a mis-
sion in North Chi-li, not far from Peking. But even in those times
the missionaries fared no better than they do now, and persecu-
tions were both frequent and violent. Under the dynasty of the
Yiiens, Christianity was practically stamped out, and it was not
until 1582, when the Yiiens were driven from the throne, that the
celebrated Jesuit Father Picci succeeded in re-establishing a mis-
sion at Peking.
The famous emperor, K'ang-hi, allowed a wider scope of action
to the Italian missions, which were thus enabled as early as 1688
to extend their jurisdiction into Mongolia, Manchuria, Schan-tung,
and Corea. An era of rapid progress then began in all the prov-
inces of the Celestial Empire. It was not before 1783 that the

French commenced to work by means of the priests of the mis-

sions, more commonly known under the name of Lazarists, who
soon began to compete successfully against the Italians, converting
to their own advantage the pioneer work so successfully begun by
the latter. Up to i860, however, the Italians could still be con-
sidered as sole masters of the missions, as they far outnumbered
any other nationality.
But when the present deplorable conflict between Church and
State arose, the Vatican began to seek the support of foreign pow-
ers, with the result that the Italian missions in China underwent a
veritable disaster. At a moment when funds became more urgent
than ever, in view of the ever-increasing activity of the mission-
aries of other nationalities, the Vatican suddenly withdrew its sup-
port from the Italian missions, whose place was gradually taken by
newcomers. Although the Holy See has often protested that the
question of nationality has nothing whatever to do with mission
work, still it is a well-known fact that the Vatican has done every-
thing in its power to support French influence in the Far East.
For it is France, the fille auK'e de P^glise, that the Vatican has
always recognised as holding a protectorate over all Catholic mis-
 CHRISTIAN MISSIONS AND EUROPEAN POLITICS IN CHINA. 69I

sions, of whatever nationality, in China, in the same manner as

Austria-Hungary, by an equally ancient privilege, claims the right
of protection over the missions in Egypt.
But while Austria-Hungary has never taken advantage of her
rights, France, on the contrary, has systematically made use of
her protectorate over Catholic missions for political purposes. In-
deed it cannot be denied that France owes her present strong po-
sition on the shores of the Mediterranean and in Tunisia to her
missionaries, and more especially to Cardinal Lavigerie.
As recently as the 22nd of May, 1888, the Sacred Congrega-
tion of the Propaganda Fide formally reasserted this privilege of
France in the circular letter Aspera rerum conditio. "It is a well-
known fact," says this document, "that for many centuries past the
French Protectorate has been established over the East, and that
it has been confirmed in the various treaties with other nations.

No change whatever must be introduced in this matter, and wher-

ever the protectorate of this nation is established it must be reli-
giously respected by the missionaries, who, when in need of help,
must turn to the French consuls or other agents of the same na-
tion."
It cannot be denied that France has enjoyed the privilege of
protectorate over missions in the East for a long time, when the
conditions of Europe were very different from what they are at
present, but this privilege conferred by the Holy See on the "eldest
daughter of the Church" has never amounted to a positive right,
for the simple reason that, contrary to the affirmation of the Propa-
ganda Fide, it has never been recognised by international treaties
or in any way sanctioned by diplomacy.
The French government and the Holy See interpret the Treaty
of Paris of 1856 in their own way when they assert that this priv-
ilege, first granted as a reward to St. Louis and to his brave
knights, was reconfirmed and sanctioned in homage to so ancient
a tradition. Besides, the Treaty of Berlin of 1878 contains an
article (art. which stipulates that "the rights acquired by
62),
France are expressly reserved, and it is understood that no change
be introduced in the status quo of the Holy Land." But here too
while mention is made of the Holy Land there is no allusion to
Syria or to China which might warrant the extension of French
privileges to those regions. As a matter of fact, therefore, no
European nation has ever consented to recognise the privilege con-
ferred by the Vatican on France, and the Emperor William II. not
long ago openly rebelled against the strange pretension that Ger-
692 THE OPEN COURT.

man missionaries should divest themselves of their nationality to

embrace the French. It will be remembered that the occupation
of Kiao-chou was justified by the Emperor as an act of reprisals
for the murder of two German Catholic missionaries in Shan-tung.
William II. appreciates at its full value the enormous political influ-
ence wielded by the humble missionaries who start from the Propa-
ganda Fide, and he has lost no time in declaring both to France
and to the Vatican that the German missionary, of whatever de-
nomination he may be, shall always travel under the protecting
wing of the German eagle. With his quick diplomatic perception
the Kaiser has immediately understood that the missionaries placed
by the Vatican under French protectorate accomplish the same
role which is fulfilled by those politico-religious ministers who
have been christened in Europe "the Jesuits of England's colonial
expansion," and therefore persists in turning a deaf ear to the pro-
tests of the Vatican, which would have France alone as the pro-
tecting genius of the missions in the East.
That the missionaries, to whatever nationality they belong,
carry on a beneficial and highly important propaganda for their
country, is now an undeniable and well-known fact, and this being
the case, it is not surprising to find them under the accusation of
being more or less directly concerned in political events.
It is interesting to learn what a Catholic prelate, Mgr. Luigi

Piazzoli, Bishop of Hong-Kong, who was recently interviewed by

the Osservatore Catholico during a short stay in Milan, had to say
on the subject :
" I cannot deny, " began his Lordship, "that there
is some truth in the accusation brought against the missionaries of
having indirectly caused the present troubles in China. But theirs
is an indirect, a very indirect, responsibility. There was a time in
which the missionaries were held in the greatest consideration and
esteem and were almost beloved by the Celestials. For instance,
in one of the squares of Pekin there stood a statue to Father Mat-
thew Ricci with the inscription Li-ma-to, meaning Grandee of
China. But in those times the missionaries were not hampered
with the protection of European powers. For the important point
of the question lies here the missionaries ought not to he proteciea
:

by anybody! They are and should always remain voluntary vic-

tims, men ready to sacrifice everything. By being protected they
lose their prestigeand gain nothing. Formerly they died the death
of martyrs, now they are killed merely because they are Europeans.
The protection of the powers merely serves the latter as a pretext
to acquire a firm footing in the Celestial Empire every time that
 CHRISTIAN IMISSIONS AND EUROPEAN POLITICS IN CHINA. 693

some missionary is killed or ill-used. The consequence is that the

Chinese have come to hate the missionaries; they no longer con-
sider them in the light of ministers of a religion, but as spies
charged with preparing the ground for the invasion of the foreign
devils. Now you will understand why I said that the missionaries
are indirectly the cause of the present revolt against Europe.
"But the real direct cause of the trouble is that the Chinese
will never forgive the Europeans for having established themselves
in their ports and for gradually acquiring an undeniable influence
almost amounting to dominion over their country. And they can
never forget or forgive the profound difference which separates the
manners and customs of the two races. It was madness to hope
that we could win them over to our civilisation by means of rail-
ways and cannons. Besides, it must be owned that the specimens
of European civilisation down there are not always as edifying
from a moral point of view as might be desired. I repeat that the
only chance of gradually winning China for Western ideas lies
in the patient, slow, peaceful work of the missionaries, of the mis-
sionaries left wholly to themselves. Everything has been spoiled
by this political interference. You see that the Chinese are now
murdering their own countrymen whom they suspect of having
been hopelessly corrupted by the missionaries, of being Chinese
no longer. The Catholic edifice raised up stone upon stone with
such infinite patience by thousands of martyrs during a long vista
of centuries is now threatened with utter destruction. When will
itbe possible to set foot again in China? And will it not be neces-
sary to begin the whole work over again from the very beginning?
Oh !it is sad, believe me, it is a very sad prospect."

Mgr. Piazzoli did not deny, however, that many of the so-
called converts to Christianity, especially in Canton, a city famous
for its thieves and robbers, are not bo7iafide converts at all, but feign
conversion merely in order to obtain better employment from Eu-
ropeans and to carry on their thieving under more auspicious cir-
cumstances. Those scoundrels naturally throw discredit on the
missionaries and contribute to increase the suspicion in which they
are already held by the great majority of the Chinese.
All things considered, therefore, it cannot be doubted that
those missionaries, the protectorate over whom is disputed by
France and the other powers, all anxious to exploit them for their
own political ends, have no small share in the tremendous load
of responsibility which has brought about the present revolt of
China against Western civilisation.
 CHINESE EDUCATION.'
Communicated.

THE philosophers China form

ing from the invention
succession
of
writing
thinkers reach-
our own day. Through
of
a
to
of

five thousand years these men have been the guides of the nation,
and their systems are in a measure of national attainment made
from time to time in the explanation of the universe. A philoso-
pher is a man who gathers disciples, instructs them in the secrets
of nature and makes original investigations in the realm of thought.
His results he forms into a system and commits to the care of his
followers, who shape their mode of thinking in accordance with the
ideas of their master.
The first philosophers of China occupied themselves with agri-
culture, the art of writing, the management of lakes and rivers,
astronomy, and moral and political philosophy. We have the re-
sults in the earlier classics. In the Chow dynasty there was a re-
markable stirring of the native mind, first in the eleventh century
before Christ and then in the sixth century. Chowkung and Con-
fucius led the van. Such was their influence that their position
has been ever since undisputed.
No one probably but Professor Legge ever said Confucius was
not a great man, and Professor Legge in his second edition of the
Four Books recanted.
In the first edition of the Four Books we read at page 113 of
the Prolegomena
" After long study of his character and opinions I am unable to regard him as
a great man."

In the Oxford edition of 1893, thirty two years later, the words
are :

" I hope I have not done him injustice the more I have studied his character
;

and opinions the more highly I have come to regard him. He was a very great-man.
From The Shanghai Mercury of Wednesday, January 17, 1900.
 CHINESE EDUCATION. 695

His rationality, his firm adherence to a moral standard in pol-

itics and philosophy, his sympathetic maintenance of the teaching

Chow-kung.
(Died B. C. 1105.) The great statesman of the Chow dynasty. Idealised by
—-^ Confucius. (After Okyo, Japanese artist of the eighteenth century.)

of the great men of the past, his success in giving to his country-
men a set of text-books which they have studied ever since and
696 THE OPEN COURT.

are still studying, show that he was a great man. Philosophy is

incomplete without history, and the proper study of mankind is
man. This Confucius knew, and he made it a principle. The
study of physical nature he left to others.

Chwang-tze.
(Cir. B. C. 350.) Most prominent of Taoist philosophers. (After Okyo,
Japanese artist of the eighteenth century.)

It was the same with Lau-tsz, Chwang-tsz, and Mencius. But

there a great contrast between the teaching of the Tauists and
is

that of the Confucianists. Quiet contemplation is a very different

thing from the teaching which makes it the duty of a man to serve
 CHINESE EDUCATION. 697

his country. The Tauists resemble the Quakers, who cannot serve
the State in any public office because their principles forbid them
to take an oath. The Confucianists resemble the Puritans, who

Mencius.
(B. C. 372-289.) Greatest leader of Confucianism. (After

Totsugen, Japanese artist of the eighteenth century.)

will fight for their doctrines if need be. Age after age there have
been Confucianist critics of public affairs who would risk death
698 THE OPEN COURT.

rather than not speak their mind on the faults of sovereigns. As

in the case of Charles the First, death China the punishment
is in
awarded to unfaithful princes. This punishment is inflicted, not
by law, but by rebellions which have often ended either in the be-
heading of sovereigns as a sacrifice to popular indignation, or in
suicide as a preferable mode of resigning life when death was in-
evitable.
The fact is patent to every one that the Chow dynasty philoso-
phers were the founders of national education. This is true of the
orthodox school. They made government the occupation of their
life. Their ideas of the scholar's duty were practical, and the good

of the people was their aim. They undertook to govern the State
and educate the people.
to
The services of Confucius deserved recognition, and we may
regard Chinese education as being chiefly his work. For five hun-
dred years, down to the year 1900, Chinese education has been
conservative. The Four Books have been the text-books, and these
books rest upon the Five Classics. The idea of the distribution of
office to scholars as the result of examination is of native origin.
It takes the place of university education in Europe. Every Chi-
nese prefect and magistrate is also an examiner. He promotes
education in his own by holding examinations at certain
district
times. The on his annual rounds in each prov-
literary chancellor
ince confers the degree of Siu-ts'ai on successful candidates after
an examination conducted by himself.
In addition to the literary chancellor there are two Masters of
Arts, Examiners sent down fron Peking every third year. These
confer the rank of Master. The examination is held in the capital
of each province.
All Siu-ts'ai are eligible and may by the success of their essays
become Kii-jen. Afterwards they may attain the rank of Doctor of
Literature or Tsin-shih at the final examination in Peking. The
crown is the fountain of honor. The sovereign confers degrees,
and examiners are in every case deputed by the sovereign to dis-
charge his duties for him.
This system must inevitably change, and admit science, his
tory, and geography to the curriculum of ordinary schools. The
influence of foreign thought is tending to force Chinese ideas on
education to become modified. The world changes and the Four
Books begin to be antiquated. But they will not be abandoned
because the Ta hio makes sincerity the basis of virtue, and teaches
that kindness and justice promote happiness.
 ^ CHINESE EDUCATION. 699

"The sincerity of the ruler dififuses contented feelings among the people he
governs. Instruction proceeds step by step and every point is to be made plain to
the learner. The communication of knowledge is preceded by investigation. Na-
ture must be investigated."

In saying this the Ta hio rises in fact to the sphere of philos-

ophy, and opens the way for all the sciences. This one sentence
in this ancient book justifies the foreign education list in a claim to
be allowed to point out to the Chinese the improvements they need
to make in the programme of studies.
The Chinese have taught Europe the use com-
of the mariner's
pass, the art of printing, the cultivation of tea, and the manufac-
ture of silk. Now Europe may impart to China an improved cur-
riculum in education and give them knowledge which will prove
of inestimable value. Their education may be amalgamated with
that of the West. They need not clash with each other, because
ethical precepts are of universal validity. Moral principles are
never out of harmony with science and philosophy. The form that
this new education should take is that of advanced science, his-
tory, politics, and religion. China is an old nation with great his-
torical experience, and the education given should be high in pro-
portion, when the learners are advanced in the special studies of
their own country. But for the untaught multitude the education
they receive should be like that given to children, line upon line
and precept upon precept, here a little and there a little.
 MISCELLANEOUS.

THE CONGRESS OF THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS AND THE

CONGRESS OF BOURGES.
An International Congress of the History of Religions was held in Paris from
the 3rd to the 8th of September under the presidency of the Hon. M.
of this year,
Albert Reville, of the College de France. This congress in no wise resembled the
Congresses and the Parliament of Religions held in Chicago in 1893. It had even,
owing to the political and religious situation in France, imposed upon itself the
express limitation that the history of religions alone should be considered, and that
no discussion of matters of faith or confessional interests should be permitted. This
condition was faithfully observed but we had nevertheless an echo from the great
;

Parliament at Chicago in the shape of an animated and enthusiastic address from

its president, the Hon. Charles Carroll Bonney, and of a sympathetic communica-

tion from Dr. Paul Cams, as well as a few words of reminiscence by M. Bonet-
Maury. Would it have been possible, indeed, as M. Albert Reville himself ob-
served, to have omitted from a congress of the history of religions all mention of
so historical an event as the great ecumenical council of Chicago ?
Numerous communications were made, both in the general assemblies and in
the various sections. In the general sessions, for example, M. Goldziher spoke of
the relations between Islamism and Parseeism M. le Comte Goblet d'Alviella
;

spoke of the historical relations obtaining between religion and ethics M. Senart, ;

of Buddhism and the Yoga philosophy MM. Jean Reville and Marillier, of the
;

present state of instruction in the history of religions in Europe and in America ;

—
M. Marillier again, in this instance taking the place of M. Nutt, of the science —
of religions and folk-lore and M. de Gubernatis, of the future of the science of
;

religions.
This Congress was, so congress of erudition exclusively.
to speak, a But it
accomplished all hoped of it, and furnished convincing proof that the
that could be
original enterprise had not been entirely abandoned.
*
* -X-

Almost simultaneously with the Congress of the History of Religions, was held
in Bourges a Congress of Catholic Clergymen, under the authorisation of the arch-
bishop of that city, and with the benediction of the Pope. The opinions expressed
regarding this Congress diverge greatly, and I have nothing to say of the proceed-
ings of the convention. It is the fact of the reunion alone that is interesting to us.
A portion of the French episcopacy, perhaps the majority of that body, seemed to
have been hostilely disposed toward the undertaking, which was inaugurated by
 » MISCELLANEOUS. 70I

the Abbe Lemire, deputy from the department of Nord. The idea of convening
in free and open assembly the rank and file of the Catholic clergy seemed a dan-
gerous one, and likely to lead to the emancipation of the priests from the necessary
and natural tutelage of their bishops. The clergymen who attended the congress,
seven or eight hundred in number, disclaimed any such design, however, and dis-
cussed in their meetings only affairs which touched their particular mission, and
did not wish to be understood as desirous of ventilating questions of theological
instruction or ecclesiastical discipline.
To outsiders the cardinal point of interest involved is whether this first Con-
gress have a successor, or, in other words, whether a periodical congress of the
is to

Catholic clergy will be permitted in the future, and become an established institu-
tion. If it is, then a new force and a new organ in church matters will have been

created. But every organisation of this kind expresses itself in definite functions
and is bound to grow and expand and while it is impossible to foresee exactly
;

what its ultimate shape will be, it may be safely predicted that there will in such
an event be many significant changes in the church affairs of France.
Paris, September. Lucien Arreat.

FRENCH BOOKS ON PHILOSOPHY AND SCIENCE.

The French publishing house of Felix Alcan announces a series of expository
works on the systems of the Gi-eat Philosophers. It will constitute in its totality
a voluminous history of philosophy, with emphasis placed upon dominating ideas
and theories conceived as centers of intellectual and spiritual radiation. The edi-
tor of the series is Dr. Clodius Piat, Professor in the Ecole des Carmes. M. Piat
is an abbe, and this fact will doubtless lend color both to the character of the series

and to the selections made for treatment. As for his own choice, there is nothing
of this apparent, he being the author of the initial volume, on Socrates, a philoso-
pher whose doctrines he has expounded in a simple and intelligent manner. (Pages,
270. Price, 5 francs.) The second volume of the series has also appeared and is
by Theodore Ruyssen, sometime Fellow in the Ecole Normale and Professor of
Philosophy in the Lyceum of Limoges. ]\I. Ruyssen's book is the work of a
scholar; and we have been unable on hasty examination to discern anything ap-
proaching to a theological bias in his treatment of the great German philosopher
Kayit. (Pages, 391. Price, 5 francs.) Two other volumes are announced for im-
mediate publication, one on Avicenna by Baron Carra de Vaux, Professor of
Arabic in the Catholic Institute of Paris, and another on Malebranche by M. Henri
Joly, editor of the series of Biographies of Saints which has been noticed in '^I'he

Open Court. The remaining thinkers to whom volumes are to be devoted in this
series are Saint Anselm, Saint Augustine, Descartes, Saint Thomas Aquinas, Saint
Bonaventura, Maine de Biran, Pascal, Spinoza, and Duns Scotus. It is interesting
to note the increased interest which is being taken in educated Catholic circles in
the study of the history of philosophy, and it is to be hoped that the above-mentioned
books will find numerous readers among their followers.
* «
The same publishing house issues another Historical Collection of the Great
Philosophers which is of a different stamp. It contains the excellent translations
of Aristotle and Plato, by the late AI. Barthelemy Saint-Hilaire and Victor Cousin ;

critical studies of Socrates and Plato, by M. Alfred Fouillee and M. Paul Janet;
and studies in Greek science, by ]\I. Paul Tannery. The latest volume to appear
702 THE OPEN COURT.

in this series is one by M. G. Milhaud, Professor of Philosophy in the University

of Montpellier, entitled Les philosophes-geo7nit7-es de la Gr^ce. M. Milhaud,
whose studies in logic and the history have gained for him a favorable
of science
reputation, considers here the relations between Greek philosophy and mathemat-
ics, from Thales to Plato, and defines the general bent which mathematical studies

impress upon philosophical thought. The work is divided into two parts, the first

of which is devoted to the predecessors of Plato, and the second, which takes up
the bulk of the work, to Plato himself. For students of the philosophy of science
the work will be attractive reading.
* *
In his Formes Utteraircs de fensee Grecque, M. H. Ouvre, Professor of
la
Literature in the University of Bordeaux, has attempted the herculean task of ex-
plaining the character and import of one of the most significant periods of literary
history by an analysis of its He has
psychological, sesthetical, and social causes.
written, not a history of Greek showing both
literature, but a philosophic treatise
the real and the logical concatenation of the various forms in which the literary
thought of the Greeks has expressed itself. He discusses the subject under ten
headings beginning with an investigation of the origins of Greek thought, and pur-
suing his researches through narrative and lyric poetry, prose, philosophy, the
drama, history, written discourse, etc. He finds in literature the crowning work of
man and believes that the achievement par excellence, even of our own epoch, is
not science and science alone, but by the side of science and perhaps above science,
poetry. His book is an erudite work, and persons who enjoy this species of inves-
tigation will find it of interest. (Paris : F. Alcan. Pages, vxi, 573. Price, 10
francs.)
* *
Something similar in aim is the work of M. Georges Renard, entitled La me-
thode scientifique de Vhistoire litteraire, the fruit of twenty-five years of study
and instruction in the University of Lausanne. The author seeks here to deter-
mine precisely what the history of literature means, and also what portion of it can
be subjected to scientific method. He believes it possible to rise from particular
to general truths in this domain by a consideration of the myriad relations which
connect literature with its environment, as well as to formulate the law which gov-
erns variations of taste. His illustrations are drawn mainly from the evolution of
French literature, but afford suggestive material for the study of literary history
generally. (Paris: F. Alcan. Pages, 500. Price, 10 francs.) u.

THE INGERSOLL LECTURESHIP ON IMMORTALITY.

The Man was established at Har-
Ingersoll Lectureship on the Immortality of
vard University by a bequest of the late Caroline Haskell Ingersoll. Every
in 1893

year, some person, clergyman or layman, irrespective of denomination or profes-

sion, is appointed to give the expression of his personal views regarding this deep-
est spiritual craving of humanity. Harvard
Prof. William James, the brilliant
psychologist, was made lecturerand his lecture now lies before us as a
for 1898,
book bearing the title Human hnmortality : Two Supposed Objections to the
Doctrine. (Boston and New York Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Pages, 70. Price,
:

cloth, $1.00.)
Professor James has treated the problem in his usual apt and delightful man-
 MISCELLANEOUS. 7O3

ner; he is always graphic and trenchant ; and the delicate tinge of emotional mys-
ticism which colors his philosophy lends to his expositions a charm which few can
resist. The two objections Professor James considers are ;(i) The inference from

physiology that since thought is a function of the brain, when the brain perishes
so also must the thought perish ; and (2) The inference from biology and history
that since countless numbers of indifferent individuals have perished in times gone
by, Heaven must be not only disagreeably overcrowded but insufferably tiresome.
Professor James disposes of the first objection by analysing the concept of function
and showing that the physiological doctrine may be interpreted as referring to (?-afis-
tnissive function, and not necessarily to productive function. Thought is not a
function of the brain as steam is of the tea-kettle, but as the color-fan of the spec-
trum is of the refracting prism. Our brains are the prisms, as it were, through
which the thought of eternity is transmitted each has different degrees of trans-
;

missibility, each dififerent degrees of effectiveness; when one stops "that special
stream of consciousness which it subserved vanishes entirely from this natural
world. But the sphere of being that supplied the consciousness will still be intact;
and in that more real world with which, even whilst here, it was continuous, the
consciousness may, in ways unknown to us, continue still."
It is difficult to see how this prismatic and transcendental eschatology can be

reconciled in any way with the doctrine of individual immortality. The only logical
conclusion from it would seem to be this, that immortality is an attribute of the
great universal ocean of consciousness only, and not of the transient and perish-
able individual streams that flow from it in a word, that the individual is immortal
;

only in so far as he is not an individual, —

a conclusion which, if not accepted itself
as an ultimate solution, simply leaves the question where it was originally taken
up. The transmission-theory of Professor James, furthermore, "puts itself in
touch " with the phenomena now being investigated by the Psychical Research
Society, and this in itself is no mean recommendation to the author.
As to the second objection, the crowdedness of Heaven, Professor James ad-
vances the theory of the infinite compassion and love of the Supreme Spirit, or
God, and affirms the gospel of the paramount significance of the individual life
"God," he says, "has so inexhaustible a capacity for love that his call and need
is for a literally endless accumulation of created lives. He can never faint or grow
weary, as we should, under the increasing supply. His scale is infinite in all
things. His sympathy can never know satiety or glut." And again: "The tire-
someness of an over-peopled Heaven is a purely subjective and illusory notion, a
sign of human incapacity, a remnant of the old narrow-hearted aristocratic creed."
The individuals of the past, the present, and the future who appear so obnoxious
to us in their mediocrity and sameness and as unfit for perpetuation, throb with a
life and significance quite equal to our own and beyond our sphere to judge. Was '

'

your taste consulted in the peopling of this globe? How, be con-

then, should it

sulted as to the peopling of the vast City of God? Let us put our hand over our
mouth, like Job, and be thankful that in our personal littleness we ourselves are
here at all. The Deity that suffers us, we may be sure, can suffer many another
queer and wondrous and only half-delightful thing."
Such is the character of Professor James's refutations of the current objections
to the doctrine of immortality. They are broad and and admit of varied
elastic,

interpretation ; and these features — not their definiteness — will

recommend them
to all persons who seek support for the immortality that they individually have
most at heart. /"•
704 THE OPEN COURT.

BOOK NOTICES.
Mr. John M. Colaw, associate editor of the Atnericau Mathematical Monthly,
and Mr. J. K. Ell wood, principal of the Colfax Public School, of Pittsburg, Pa.,
have also been essaying something recently in the way of elementary arithmetics
on the inductive plan, and we are just now in receipt of two volumes from their
pen, (i) A Pri7na7-y Book of School Arithmetic and (2) An Advanced Book of
School Arithm,etic, published by the B. F. Johnson Publishing Co., of Richmond,
Va. The appearance of the books, both as to illustrations and as to didactic mech-
anism, resembles Mr. Speer's Arithmetics, Mr. Campbell's Observational Geom-
et7-y, and Professor Hanus's Geometry iii the Graynmar School, all of which were

reviewed in The Open Court for October. But they are in some respects more
conservative than Mr. Speer, for example, and cling rather to the old style and
principles of exposition. As to the Advanced Book, there is little to be said con-
cerning it, save that the equation is introduced, the chapters on commercial arith-
metic are modernised, the principles of elementary mensuration experimentally de-
duced, and a brief introduction to algebra added as an appendix. The Primary
Book makes considerable use of experimental methods, beginning with considera-
tions of form, counting by natural number-pictures, fagots, money, etc., measuring
by rulers, tape-lines, liquid measures, etc. In fact, all the most important of the
devices of modern inductive pedagogy have been exploited for this little volume,
which, if anything, is, we think, superior in its conception to the so-called Ad-
vanced Book.
More animated appreciations of the great personages of English Literature
and their environment than Mr. Elbert Hubbard's kittle Journeys to the Homes
of English Authors could scarcely be imagined. They are instinct with wit and
with trenchant, even unbridled, criticism of life, and never fail to hold the atten-
tion, if not to engage the assent, of the reader. Take for instance these opening
paragraphs from John Milto7i : "The father of John Milton -might have known
—
Shakespeare might have dined with him at the Mermaid,' played skittles with '

him on Hampstead Heath, fished with him from the same boat in the river at
Richmond and John Milton, the lawyer, might have discreetly schemed for passes
;

to the Globe and gone with his boy John, Junior, to see 'As You Like It played,
'
' '

with the Master himself in the role of old Adam. Bread Street was just off Cheap-
side, where the Mermaid Tavern stood, and where Beaumont, Fletcher, Ben Jon-
son and other roysterers often lingered and made the midnight echo with their
mirth. In John Milton, Senior, father of John Milton, Junior,
all probability,
knew Shakespeare But the Miltons owned their home, were rich, influen-
well.
tial, eminently respectable, attended Saint Giles Church, and really didn't care to

cultivate the society of play-actors who kept bad hours, slept in the theatre, and
had meal-tickets at half a dozen taverns." In the same strain are the remaining
—
twenty-one pages veritable miniatures of literary portraiture, and far more lasting
in impression than the pictures given us in the great biographical tomes. In addi-
tion is to be noted the decidedly artistic effect of the typographical setting of the
book, its antique black-face type, and initials, especially designed for
its title-page
it. A on Japan vellum, accompanies the book-
fine heliogravure portrait of Milton,
let, which is one of a monthly series, now issued by the Roycrofters, of East Au-

rora, N. Y., an esoteric, bean-eschewing, Pythagorean association of book-makers,

celebrated for their skill and deserving of the world's encouragement. (Single
numbers, 25 cents.) /'.
 Valuable New Books
Eros and Psyche. Retold after Apuleius. By Dr. Paul Carus. Half-tone
reproductions, with ornamental borders, of the famous illustrations
of Paul Thumann. Printed from pica type on Strathmore deckle-edge
paper, elegantly bound, and with classic cover design by E. Bieder-
mann. One of the quaintest stories of the world's folklore. Pages,
XV, io8. Price, Si. 50 net (6s. net).

An Enquiry Concerning the Human Understanding. By David Hume.

Reprinted from the edition of 1777, with Hume's autobiography and
a letter from Adam Smith, usuall}^ prefixed to the History of England.
Frontispiece, portrait of Hume by Ramsay. Pages, 201. Price,
paper, 25 cents.

Acvaghosha's Discourse on the Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana.

Translated for the first time from the Chinese version, by Teitaro
Suzuki. Pages, 176. Price, cloth, $1.25 net (5s. net).
one of the lost sources of Buddhism. It has never been found in its orig-
This is
inal Sanskrit, but has been known to exist in two Chinese translations, the contents
of which have never been made accessible to the Western world This famous book
has now been translated from the Chinese for the first time, by Mr. Teitaro Suzuki,
a Japanese Buddhist scholar, and has been published with introduction, comments,
glossarj', and index.

Whence and Whither? An Inquiry Into the Nature of the Soul, Its
Origin and Destiny. By Dr. Paul Carus. Pages, viii, 188. Price,
cloth, 75 cents net (3s. 6d. net).
This little book treats of the central problems of all religions the nature of the
;

ego the origin, development, and destiny of the human personality spiritual he-
; ;

redity; the dissolution of the body and the preservation of the soul the nature of
;

human immortality; mankind's ideals; the rational basis of ethics, etc., all from
the standpoint of modern psychology and biology.

The Qospel According to Darwin. By Dr. Woods Hutchinson. Pages,

xii, 241. Price, paper, 50 cents (2s. 6d.). Cloth, $1.50 (6s.).
"Is one of the most thoughtful and stimulating of recent publications. ... In
these pages are discussed, in frank, manly, straightforward manner, many of the
themes that are most vital to the race. . . . We
may not agree with all Dr. Hutchin-
son says, but we cannot deny the freshness and vigor of all his argument, nor the
force of his facts, and we shall all find in his pages very much food for profitable
meditation." Tlie Cliicago Cliroiiidc.

World's Congress Addresses. Delivered by the President, the Hon.

Charles Carroll Bonnev, LL. D., to the World's Parliament of
Religions and the Religious Denominational Congresses of 1893,
with the Closing Address at the Final Session of the World's Con-
gress Auxiliary. Printed as a Memorial of the Significant Events
of the Columbian Year. Pages, vi, 88. Price, paper, 15c (gd.).

THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO., ,.^^1^:^?^^..

LONDON: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd.
,
L'HUMANITE NOUVELLE
REVUE INTERNATIONALE ILIvUSTrSe
SCIENCES, LETTRES ET ARTS

Parait mensuellement en un volume in-8° d'au moins 128 pages.

La Revue ne publie que de IMnedit.

DIRECTEUR SCIENTIFIQUE : DIRECTEUR LITTERAIRE:

A. HAMON. V. EMILE=MICHELET

L'HUMANITE NOUVELLE
est la moins couteuse, la mieux faite, la plus complete et la plus
independante de toutes les revues.

L'HUMANITE NOUVELLE
traite de : Sciences mathematiques, physiques, geographiques,
biologiques ; Lettres, Arts, Sociologie, Economique, Politique,
Philosophic, Religion.

L'HUMANITE NOUVELLE
publie des articles dus aux meilleurs auteurs de tons les pays.
Dans chaque numero ily a des chroniques litteraire, artis-
tique, theatrale, politique, une revue des livres et revues de
toutes les langues et de tons sujets.
Aucune Revue ne pent rivaliser avec Himianite U Noiivclle.
Envoi d'un numero specimen gratis sur demande.

ABONNEMENTS;
Union postale un an i8 fr.
: ; 6 mois 9 fr. 50; le N°: 1.75.
France et Belgique un an : 15 fr. 6 mois 8 fr.
; le N"
; 1.50. :

LiBRAiRiE C. REINWALD.
SCHLEICHER FRERES, Editeurs.
VI. PARIS, 15 RUE DES SAINTS-PERES. VI.
 History of Modern Philosophy in France

LUCIEN LEVY-BRUHL
Maitie de Conference in the Sorboune. Professor in the Ecole Libre des
Sciences Politiques.

With twenty-three photogravure and half-tone portraits of French phi-

losophers, from rare and classical sources. Also a Bibliography of Modern
French Philosophy. Handsomely bound, printed on antique paper, with
wide margins. Pp., 500. 8vo. Price, $3.00 (12s.).

"A more attractive book than this it has seldom been our pleasure to
read. Paper, type, binding, and especially the portraits, contribute to
make a sumptuous volume. But its mechanical perfection is the smallest
element of its value. Any one who expects to find this either a dr}- or an
ine.xact or an incomplete book will be most agreeably disappointed. To
every one of competent philosophical knowledge or curiosity, it will prove
both instructive and entertaining." T/ie Methodist Revietv.
"The portraits are admirably reproduced." Literature.

"It is a remarkably handsome volume . . . The illustrations are truly

masterpieces of art." Chicago Israelite.

THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO., 3.4^SiaA,°o?n st.

London : Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co.

A NEW BOOK BY THE DIRECTOR OF THE UNITED STATES

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY AND SOMETIME DI-
RECTOR OF THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

TRUTH AND ERROR

OR

THE SCIENCE OF INTELLECTION

By J. W. POWELL.
Pages, 423. Cloth, gilt top, $1.75 (7s. 6d.).

Important to Psychologists and Students of the Philosophy of Science.

A Highly Orighial Work on Psychology , deali?ig la7-gely zvtth Efistemology.

" Major Powell is a versatile, brilliant, patient, and earnest thinker and writer. His volume is burdened
with a costly and splendid array of facts. And while this is all true, yet this is not a tithe of the value of the
volume. Its intrinsic value is in the systematisation of modern thought. There is a charm in his direci-
. . .

ness. No qualification, no ambiguity, no affection. I hold,'

'
I deny,' ring like the strokes of hammer on
'

brazen casque." The Waskington Post.

THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO., 3./D"'frr^n st

London : Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co., Ltd.
 THE

BIBLIOTHECA SACRA
FOR JULY, igoo

Nine Articles by Oberlin Professors

INAUGURAL ADDRESS. John Henry Barrozcs
A STUDY IN THE LIFE OF JESUS. Ediuard Increase Boszcorth
THE PRESENT STATUS OF OLD TESTAMENT BIBLICAL THEOLOGY.
George Stockton Burroughs
THE ECONOMIC INTERPRETATION OF THE FALL OF MAN.
Thomas Nixon Carve}-
BOSSUET OR, THE MAKING OF A PREACHER.
; Albert Henry Currier
RELIGION AS A PERSONAL RELATION. Henry Churchill King
THE CATHOLIC ANTI-REFORMATION IN BOHEMIA. Louis Francis Miskoi'sky
PRESIDENT FINNEY AND AN OBERLIN THEOLOGY. Albert Teinple Szving
THE LESSON OF THE NEW HYMNALS. Edzvard Dickinson

Two Articles by Oberlin Alumni

OBERLIN'S CONTRIBUTION TO ETHICS.
Professor \V. E. C. Wright, Olivet, Mich.
LIMITING SALOON TERRITORY. THE MINNEAPOLIS PLAN.
Captain Judson N. Cross, Minneapolis, Minn.

FOR OCTOBER, igoo

Five articles by Croger Seminary Professors

COMPETENCE OF IMAGINATION TO SERVE THE TRUTH. /:. //. Johnson
THE CHURCH AT ANTIOCH. J. M. Stifler

FIFTY YEARS OF BAPTIST HISTORY, Henry Clay Vcdder

THE TITLE "THE SON OF MAN." Milton G. Evans
THE RESURRECTION OF THE LORD JESUS CHRIST THE CENTRAL
FACT IN CHRISTIANITY. Henry G. IVeston

Other Articles
THE APPEAL TO REASON. Rev. Joseph Ez^ans Sagebeer, Philadelphia, Pa.
THEOLOGY IN TERMS OF PERSONAL RELATION.
Prof. Henry Churchill A'ing, Oberlin, O.
This is a continuation of the important article in tlie July number.

THE I'ROBLEM IN CHINA. (/. Frederick Wright

Single number, 75 cents. Yearly subscription, $3.00

Write for Sample Pages and Offers to New Subscribers

THE BIBLIOTHECA SACRA CO.,

OBERLIN, OHIO, U. S. A.
 AMERiaS MOST POPULAR RAILROAD
"^1 CHICAGO AND
ALTON
RAILROAD.
PERFEa PASSENGER SERVICE BETWEEN

chicagoand KANSAS city;

CHICAGO AND ST. LOUIS,
CHICAGO AND PEORIA,
SI LOUIS ANDKANSASCITVa
n3" =-
:
= - ~j=p;:^13S._ipig-paSggSf iJS''"

rulhnan service between Chicago and

Thiiuisih
UieiiaSERVieE^*
an^T^olite Xtteintioin
(
HOT SPRINGS, Ark., DENVERXolo., OIN
TEXAS, FLORIDA,UTAH,
^ CALIFORNIA and OREGON. ^ THE MONON ROUTE
Frank J. Reed. Gen. Pass. Agent.
Oc Ai I
CH/VS.H. Rockwell. W. H.McDoel.
pay you tu write tu the uuUersigued fur maps, pamph-
lets, rates, time-tables, etc. Traf.Mgr. Pres. and Gen.Mgr.
GEO. J. CHARLTON, CHICAGO.
General Passenger and Ticket Agent,
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS.

A Psychology for Beginners

AN OUTLINE SKETCH.
By HIRAM M. STANLEY,
Member American Psychological Association, author of the '-'Evolu-
of the
tionary Psychology of Feeling" and Essays on Literary Art. " Pages, 44.
Boards. Price, 40 cents (2s.).

A Terse Statement of Psychological Facts

Designed beginners a direct insight into the subject and
to give to
familiarity with its methods. The student is told as little as possible, but is
allowed to learn for himself by simple observation and experiment.
"A capital little primer .... printed in bold type .... with twenty-six
blank pages of stout paper for the scholar's notes and exercises .... Treats
the most elementary principles of psychology .... in the semi-conversa-
tional style that suggests the practised teacher." Literary World, London.
"Invaluable to teachers." Canadian Teacher.

THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO., CHrCAGO,

324 Dearborn St.
London : Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co., Lid
 RECENTLY PUBLISHED
A BRIEF

HISTORY OF MATHEMATICS
AN AUTHORISED TRANSLATION OF

DR. KARL FINK'S GKSCHICHTK DER

ELEMENTAR-MATHEMATIK

WOOSTER WOODRUFF BEMAN DAVID EUGENE SMITH

Professor of Mathematics in the University AND Principal of the State Normal School at
of Michigan Brockport, N. Y.

IVitJi biog7-aphical notes and full index.

Pag-es,j4j. CI., $i.SO net fjs. 6d. net).

Of all the recent compendia of the history of mathematics, this work

by Professor Fink is the most systematic. It is not a book of anecdotes,
nor one of biography ; it is a clear and brief statement of \.\\(t facts of math-
ematical history.
The author systematically traces the development of the science of
mathematics from the earliest period to the present ; he considers the de-
velopment of algebra from the //<z;/-reckoning of the Egyptians to the the-
ory of functions of the nineteenth century ; he reviews geometry from the
primitive ideas of the Babylonians to the projective and differential geom-
etry and the science of ^-dimensional space ; and finally he traces the his-

tory of trigonometry from the rude ideas of Ahmes to the projective formulae

of recent times.

An invaluable work for teachers of mathematics.

"Dr. Fink's work is the most systematic attempt yet made to present a compendious
history of mathematics." The Outlook.

"This book is the best that has appeared in English. It should find a place in the
library of every teacher of mathematics. It is a hopeful sign that there is an awakening of
interest in the history of mathematics." — Tlie Inland Educator.

324 Dearborn St.

London : Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co., Ltd.

 AXORIENIAI^AKTWOKK

APerfectPen Scenes from the

ATA POPULAR PRICE. j,\jg«

and the best

'^mgnJ

fy,^ PEN AT ANY PRICE.

f,«7'^ Life of Buddha

Reproduced in Colors
YOUR CHOICE OF THESE
from the Paintings of Keichyu Yamada,
S3.00 Professor in the Imperial Art Institute,
Tokyo.
Laughlln Fountain Pens um
With a Handsome Cover=Stamp
I'l
especially designed for the volume by
Frederick W. Gookin, in imitation of a

$1.00 Buddha-painting of
tury.
the Fifteenth Cen-

Recently Published. Price, $2.50.

These pictures, which are a marvel of

Try It a Week If not suit-
I

ed,we buy It back and offer daintiness, have been reproduced by the
you $IA0 for It.
A Prohtable Proposition any- new and expensive three-color process.
way you figure it. Don't miss
this opportunity of a life time The inimitable delicacy of tint of the
to secure the best pen made
Hard rubber reservoir holder originals has been brought out in this way
in four simple parts. Finest
quality diamond point 14k with scarcely any loss of quality.
gold pen, and the only posi-
|

'

tlvely perfect Ink feeding: de- '

vice known to the science of

I fountain pen making. Unique and Original.
"A gift of never ending use-
fulness and a constant pleas- The illustrations are eight in number and
ant reminder of the giver.-'
u^^~ Any desired flexibility occupy each a separate leaf, with the de-
i:) line, medium or stub.
One Pen Only to One Ad-
scriptions and references intervening.
SPECIAL SEED-
dress on this
TIME SALE.
By mail, postpaid, upon re-
ceipt of SI. If you desire pen
_ The publishers will send the work on
sent by registered mail send 10
cents additional. inspection to subscribers to The
your dealer to show you
.Ask
t/i!S If hehas not orwon't
pen. Open Court, provided the same be re-
get it for you. send his name
andyouror'dertous.andreceive turned uninjured and carefully packed
free of charge one of our Safety
Pocket Pen Holders within two days after its receipt, if not
Address
satisfactory.
I

mm
\^ ID
IjJ
LAUGHUN MFG. CO
15S Laughlln Block,
I

DETROIT, MICH. The Open Court Publishing Co.,

324 DEARBORN ST.,
Chicago, - = = Illinois.
 REVUE PHILOSOPHIQUE
DE LA FRANCE ET DE L'ETRANGER
Dirigt'e far TH. RIBOT, Professcur an College dc France.

(25^ annee, 1900.)

Parait tous les mois, par livraisons de 7 feuilles grand in-8, et forme chaque annee deux
volumes de 680 pages chacun.
Prix d'abonnement:
Un an, pour Paris, 30 fr. —Pour les departements et I'etranger, 33 fr.
La livraison 3 f r.

Les annees ecoulees, chacune 30 francs, et la livraisons, 3 francs.

La Revue philosophique n'est I'organe d'aucune secte, d'aucune ecole en particulier.

Tous les articles de fond sont signes et chaque auteur est responsable de son article. Sans professer un
culte exclusif pour I'experience, la direction, bien persuadee que rien de solide ne s'est fonde sans cet appui,
lui fait la plus large part et n'accepte aucun travail qui la dcdaigne.
aucune partie de la philosophic, tout en s'attachant cependant a celles qui, par leur carac-
Elle ne neglige
tfere de precision relative, offrent moins de prise aux desaccords et sont plus propres a rallier toutes les
ecoles. 'La. psychologie, a-vec ses auxiliaires inAis,-pens,a.h\e?,, Vanatomie e\.\A physiologie du systi'iiie nerveux,
\z. pathologic ttientale, la psychologic des races infcrieures et des animaux, les recherches expiri-mentales des
laboratoires: — la logique: — les thiories gener-alcs fondics sur les dicouvertes scientifiques — Vcsihetigue — les
hypotheses metaphysiques, tels sont les principaux sujets dont elle entretient le public.
Plusieurs fois par an paraissent des Revues ghiirales qui enibrassent dans un travail d' ensemble les tra-
vaux recents sur une question determinee: sociologie, morale, psychologie, linguistique, philosophie reli-
gieuse, philosophie mathematique, psycho physique, etc.
La Revue desirant f'tre, avant tout, un organe d'information, a publie depuis sa fondation le compte rendu
de plus de quinze cents ouvrages. Pour faciliter I'etude et les recherches, ces comptes rendus sont groupes
sous des rubriques speciales anthropologic criminelle, esthetique, metaphysique, theorie de la connais-
;

sance, histoire de la philosophie, etc., etc. Ces comptes rendus sont, aulant que possible, impersonnels,
notre but etant de faire connaitre le mouvement philosophijue contemporain dans toutes ses directions, non
de lui imposer une doctrine.
En un mot par la variete de ses articles et par I'abondance de ses renseignements elle donne un tableau
complet du mouvement philosophique et scientiiique en Europe.
Aussi a-t-elle sa place marquee dans les bibliothfeques des professeurs et de ceux qui se destinent a
I'enseignement de la philosophie et des sciences ou qui s'interessent au developpement du mouvement scien.

REVUE HISTORIQUE Dirigee far G. MONOD

Membre de I'lnstitute, maltre de conferences ,\ I'Ecole normale
President de la section historique et philologique a I'Ecole des hautes etudes

(25*= annee, 1900.)

Parait tous les deux mois, par livraisons grand in-8° de 15 feuilles et forme par an trois
volumes de 500 pages chacun.
Chaque lii'raiso)i contient:

\. s'il est possible, un travail complet. — II. Des Melanges

P\usieuTS articles de/hnd, comprenant chacun,
et yari^t^s, composes de documents inedits d'une ttendue restreinte et de courtes notices sur des points
d'histoire curieux ou mal connus. — III. Un Bulletin historique de la France et de I'etranger, fournissant des
renseignements aussi complets que possible sur tout ce qui touche aux etudes historiques. — IV. Une Analyse
—
des publications piriodiques de la France et de I'etranger, au point de vue des etudes historiques. 'V. Des
Comptes rendus critiques des livres d'histoire nouveaux.
Prix d'abonnement:
Un an, pour Paris, 30 fr. — Pour les departements et I'etranger, 33 fr.
La livraison 6 fr.

Les annees ecoulees, chacune 30 francs, le fascicule, 6 francs.

Les fascicules de la annee, 9 francs. i'"'-"

FELIX ALCAN, EDITEUR, '"'^^Ys.'france.'''"""'

Philosophical and Psychological Portrait Series.
Suitable for framing and lianging in public and private libraries, laboratories, seminaries,
recitation and lecture rooms.

The portraits, which are ii x 14 in., have been taken /ro/« the best sources, and are
high-grade photogravures. The series is now complete.

^HI^HHl
THE PHYSICAL REVIEW,
A JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL AND
THEORETICAL PHYSICS.

CONDUCTED BY

EDWARD L. NICHOLS, ERNEST MERRITT, and FREDERICK BEDELL.

Two volumes of The Physical Review are published annuall}', these

volumes beginning in July and January, respectively, and containing at

least five numbers each. The price of subscription is two dollars and fifty

cents a volume (five dollars a year), or fifty cents a number. Subscriptions

should be sent to the publishers, The Maciniillan Company, 66 Fifth Ave.,
N'ew York; Messrs. Macwillan & Co., Ltd., London; or to Messrs. Mayer
& Mueller, Berlin.

Previous to Volume V. (July-December, 1897), The Physical Review

was published in annual volumes, each containing six bi-monthly numbers,
beginning with the July-August number, 1893. These may be obtained
from the publishers at the former subscription price, three dollars per
volume.
Correspondence relating to contributions should be addressed to the
editors, at lihaca, Neiv York.
Manuscript intended for publication in The Physical Review must
be communicated by the author ;
when publication in other journals is con-

templated, notice to this effect should be given.

The authors of original articles published in the Review will receive
one hundred separate copies in covers, for which no charge will be made ;

additional copies when ordered in advance, may be obtained at cost.

PUBLISHED FOR CORNELL UNIVERSITY.

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY,

NEW YORK.
 ON SPENCERIANISM.
KANT AND SPENCER: A Study of the -Fallacies of
Agnosticism. By Dr. Paul Cams. Pages, 101. Paper,
20 cents (Is.).
Contents: The Ethics of Kant (2) Kant on Evolution (3) Mr. Spencer's
(i) ; ;

Agnosticism Mr. Spencer's Comment and the Author's Reply. The purpose
; (4)
of the little book is to show that the ethics of Kant are not supernatural and un-
evolutionary that Kant was a precursor of Lamarck, Von Baer, and Darwin and
; ;

that Mr. Spencer's philosophy is essentially reactionary, being a haven of refuge

even for his enemies.

A PHILOSOPHICAL CLASSIC
DESCARTES' DISCOURSE ON METHOD with a portrait
of Descartes after the painting of Franz Hals. Index,
Preface, and Bibliography. Pages, 86. Price, paper
binding, 25 cents.
Descartes' Discourse on Mct/iod is, in its conciseness and simplicity, one of the

finest introductions to philosophical study that the student can procure. The great
French philosopher is the cross-roads from which the modern paths of thought
diverge. Fie was the forerunner of Newton and Leibnitz on the one hand, and of
Hume and Kant on the other. The picture presented in this book, of his mental
autobiography, is one of the most pleasing chapters of the history of philosophy.
"This is a cheap edition in neat form of Descartes' famous 'discourse.' The
publishers have rendered an important service in making it so easily accessible to
students who do not possess a large philosophical library. Descartes' intellectual
confession of faith may be read with pleasure by any intelligent person."
DoTninion Prcsbyteriati.

A TREATISE ON MORALS
THE ETHICAL PROBLEM: Three Lectures on Ethics
AS A Science. By Dr. Paul Carus. Second edition,
enlarged by a discussion of the subject by William M.
Salter, John Haddock, F. M. Holland, Prof. Friedrich
Jodl, Dr. R. Lewins, Prof. H. Hoeffding, Prof. L. M.
Billia. Pages, 351. Cloth, $1.25 (6s. 6d.).
" One cannot help admiring the calmness and loftiness of tone with which the
discussion is carried on." Presbyterian Keviezu.
"By means of a philosophic controversy we have here literally an "open
court " in which are advanced views upon such questions as the nature of con-
science, the distinction between moral law and moral rules, the ultimate basis of
morality, and cognate subjects." Unity.

324 Dearborn St.

London : Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., Ltd.

THE PSYCHOLOGICAL REVIEW
The regular numbers of Tlie Psychological Review are issued bi-monthly
on the first days of January, March, May, July, September, and November,
and contain about 112 large octavo pages. The space is about equally di-
vided between research work and critical articles, and review^s and discus-
sion of psychological literature.

7 he Annual Subscription is $4.00 {i6s. 6d.'). Single Numbers, 75 cents (ji').

As part of Tlie Revietv there is published annually

The Psychological Index,

a bibliography prepared by Prof. H. C. Warren, of Princeton University,
and Dr. Livingston Farrand, of Columbia University. The issues of The
Index for the years 1894, 1895, 1896, 1897, 1898 and 1899 have already been
published. It is sent without charge to subscribers to The Review, and
may be purchased separately.

As part of Tlie Review there is also published a series of

Monograph Supplements,
consisting of longer researches or treatises which it is important to publish
promptly and as units.

The Monographs already issued are as follows :

VOL. I. $4.00.
I. On Sensation from Pressure and Impact: Harold Griffing. Pp. ii-(-88. 75
cents.
II.Association: M.\ry Whitton Calkins. Pp. vii + 56. 50 cents.
III.Mental Development of a Child Kathleen Moore. Pp. iv+150. $1.25.
:

IV. A Study of Kant's Psychology: Edward Franklin Buchner. Pp. viii + 208
$1.50.
VOL.11. $4.00. (To contain about 500 pages.)

V. Problems in the Psychology of Reading J. O. Quantz. Pp. iv : + 51. 50 cents.

VI. The Fluctuation of Attention: John Perham Hylan. Pp. ii-l-78. 75 cents.
VII. Mental Imagery Wilfrid Lay Pp. ii-|-5g. 50 cents.
:

VIII. Animal Intelligence Edward L. Thorndike. Pp ii-j-iog. $1.00.

:

IX. The Emotion of Joy George Van Ness Dearborn.

: Pp. ii + 70. 75 cents.
X. Conduct and the Weather: Edwin G. Dexter. Pp. viii + 105. $1.00.

may be forwarded and

Subscriptions single numbers purchased through the German
Agents, Mayer & Muller, Prinz Louis Ferdinandstrasse, No. 2, Berlin (M. 16.50) ; or
through the French Agent, H. Welter, Rue Bonaparte, 59, Paris (Fr. 21).

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY,

66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK AND LONDON. ;
 ,\. Weekly Feast to Nourish Hungry Minds." — ^\'. ]'. Evangelist.

FOUNDED BY E. LITTELL IN 1844.

rnr uviNGAGE
A WEEKLY MAGAZINE OF
FOREIGN PERIODICAL LITERATURE
A Necessity Tq Every Reader of Intelligence and Literary Taste

The publishers of The Living Age take special pleasure

in announcing Three Attractive Serials. Ileinrich Scidel's
story The Treasure, translated for The Living Age b}' Dr.
Hasket Derb}-, was begun in thenumberfor October 6. It will
be followed by A Parisian Household, a clever stor}- of
Parisian high life by Paul Bourget, translated for The Living
Age by Mary D. Frost; and by Edmondo de Amicis' striking
autobiographical sketches,Memories of My Childhood and
School-Days, translated for The Living Age from the Nuova
Antologia. These serials are copyrighted by The Living Age
and will appear only in this magazine.

JSacb Weekly Number Contains Sixty-Four Pages,

In which are given, without abridgment, the most interesting and important
contributions to the periodicals of Great Britain and the Continent, trom the weighty
articles in the quarterlies to the light literary and social essays of the weekly literary
and political journals. Science, politics, biography, art, travel, public
affairs, literary criticism and all other departments of knowledge and discussion
which interest intelligent readers are represented in its pages.
Mach Number Contains
A short story and an instalment of a serial story; and translations of striking
articles from French, German, Italian and Spanish periodicals are made express-
ly for the magazine by its own staff of translators.
Once a Month a Special Supplement Number
Presents readings from the most important new books, editorial notes on books
and authors, and a list of books of the month.
In Quantity as well as Quality,
THE LIVING AGE invites comparison with other magazines, being in this
regard the equal of any two literary monthly publications in the country. It gives its
readers annually about 3,500 pages.
THE LI\TNG AGE has ministered for over fifty- six years to the wants of a
largeclass of alert and cultivated readers, and is today perhaps even more valuable than
ever to those who wish to keep abreast of current thought and discussion.
Published WEFKLV at $ri.00 a year, postpaid" Single numbers 1.5 cents each.

XTiL THE Edition is Exhausted there will be sent,

FREE!^;on request, the numbers of THE LIVING AGE con-
taining Heinrich Seidel's story, THE TREASURE, as above. U) rach
New Subscriber for 1901.

Address THE LIVING AGE COMPANY,

Box 5206. Boston.
^M»< X W
 Publications of Note

A WORK ON PSYCHOLOGY.
THE EVOLUTION OF GENERAL IDEAS. By Th. Ribot, Professor in
the College de France. Authorised translation from the French by
Frances A. Welby. Pp., xi, 231. Price, cloth, $1.25 (6s. 6d.).
"All that he writes is and suggestive, and the course of lectures here trans-
lucid
lated is a characteristic contribution to psychology." Nature.
"An interesting and instructive essay, and well within the capacity of the general
reader." The Dial.

A CONTRIBUTION TO SOCIOLOGY.
SCIENCE AND FAITH, or Man as an Animal and Man as a Mf.mber
OF Society. With a Discussion of Animal Societies. By Dr. Paul
Topinard, Late General Secretary of the Anthropological Society of
Paris, and Sometime Professor in the School of Anthropology. Pp.,
361. Price, cloth, gilt top, ^1.50 net (6s. 6d. net).
"A most interesting volume." Glasgow Herald.
"Stimulating and suggestive." — The Scotsman.
" The book is worth reading, whether we are or are not satisfied with its conclu-
sions." Mature.
"An unusually interesting volume .... suggestive in the highest degree ....
worth the time of any man to read from beginning to end." Times- Herald.

A BOOK ON COMPARATIVE FOLK-LORE.

SOLOMON AND SOLOMONIC LITERATURE. By Moncure D. Conway.
Pp., viii, 243. Bound in red cloth. Price, $1.50 net (6s.). Portrays
the entire evolution of the Solomonic legend in the history of Judaism,
Christianity, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Parseeism, and also in ancient
and modern folk-lore, taking up, for example, the legend of Solomon's
ring, Solomon's seal, etc., etc.
"A thoughtful, interesting, and scholarly study." Pittsburgh Times.
" Full of curious lore." Manchester Guardian.
" Mr. Conway's book on Solomonic literature is precisely such a work as we should
expect from the author of Sacred Anthology. The logic is everywhere blazed with
the poetry of Mr. Conway's nature. There are frequent passages of great eloquence."
— Wnity.

THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO., 3./o"e'frt?r^n 5t

London; Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co., Ltd.

 FRANZ SCHWARZER MANUFACTURER OF
Zithers, Mandolins, and Strings.

The Schwarzer Zither is the onl> Zither exported to all part-^ ot t'le civilized world. Schwarzer's
Zithers and Mandolins are offered to the ira(ie and public as being the highest grade in quality and
durability. Catalogue on application.

Factory at WASHINGTON, MO., U. S. A.

STEVEN5 RIFLES
AND PISTOLS.
are all guaranteed to be, without exception

Safe, Durable, Accurate.

They are made in all weights and styles and are

marvelously accurate. The " Ideal " No. 44 is

a fine rifle, one of our leaders, price only $10.

We guarantee it in every respect. Nothing cheap
about it but the price.
Made regularly in .22, .25 and .32 calibre
rim-fire, .25 20 Stevens, .32-40, -38-55, and .44-40 center fire.

In Special Sizes . . . $12.00.

Send stamp for our latest 132 page catalogue.

J. STEVENS ARMS AND TOOL CO., ch,cope^f^Xl^l"1'&,u.s.a.

 Chinese Philosophy, Fiction, and Religion

CHINESE PHILOSOPHY: Being an Exposition of the Main Characteristic

Features Chinese Thought. By Dr. Paul Cams. Pp., 62. Numer-
of
ous diagrams and native characters and illustrations. Price, paper,
25 cents (is. 6d.).
"Valuable and of unquestioned reliability. The delineation of the philosophy that
underlies the Chinese civilisation is so ably done in these pages that the reader cannot
fail to appreciate the causes which produce Chinese conservatism." Toledo Blade.

CHINESE FICTION. By the Rev. George T. Candlin. With illustrations

from original Chinese works, specimen facsimile reproductions of texts,
and translations of representative passages. Giving a clear and vivid
rdsuvie oi Chinese romantic literature. Pp., 51. Paper, 15 cents (gd.).
"A list of 'fourteen of the most famous Chinese novels' is given. Many long quo-
tations from plays, poems, and stories are given, and the pamphlet is a source of great
pleasure. The pictures, too, are charming." The Chicago Times Herald.

LAO=TZE'S TAO=TEH=KINQ ^i^ii^lS Chinese-English. With Introduc-

tion, Transliteration, and Notes. By Dr. Paul Carus. With a photo-
gravure frontispiece of the traditional picture of Lao-Tze, specially
drawn for the work by an eminent Japanese artist. Appropriately
bound in yellow and blue, with gilt top. Pp., 345. Price, $3.00 (15s.).
Contains: (i) A philosophical, biographical, and historical introduction discussing
Lao-Tze's system of metaphysics, its evolution, its relation to the philosophy of the
world, Lao-Tze's life, and the literary history of his work (2) Lao-Tze's 7^ao-Teh-King
;

in the original Chinese (3) an English translation (4) the transliteration of the text,
; ;

where every Chinese word with its English equivalent is given, with references in each
case to a Chinese dictionary ; (5) Notes and Comments ; (6) Index.
" Extraordinarily interesting. Of great moment." The Outlook.
"A truly remarkable achievement." The North-China Herald.
"While of great importance to the serious student, it isusable and interesting to
any one who cares at all for the thought and religions of the Orient." 7 lie Kczv Unity.

Much labor has been put into this book. It will be a great addition to the knowl-
"
edge which English readers have of one of the greatest of religious books and religious
leaders." The Chnrcli Union.
"It is a convenient volume through which to make such acquaintance with the
Chinese language and Chinese thought as an American scholar must consider desirable
in view of the present increased intercourse with the Oriental world." Reformcu
Church Reviezi'.
'
' one could do to make the immortal Canon on Reason and Virtue alluring
All that ' '

to American readers has certainly been done by the author. The translation is faith-
ful, preserving especially the characteristic terseness and ruggedness of style of the
original, the type work is superb, the comments judicious, and the binding a bright
yellow with blue and gilt and red trimmings." 7'he Ctanberland Presbyterian.

THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO., ^./oe'fr^b^r^n s,

London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co., Ltd.

 A CLASSICAL WORK ON CHINA

THE TRAVELS IN TARTARY, THIBET AND CHINA

Of MM. HUC and GABET
New Edition. From the French. Two Vols. lOo Ilkistrations. 688 Pages
Cloth, $2.00 (los.). Handsomely Bound in Oriental Style.
Popular Edition, i Vol., Cloth, $1.25 (5s.) net.

A Truly Fascinating Work.— One of the Most Popular Books of All Time^.

Read the Following Comniendatory N'otices:

"The work made a Although China and the other countries of tlie Orient have
profound sensation.
been opened to foreigners in larger measure in recent years, few observers as keen and as well qualified to
put their observations in finished form have appeared." The Watchman.
" The book is a classic, and has taken its place as such, and few classics are so interesting. It de-
serves to be put on the same shelf as Lane's Modern Egyptians. These reprints ought to have a large sale,
Few books will have more readers than the missionary adventures of Abbe Hue and his no less daring com-
panion." — The Catholic News.
" Fools,
it is known, dash in where angels fear to tread, and there are also instances of missionaries

dashing in where intrepid and experienced travellers fail. Such was the case with MM. Hue and Gabet,
the two mild and modest French priests who, fifty years ago, without fuss, steadily made their untortured
way from China across Thibet and entered L'hassa with the message of Christianity on their lips. It is
true that they were not allowed to stay there as long as they had hoped; but they were in the Forbidden
Land and the Sacred City for a sufficient time to gather enough facts to make an interesting and very valu-
able book, which on its appearance in the forties (both in France and England) fascinated our fathers much
in the way that the writings of Nansen and Stanley have fascinated us. To all readers of Mr. Landor's
new book who wish to supplement the information concerning the Forbidden Land there given, we can
recommend the work of M. Hue. Time cannot mar the interest of his and M. Gabet's daring and successful
enterprise." The Academy.
"The descriptions of the perils and diflSculties of travel, of the topography and of climatic phenom-
ena, are remarkably simple and vivid. How wonderfully has the Catholic missionary penetrated the leas
known lands! Rarely well qualified to travel, frequently frail of body and simple of mind, he has, through
sheer earnestness of purpose, made his v/ay, where strength, experience, and cunning fail. The Open
Court Co. has certainly done well in bringing out an English version of Travels in Tartary, Thibet, and
China ... at this time." Prof. Frederick Starr, in Nczu Unity.
" One of the most striking books that have ever been written on the East is the one, here reprinted, of
the travels of the Jesuit missionaries Gabet and Hue in Tartary, China, and Thibet, over fifty years ago.
The modesty as well as the fulness of the narrative strikes the reader with astonishment, in view of the in-
credible difficulties of the camel journey, the ease with which they were overcome, the abundance and
novelty of the information obtained, and the combined pieturesqueness, impersonality, and humility of
these two accomplished priests." The Critic.

"The interest in the territory treated in this volume is justnow immense, on account of the immi-
nency of the partition of China by the governments of Europe." Sunday School Library Bulletin.
"Once one takes up the volumes, it is hard to shake oneself free from the gentle spell of his narra
tive,and when the last page is turned down and we leave the two kindly priests on their homeward journey
at the boundaries of China, we want to go with them every remaining step of the way, live in their tents
share their scanty handfuls of meal, and enjoy with them a whimsical smile at the dilemmas and adven
tures of each succeeding day." Law List ef United Commercial Lawyers.

THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO., 3./o"e'frtr st.

London : Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co., Ltd.

 THE

HISTORY OF THE DEVIL

AND

THE IDEA OF EVIL

FROM THE EARLIEST TIME TO THE PRESENT DAY
BY

DR. PAUL CARUS

Printed in two colors from large type on fine paper.
Bound
in cloth, illuminated with cover stamp from Dore. Five hun-
dred 8vo pages, with 311 illustrations in black and tint. Price, ^6.00 (30s.).

With numerous illustrations from ancient and modern demonology, as

recorded on monuments and in literature.
Offering a complete comparative history and analysis of the idea of
evil, with philosophical, ethical, and religious comments.
The author reviews the broad field of the conception of evil among
the various nations of the earth. Beginning with prehistoric Devil-worship
and the adoration of demon gods and monster divinities, he surveys the
beliefs of the Summero-Accadians, the Persians, the Jews, the Brahmans,
the Buddhists, the early Christians, and the Teutonic nations. He then
passes to the demonology of the Middle Ages, the Reformation, and mod-
ern times, discussing the Inquisition, witchcraft, and the history of the
Devil in verse and fable. The philosophical treatment of the subject is

comparatively brief, but the salient points are clearly indicated in every
connexion. The pictures are numerous, and will aid considerably the
reader's comprehension.
No expense has been spared to make the book exemplary in every
respect.

CHICAGO
THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING COMPANY
324 Dearborn Street

LONDON
Kegan Pual, Trench, Trubner & Co. (Ltd.), Paternoster House, Charing Cross Road