Tecronophysics, 186 (1991) 365-386 365

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

Gravity field and deep structure of the Bengal Fan and its
surrounding continental margins, northeast Indian Ocean

Manoj Mukhopadhyay and M.R. Krishna

Department of Geophysics, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad 826004, India
(Received October 23. 1989; revision accepted May 1, 1990)

ABSTRACT

Mukhopadhyay, M. and Krishna, M.R., 1991. Gravity field and deep structure of the Bengal Fan and its surrounding
continental margins, northeast Indian Ocean. Tectonophysics, 186: 365-386.

A revised gravity anomaly map for the northeast Indian Ocean shows that the shelf edge underlying the eastern continental
margin of India is a rather narrow but extensively linear gravity low (minimum free-air = -149 mGa1). The Bengal Fan
seaward of the shelf has a depressed gravity field (average free-air = - 20 to - 30 mGa1) in spite of the enormous thickness of
sediments of as much as lo-15 km. The two buried ridges below the Bengal Fan-the 85” East and 90 o East Ridges-have a
large negative (- 75 mgal) and a substantial positive (40 mGa1) free-air anomaly, respectively. The Andaman and Burmese
arcs lying along the east margin of the Bengal Fan are active subduction areas which have typical bipolar gravity signatures
with a maximum amplitude of 300 mGa1. Gravity interpretation for three regional traverses across the central and northern
parts of the Bengal Fan and their surrounding continental margins suggests that a thickened oceanic crustal wedge juxtaposes
the transitional crust under the eastern continental slope of India; the 85” East Ridge, that was created when the Indian
Ocean lithosphere was very juvenile, appears to underlie a nearly 10 km thick and 120 km wide oceanic crustal block
consisting of the ridge material embedded in the upper lithosphere; while the 90 o East Ridge submarine topography/buried
load below the Bengal Fan is probably isostatically compensated by a low-density mass acting as a cushion at the base of the
crust. The Bengal Fan crust, with its thick sediment layer, is carried down the Andaman subduction zone to a depth of about
27 km where, possibly, phase transition takes place under higher pressure. The maximum sediment thickness at the
Andaman-Burmese subduction zone is of the order of lo-12 km. The gravity model predicts a low density zone about 60 km
wide below the Andaman-Burmese volcanic arc, penetrating from crustal to subcrustal depths in the overriding Burma plate.
A more complex density distribution is however, envisaged for the Andaman volcanic arc that is split by the Neogene back arc
spreading ridge. The ocean-continent crustal transition possibly occurs farther east of the volcanic arc; below the Shan
plateau margin in Burma or below the Mergui terrace at the Malayan continental margin east of the Andaman Sea.

Introduction underthrusting Indian plate and the overriding

Asian plate at the location of the Andamar-
The Bengal basin in northeast India, together Burmese arcs (Curray et al., 1979). The origin of
with its offshore continuation, the Bengal Fan, in the Burma plate relates to Neogene back-arc
the northeast Indian Ocean constitute the Bengal spreading in the Andaman Sea; the back-arc
geosyncline that evolved in the Mesozoic-Ceno- spreading ridge connects northward to the Sagaing
zoic. Geologically this is a fascinating region be- transform in Burma. The Andaman-Burmese arc
cause it contains up to 15 km of sediment. The system serves as an important transitional tectonic
area of the geosyncline shrunk with time in conse- link between the Himalayan collision zone to the
quence of the eastward subduction of the Indian north and a major island-arc trench system of
plate below the Andaman-Burmese arcs (Fig. 1). south Asia, the Sunda arc. Subduction of the
Along the eastern margin of the geosyncline, a Indian plate below the Andaman-Burmese arcs
smaller plate, the Burma plate, exists between the generally extends to a depth of 200-220 km

0040-1951/91/$03.50 Q 1991 - Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.

366 M. MUKHOPADHYAY AND M.R. KRISHNA

7~. Hinge zane

I
‘t Thrust
!& Margin of lndion Shield I
&.
& Back-arc spreading ridge
c-_=l Edge of continental crust
1

Fig. 1. Tectonic map for the Bengal Fan and the Andaman arc in the northeastern Indian Ocean and the adjacent continental margin
in Burma and Malaya to the east and the Indian continental margin to the west. The most significant tectonic features below the
Bengal Fan are the 85” East and 90° East Ridges which have infhrenced the s~imentation history of the Fan since the Cretaceous.
The location of the Eocene hinge zone, subparallel to the east coast of India, is inferred on the basis of seismic surveys in several
areas of the Bengal basin as well as offshore. AA’, BB’ and CC‘ are the interpreted gravity profiles. Two seismic sections (indicated
by bars) across the Andaman and Burmese arcs are located close to the gravity profiles. S.M. = Shillong massif; E.S = Bogra slope;
E. F = Bengal foredeep; B. H. = Barishal high; S.T= Sylhet trough; H.T = Hatya trough; E.B.T. = Eastern Boundary thrust in
Burma; D. F. = Dauki fault; Mdr. = Madras: Wul. = Waltair; Bbr. = Bhubaneswar; Cnl. = Calcutta.

(Mukhopadhyay, 1984); however, under the Sunda Quaternary, transport of the eroded material by
arc farther south the subduction penetrates deeper the confluent Ganges and Bra~aputra rivers,
(Hamilton, 1979). and deposition of the sediment in the newly formed
Several stages are considered significant in the Bengal geosyncline.
geological history of the Bengal geosyncline since (d) Deformation and subduction of this sedi-
its formation through the rifting of eastern ment wedge below the Andaman-Burmese arcs,
Gondwanaland. These are: and formation of the successor basins (Curray and
(a) The formation and evolution of the rifted, Moore, 1971; Johnson et al., 1976; Curray et al.,
young, passive continental margins and the ocean 1982).
basin between them. It is interesting to note that due to the con-
(b) Sea-floor spreading in the east to northeast tinued spreading of the Indian Ocean floor, stages
Indian Ocean and closing of the Tethys. (c) as well as (d) are still in operation. This dy-
(c) Collision of India with Asia, uplift and namic process has led to the formation of the
erosion of the Himalayas in the Tertiary- Bengal and Nicobar Fans in the northern part of
GRAVITY FIELD AND DEEP STRUCTURE OF THE
the northeast Indian Ocean. Together these form
the largest deep-sea fan complex in the world,
extending for some 3000 km from the Indian
continental margin (Fig. 1).
Since the days of the Indian Ocean Expedition
(Laughton et al., 1970) several structural and
tectonic studies have been made of the Bengal
Fan, and also of the 85’ East Ridge and Ninety
East Ridge (NER) which underlie the Fan. It is
believed that both these ridges are probably of
hot-spot origin; the former was created when the
Indian Ocean lithosphere was young (10 iz 5 m.y.)
and hot and flexed readily under the load of the
ridge. Most of the ridge was buried when the
Indian Ocean hthosphere is 40-80 m.y. old (Liu et
al., 1982). In contrast, the hot-spot that created
the latter ridge was located under the Kerguelen-
Heard Plateau in the southern Indian Ocean at
this time (Curray et al., 1982). The 85 o E Ridge is
completely buried under the Bengal Fan, and could
only be partly mapped by seismic surveys. How-
ever 4800 km of the NER is exposed on the Indian
Ocean floor-only the 700 km long northernmost
segment is buried below the Bengal Fan, where
Fig. 2. Continuity of Precambrian shield edge and fold trend from east to west Gondwanaland
(redrawn after Powell et al., 1980). Also shown are the outlines of the Deccan
BENGAL FAN 367
the ridge plunges northwards below the Fan sedi-
ments. Due partly to the oblique subduction of
the Indian plate at the Andaman-Burmese sub-
duction zone, the surface area of the Bengal geo-
syncline diminishes from south to north; the in-
tensity of tectonic deformation also varies signifi-
cantly along the Andaman-Burmese arcs. Mitchell
and McKerrow (1975) suggested that the collision
process and mountain building started in the
northern part of the Burmese arc (the Naga Hills),
while active subduction of the Indian plate still
dominates the rest of the arc. Seismic activity
resulting from subduction is however, highly sub-
dued in coastal Burma and the north Andaman
region; it is possible that subduction of the Indian
plate occurs here aseismically (Le Dain et al.,
1984), or that this is a fossil plate boundary. The
subduction zone geometry in the central Andaman
arc area is apparently greatly affected by partial
subduction of the NER as observed on seismic
data (Curray et al., 1982). It is therefore expected
that the subduction of the Indian plate below the
Andaman-Burmese arcs, and the modifications to
the subduction zone geometry have produced con-
Precambrian
Fold trend
as shown by a plate reconstruction
trap and the Eastern Continental Margin of India in
respect to the Antarctic peninsula.
368 M. MUKHOPADHYAY AND M.R. KRISHNA

II “h
I
“I.3
I 1
GRAVITYFIELDAND DEEPSTRUCTUREOFTHEBENGALFAN 369

siderable mass anomalies at depth that are re- B.P.) as India separated from combined Australia
flected in the gravity field of the region (see be- and Antarctica (Fig. 2). The east coast bight of
low). India was possibly facing the protruberance of
In this paper we give an inte~retation of the Enderby Land of Antarctica. The eventual sep-
gravity along three regional traverses extending aration occurred approximately parallel to the
from the rifted Indian continental margin to the ECMI that now trends NE-SW, which is in line
Andaman-Burmese arcs and from the Andaman with the hinge zone or the edge of the continental
Sea across the Bengal Fan. We use the available crust extending from the Bengal delta into the
geological information and published seismic data offshore region (Curray et al., 1982) (Fig. 1). Four
to constrain the gravity interpretation. Our main major spreading stages are envisaged for the crea-
objectives are to supplement the present in- tion of the eastern Indian Ocean as a result of
ferences on the processes of crustal rifting and movement of the Indian, Australian and Antarcti-
lithospheric stretching under the east coast con- ca plates (130-80, 80-53, 53-32 and 32-O m.y.
tinental margin of India (ECMI), to provide infor- B.P.) (Johnson et al., 1976). Curray et al. (1982)
mation on the significant mass anomalies present however, invoke a five stage scenario: 130-105,
below the Bengal Fan, its underlying ridges, and 105-90, 90-53, 53-32 and 32-O m.y. B.P. The
the Andaman-Burmese arcs, and to discuss the spreading history for the northern part of the
regional tectonics. eastern Indian Ocean is largely dependent on the
identification of magnetic anomalies off western
Regional geologic setting and its evolution Australia. So far there is very little control from
the Bay of Bengal because no definite identifica-
The major geological features underlying the tion of spreading-type anomalies has yet been
ECMI and the Bay of Bengal are inherited from possible. Nevertheless, Johnson et al. (1976) pos-
the break-up of eastern Gondwanaland and subse- tulate that the oldest magnetic anomalies in this
quent spreading of the Indian Ocean floor. Vari- part of the Indian Ocean are aligned subparallel to
ous authors have used the magnetic anomalies, the east coast of India, which also approximately
DSDP data, and the palaeomagnetic results to correspond to the 2 km isobath along the western
study its spreading history (for example, Heezen margin of the Bengal Fan. Geophysical surveys by
and Tharp, 1964; Le Pichon and Heirtzler, 1968; the Oil and Natural Gas Commission (India) over
McKenzie and Sclater, 1971; Bowin, 1973; Von the five east coast basins and their offshore exten-
Der Borch et al., 1974; Johnson et al., 1976; sions suggest that their underlying basement is
Luyendyk and Rem&k, 1977; Curray et al., 1979, typically do~nated by an alternating set of NE-
1982; Powell et al., 1980). Most authors agree that SW trending ridges and depressions (Sastri et al.,
spreading in the eastern Indian Ocean was ini- 1973; Talukdar, 1982) (Fig. 3). This pattern is
tiated during the Early Cretaceous (about 130 m-y. common for all the five east coast basins-the

Fig. 3. Basic geophysical evidence for the basement configuration below the east coast basins of India: (a) the basin locations:
A-Cauvery; B-Palar; C-Krishna-Godavari; D-Mahanadi; E-Bengal basin. Their underlying basement configuration is
illustrated in the subsequent figures; sediment thickness contours in km (source: Tectonic Map of India, O.N.G.C., 1968). Notice that
the basin geometry is typically dominated by an alternating pattern of subsurface ridges and depressions bounded by basement faults
oriented NE-SW; all of the east coast basins open seaward. Rock stratigraphy for all five basins is synthesized in Table 1.
Geographic names for the individual structural elements of the basins are: (b) 1 = Ramnad-Palk strait depression; 2 = Devakkottai-
Mannargudi ridge; 3 = Thanjavur depression; 4 = Thirupundi-Vedaraniyam high; 5 = Tirutturaipundi-Nagapattinam depression;
6 = Tranquebar depression; 7 = Kumbakonam-Shiyali ridge; 8 = Ariyalur-Pondicherry depression. (c) I= Varadayyapalaiyam-
Durgarajupatnam ridge; 2 = Pulicat depression. (d) I = East Godavari depression; 2 = Bhimavaram ridge; 3 = West Godavar+
depression; 4 = Bapatla Ridge; 5 = Krishna depression. (e) 1 = Puri depression; 2 = Bhubaneswar ridge; 3 = Paradeep depression;
4 = Rajnagar ridge; 5 = Cuttack-Chandbali depression; 6 = shallow basement area. (f) Sediment isopach map for the Bengal basin
(after Evans, 1964) showing a monoclinal increase in sediment thickness towards deeper parts of the basin,
370 M. MUKHOPADHYAY AND M.R. KRISHNA

TABLE 1

Stratigraphy for the five East Coast Basins of India (Source: Evans, 1964, Sastri et al., 1973, Jagannathan et al., 1983)

Age Cauvery Basin Palar Basin Krishna-Godavari Mahanadi Basin Bengal Basin
Basin

Holocene Alluvial sands Brown sands and Alluvial sands, Reddish brown sand
and clays river alluvium (40) clays and and clay (460)
sandstone (15) kankar (25)

Unconformity

Pleisto- Ferruginous Laterites and Calcareous, gypsic Unconsolida-

cene grits (95) lateritic clays (200) ted sands
conglomerates (15) and grits

Unconformity

Pliocene Sandstone, cong- Conglomeratic and Ferrugenous sand- Argillaceous shales

lomerates lime- clayey sandstone stone grits and and claystones
stone and coal (Cuddalore sand- conglomerates (Debagram, 1445)
(Cuddalore sand- stone, 15) (Rajahmundry sand-
stone, 300) stone. 720)
Miocene

Unconformity

Sandstone, clay Claystone, Shale, siltstone

stone, limestone siltstone and and claystone
(1190) sandstone (Pandua, 340)

Unconjormity Unconformity

Oligocene Claystone, shale, Claystone and Siltstone

sandstone and sandstone (110) (Memari, 80)
limestone (340)

Unconformity

Eocene Shale, claystone Black claystone Limestone. Deccan Limestone Shale and compact
and limestone (400) trap volcanics and limestone
(1150) (Inte~rappean claystone (Sylhet, 342)
beds, 130)

Unconformity Unconformity

Paleocene Claystone, shale, Coarse grits, Claystone Sandstone with

limestone calcareous clay and shale
(Pondicherry and sandstone (Jalangi, 721)
Niniyur, 700) (Intratrappeanbeds, 70)

Unconformity Unconformity Unconformity ihconformity

Sandstone, clay-
stone and lime-
stone (Upper
Ariyalur, 730)
Clayey sandstone, Calcareous shales,
Late conglomerates, limestone
Cretaceous limestone (Bolpur, 125)
(Lower Ariyalur)
GRAVITY FIELD AND DEEP STRUCTURE OF THE BENGAL FAN
371

TABLE 1 (continued)

Cauvery Basin Palar Basin Krishna-Godavari Mahanadi Basin Bengal Basin

Age
Basin

Sandstone and
limestone
(Trichnopally)

Unconformify

Claystone, limestone
and shale (Uttatur)

Unconformity

Early Limestone, black Conglomerates Clayey and Lateri- Basalt with few
Cretaceous shale (Dalmiapuram) (Satyavedu tized sandstones Intertrappean
beds, 2000) (Tirupati sandstone, layers
Limestone 830) (Rajmahal Traps,
(Sriperumbudur Shales and clays 780)
beds, 600) (Raghavapuram and
Vemavaram shales, 160)

Unconformity Unconformity

Jurassic Sandstone Grits, sandstone with

(Sivaganga beds, claystone
1090) (Gollapalli and Budavada
sandstone, 200)

Unconformity Unconformity

Permian Boulder beds and Sands, shales and

shales coal (Lower Gondwa-
Carboni- na, 833)
ferous -Nonconformity-
Archean Granite Gneiss and Igneous and Khondalites, schists Metamorphic and
other metamorphic metamorphic chamockites and local granitic and
rocks basement pegmatites doleritic intru-
sions (Precambrian)

Note: Names and numbers in parenthesis indicate the name of the local formation and its thickness in meters.

Cauvery, Palar, Krishna-Godavari, Mahanadi and western parts of the Bengal basin, where they are
Bengal basins. The average sediment thickness in preserved in deep troughs covered by the Early
the first four basins is about 3 km, while for the Cretaceous Rajmahal volcanics underlying the
Bengal basin it increases to as much as 13 km in Tertiary rocks (Sengupta, 1966; Choudhury and
deeper parts of the basin toward the Burmese arc Datta, 1973; Mukhopadhyay et al., 1986). Stratig-
(Evans, 1964; Talukdar, 1982; Baishya et al., 1986). raphy for the five east coast basins (Table 1)
A deep sedimentary trough of Gondwana age demonstrates that an average of 2 km of pre-Ter-
(Permo-Carboniferous) is commonly developed at tiary sediments, intertrap beds, basaltic flows and
the Indian shield margin; the Gondwana sedi- other volcanics are generally present in these
ments are covered by the Tertiary sediments and basins. These characteristic basinal features under
the coastal basalt traps. The shield margin the ECMI (both on land and offshore) apparently
Gondwana sediments are nearly 3 km thick in reflect the thermal and mechanical processes asso-
 M. MUKHOPADHYAY AND M.R. KRISHNA
372

ciated with crustal rifting following the eastern east forming a wider topographic high consisting
Gondwanaland break-up. of volcanoes and seamounts (Rodolfo, 1969).
The Andaman Sea, lying between the Andaman
Bathymetric pattern in the north part of the Bengal arc and the Malayan margin, is mostly delineated
Fan by a 2 km N-S trending isobath which runs along
its entire 750 km length. The Mergui Terrace
Prominent morphological features under the forms its eastern limit against the Malayan con-
ECMI as well as the northeast Indian Ocean in- tinental margin. The Andaman back-arc spreading
clude the ECMI, Bengal Fan, Andaman arc trench, centre is a rather narrow bathymetric depression
and the Andaman Sea. They are briefly described in the middle of the Andaman Sea where, locally,
below. the water depth increases to about 3 km.
The ECMI is a rather wide continental shelf Figure 4 illustrates the two contrasting bathy-
whose width gradually lessens from north to south metric trends which dominate the floor of the
-off the Madras coast it is possibly at its narrow- northeast Indian Ocean-a north-south trend de-
est (Fig. 4)-while the base of the slope deepens marcates the NER and the Andaman Sea, while
from north to south (also see, Rao and Rao, 1985). an east-west trend is common for the Bengal Fan.
The Bengal Fan underlying the northeast Indian The latter has a gentle bathymetric slope south-
Ocean has a smooth southward slope, where water ward, of the order of 1.6 m/km. This is in marked
depth varies from 200 m in the north part of the contrast with an east-west bathymetric gradient
Fan to more than 3500 m near the Ten Degree of as much as 22 m/km across the NER in the
Channel at about lOoN latitude (Curray and equatorial region (Stein and Okal, 1978). The re-
Moore, 1971). Sediment thickness in the Fan is lief of the ridge in relation to the adjacent undis-
enormous; it ranges from 5 to 15 km (Curray et turbed Indian Ocean floor at about 3” N is in
al., 1982). Sediment generally thickens towards the excess of 2 km; but farther north the ridge topog-
northeast of the Fan, in the vicinity of the Ganges raphy becomes gradually less distinct because of
Cone. The oldest dated sediments in the Fan are its northward plunge beneath the Bengal Fan.
Campanian cherts underlain by unfossiliferous
chert and chalk (Von der Borch and Sclater et al., Gravity field over the Bengal Fan and its adjacent
1974). continental margins
The most outstanding morphological feature in
the eastern Indian Ocean is the NER; the ridge The gravity field in the Indian Ocean has been
forms the eastern limit of the Bengal Fan against measured using both submarine pendulum data
the Andaman arc where it separates the Bengal and surface ship measurements (see Le Pichon
and Nicobar Fans (Figs. 1 and 5). To the north, and Talwani, 1969 for a summary of the early
the ridge is exposed to about 10 o N; beyond that surveys). Over the past two decades several authors
the ridge plunges beneath the Bengal Fan sedi- have prepared gravity anomaly maps for the
ments. Seismic profiles have traced the ridge to northeastern Indian Ocean (Peter et al., 1966;
about 17“ N where it is buried below the Fan Bowin, 1973; Kahle and Talwani, 1973; Kahle et
sediments, and it also impinges eastward on the al., 1981; Kieckhefer et al., 1981; Watts and Daly,
Andaman arc (Curray et al., 1982). 1981; Liu et al., 1982; Jaggannathan et al., 1983;
The broad morphological features of the Anda- Rao and Rao, 1985, 1986; Mukhopadhyay, 1988).
man arc include the Andaman-Nicobar sedimen- Here we give a revised free-air anomaly map for
tary islands forming the fore-arc (popularly called, northeastern Indian Ocean and the Andaman Sea
the Andaman-Nicobar Ridge, ANR) stretching between India and Malaya (data source: US De-
for nearly 1100 km between the Burmese coast fence Mapping Agency) (Fig. 5). The Bouguer
and Sumatra; a sharp bathymetric depression of anomalies for the immediate onshore regions of
about 2 km relief forming the Nicobar Deep east India and Burma surrounding the Bengal Fan are
of the ANR; and the Andaman volcanic arc farther also included on the figure so that the gravity
GRAVITY FIELD AND DEEP STRUCTURE OF THE BENGAL FAN

E
Y
 M. MUKHOPADHYAY AND M.R KRISHNA
374
GRAVITY FIELD AND DEEP STRUCTURE OF THE BENGAL FAN 315

anomaly pattern can be followed for some dis- anomalies up to - 75 mGa1, and also in the NER
tance within the continental interior (source: Evans where a clear gravity high of about 40 mGa1
and Crompton, 1946; Gulatee, 1956; N.G.R.I., extends in north-south direction. Liu et al. (1982)
1977). Gravity anomaly contours for the NER and consider that the 85” East Ridge gravity low
the Andaman arc, shown on the figure, are adopted results from excess crustal thickness, but the posi-
from Peter et al. (1966) and Mukhopadhyay (1988). tive free-air anomalies associated with NER are
Generally, north-striking gravity contours pre- known to be small relative to the ridge topogra-
vail over the NER, Andaman arc and ECMI. The phy. Hence for isostatic compensation, the NER
Bengal Fan has a depressed gravity field where the requires a low density mass to support its uplift.
free-air anomalies range from - 20 to - 30 mGa1. The compensating mass may be gabbro or
The most prominent gravity signature for the serpentinized peridotite lower in density than the
ECMI is a gravity high over the inner shelf that normal mantle rocks at equivalent depths (Bowin,
changes to a more conspicuous gravity low over 1973) (see below). A zone of steep gravity gradi-
the shelf edge across a zone of sharp gravity ents outlines the east margin of the NER against
gradients. The shelf edge gravity minimum (aver- the Andaman arc; the arc is associated with a
age F.A. = - 100 mGa1, lowest F.A. is - 149 bipolar gravity signature with an average ampli-
mGa1) is traceable along the east coast of India tude of 180 mGa1 (maximum amplitude increases
from offshore of Hambantota in south Sri Lanka to 300 mGa1 near the Invisible Bank) in the north
to the latitude of Puri (about 20” N in the Andaman Sea (Fig. 5). A strong gravity minimum
Mahanadi offshore basin, over a strike length coincides with the Andaman trench, whereas a
which exceeds 1700 km. Lack of gravity coverage comparable gravity high outlines the volcanic arc
in areas farther north, in particular in the Ganges in the overriding Burma plate. The axis of the
Cone, however, inhibits tracing the continuity of negative anomaly changes its position from the
the ECMI gravity minimum in the offshore Bengal trench axis in south Andaman to the inner wall of
basin. Available data indicate that the inner shelf the trench or even farther east to follow the
gravity high that is traceable from offshore Co- Nicobar Deep in the central area of the Andaman
lombo, through east Sri Lanka, to offshore Contai arc. The axis of the gravity minimum, however, is
along the ECMI (the gravity high shows a maxi- seen to follow the trench again in the northern
mum amplitude of 60 mGa1) is also present in the part of the arc (north of 15” N). A characteristic
Burmese shelf between Akyab and Ramree Island. bipolar gravity field is also observed for the
To follow the continuity of gravity anomalies be- Burmese arc where the Bouguer anomaly ampli-
tween the Indian and Burmese continental tude is about 150 mGa1 (Mukhopadhyay and Das-
margins, however, detailed gravity coverage is es- gupta, 1988). The Burmese arc gravity minimum
sential in the 500 X 200 km2 data gap region in the outlines the Central Belt molasse basin lying to
offshore ‘Bengal basin. Note that these two funda- the east of the Burmese Fold Mountain Belt
mentally different margins are closest here (also (F.M.B. in Fig. 5), and the zone of high gravity
see Fig. 1). coincides with the volcanic arc. The positive grav-
Significant departures from the otherwise sub- ity field for the volcanic arc descends eastward to
dued gravity field for the Bengal Fan are seen for a large and broader negative Bouguer anomaly
the 85” East Ridge, which shows negative free-air with an amplitude of up to -100 mGa1 over the

Fig. 5. Revised gravity anomaly map for the northeast Indian Ocean and its immediate land areas in India and Burma (data sources
are cited in text). Notice the characteristic gravity anomaly for the eastern continental margin of India (traceable for more than 1700
km) and the bipolar gravity field for the Burmese and Andaman arcs (traceable for at least 1600 km). Three gravity traverses, AA’
through CC’, whose locations are shown in Fig. 1, follow the ships’ tracks in offshore areas at about 13’, 17O, and 20° N latitudes.
All gravity station locations for offshore areas are not shown for better clarity of the map. F.M.B. = Fold Mountain Belt of Burma;
EB. T. = Eastern Boundary Thrust of the F.M.B. against the Burmese plains.
 M. MUKHOPADHYAY AND M.R. KRISHNA
376

7.5 Observed P-Velocity I” Bengol fan

Observed P- Velocl ty In Bengal fan

o - ProfIle AA’ll?N I 7.0 ‘% - Southern part

7. 0
A - Profile BB’(17’N 1 x - Central port
Cl - Northern part I
E
6. 0
6.0

c
:
i

Soft
Sediments

1.0 1.5 2.0 25 30

Density , g /cm3
Fig. 6. Plots showing the seismic velocity-density relationships for the Bengal Fan crust as inferred from the mean Nafe-Drake
curve. (a) Data reported by Curray et al. (1982) for two east-west seismic profiles across the Bengal Fan at about 13’ and 17O N
latitudes. (b) Data reported by Naini and Leyden (1973) for several spot seismic surveys in the Bengal Fan. For the Bengal Fan the
soft sediments are mostly defined by seismic velocities of less than about 2.6 km/sac; this is indicated by deviation of the mean
Nafe-Drake curve from its linear character for higher seismic velocities (shown by a dashed line on both curves). Inferred mean rock
density from the observed seismic velocity values for various crustal layers are discussed in the text.

Shan plateau across the Sagaing transform and the (after Curray et al., 1982) where our gravity
Shan scarp (also see Fig. 1). According to Curray traverses AA’ and BB’ are located (Fig. 1). Ad-
et al. (1979), the Sagaing transform defines the ditional data on seismic velocity distribution in
eastern margin of the Burma plate over a distance the Bengal Fan crust are taken from several spot
from north to south of 1000 km, and its serves as seismic surveys carried out by Naini and Leyden
an important tectonic link between the Himalayan (1973) in the northern to southern parts of the
collision front and the Andaman back-arc spread- Bengal Fan. In Fig. 6 we have plotted the ob-
ing ridge. The Sagaing transform is believed to served seismic velocity values on the mean Nafe-
join the back-arc ridge through a short, but signifi- Drake curve defining the velocity-density rela-
cant, seismically active offset fault in coastal tionship (Nafe and Drake, 1963); the details of
Burma (Mukhopadhyay, 1984). seismic velocity distribution for the individual
horizons are illustrated in Figs. 7-9. These figures
Density values show that the compressional wave velocity in the
Bengal Fan sediments increases from 1.6 to 5.7
In order to estimate densities for various litho- km/s with depth and the velocities are as high as
logical units underlying the Bengal Fan, we use 6.X-7.0 km/s in the deeper sediments or in the
the seismic velocities mapped for different geo- top part of the oceanic igneous crust. The ob-
logical horizons along two seismic reflection pro- served P wave velocities for the two long seismic
files at about 13” and 17 o N over the Bengal Fan profiles referred to above are plotted in the mean
 !z
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2200 Km $

40 - 9'7OE

- - Observed
; 0 _oooo~ Computed

F
I_
-40

t
-80

Andaman Sea-
East

Asthenosphere,3.35

Fig. 7. Gravity profile AA’ (for location,Figs. 1 and 5) between the Indian and Malayan continental margins and its interpretation in terms of crustal and deeper lithospheric mass
anomalies on the passive continental margins of India and Malaya, separated by the Andaman subduction zone. The underthrusting Indian plate below the latter acts as a zone of
mass excess whose maximum gravity effect is about 32 mGal (see inset); this appears to be compensated by a low density zone under the volcanic arc. Seismic velocity information
with respect to depth (as indicated by the values next to the short bars) and the sediment isopach map as given by Curray et al. (1982) are used as const:aints for the gravity
interpretation. Larger size numbers refer to the assumed density values discussed in text. E.C.M.I. = Eastern Continental Margin of INdia; A.N.R. = Andaman-Nicobar sediment
ridge forming the Andaman-Nicobar Islands; N. D. = Nicobar Deep; V. A. = Volcanic arc in the Andaman Sea; M.T. = Mergui Terrace. Black areas in the gravity model indicate
volcanics with an inferred density of 2.90 g/cm3. F = inferred fault.
 M. MUKHOPADHYAY AND M.R. KRISHNA
378

- Observed
ooooo Computed

Fig. 8. Gravity profile BB’ (location Figs. 1 and 5) and its interpretation in terms of crustal mass anomalies. All notations are the
same as in Fig. 7. At its eastern end the profile traverses south Burma where the Indian plate has a fossil boundary against the Burma
plate; An alternative interpretation is that subduction of the Indian plate is occurring aseismically, but this is not supported by the
gravity model. Note that the gravity model predicts: (1) maximum sediment thickness off the Burmese coast where a relatively dense
accretionary wedge (shown by oblique dashes) is inferred; (2) a compensatory mass at the crustal base to support the excess mass of
the 90° East Ridge (that acts as a positive subsurface load on the lithosphere); and (3) a thicker oceanic crustal wedge underlying the
E.C.M.Z. and its adjacent abyssal plains. G.V. = Godavari Valley; E.G. = Eastern Ghats; F.M.B = Fold Mountain Belt in Burma;
W.T. and E. T. = Western and Eastern Troughs in Burma, respectively.

Nafe-Drake curve in Fig. 6a, while Fig. 6b is a ble to an average oceanic crustal model (for layers
corresponding plot using the spot refraction data 2 and 3) (Christensen and Salisbury, 1975). They
from the Bengal Fan. propose that layers 2 and 3 have thickness of
We infer a three-tier density distribution for the 1.39 f 0.50 and 4.97 f 1.25 km, and compres-
underlying crust based on the correlation of the sional wave velocities of 5.04 f 0.69 and 6.73 f
observed seismic velocities with the mean Nafe- 0.19 km/s, respectively. The sediment thickness
Drake curve (in particular for the linear segment underlying the Bengal Fan is, however, highly
of the curve in the velocity range 2.7 to 7.4 km/s) variable; it varies from 5 to 15 km (Curray et al.,
and on the stratigraphic interpretation of the 1982). Moho underlying the Fan has not yet been
seismic horizons for the profiles across the Bengal mapped by the seismic method. These factors im-
Fan given by Curray et al. (1982). This three-tier ply that the simplified density distribution in-
structure consists of a layer of semi-consolidated ferred above for the Bengal Fan crust is a gross
sediment at shallow levels, with velocities of 2.7- generalization of the actual situation. We note
4.8 km/s (with a mean estimated density of 2.4 that Christensen and Salisbury (1975) concluded
g/cm3), a deep sediment layer with velocities of that there is little change in thickness for oceanic
4.8-5.7 km/s (with a mean estimated density of crustal layers 2 and 3 if the ocean basin is older
2.6 g/cm3), and oceanic igneous crust, having than 40 m.y. As the crust underlying the north-
velocities exceeding 5.8 km/s (the highest ob- eastern Indian Ocean near the NER is much older
served velocity for the igneous crust is 7.5 km/s) than this (Luyendyk and Rennick, 1977; for mag-
with an inferred density of 2.9 g/cm3. This three- netic anomaly ages and DSDP results in the
layer density structure is considered to be repre- northern Indian Ocean), we believe that the sim-
sentative of the Bengal Fan crust, and is compara- plified density model for the Bengal Fan crust
GRAVITY FIELD AND DEEP STRUCTURE OF THE BENGAL FAN 379

0 200 ftoo 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 Km

1 Qoo~:;.,,,,~,~;;;:,;~,.~:j:
, ,,
Asthenosphere,3.35

80r
L
Fig. 9.Gravity profile CC’ (location, Figs. 1 and 5) and its interpretation in terms of crustal and deeper lithospheric mass anomalies
in a subduction zone model. The undert~sting Indian plate acts as a zone of mass excess below the Burmese arc, whose maximum
gravity effect is about 12 mGaf at the location of the profile (see inset). All notations are the same as in Fig. 7. Notice that the Indian
continental margin is widest under this profile and it is also closer to the subduction zone than the other two profiles. A denser
accretionary wedge (shown by oblique dashes) on the overriding Burma plate is inferred for the SW continental margin of Burma.
S.S. = Shan-Sagaing fault at the west margin of the Shan plateau in Burma.

considered here for gravity interpretation pur- velocity range (values less than 2.7 km/s). Note
poses may not be grossly different from the true that this velocity range corresponds to the lower
situation. part of the mean Nafe-Drake curve (nonlinear
Hamilton et al. (1977) have reported the results segment of the curve in Fig. 6). We attribute the
of sonobuoy surveys for different geoacoustic pro- velocities to less compact and soft sediments of
vinces of the Bengal Fan, in particular for the the sea bed whose thickness is presumably small
uppermost sediment layer (soft sediments of the in comparison to the total thickness for the sedi-
sea bed). Different regression coefficients relating ments underlying the Fan. Hence we have not
the mean compressional wave velocity as a func- attempted to identify a mean density for the soft
tion of one-way travel time within the sediments sediments whose lithofacies also varies across the
for different parts of the Fan were obtained. These Fan; rather we ascribe a mean density of 2.4
velocity values are in the range of 1.5-2.3 km/s g/cm3 for all of the shallower sediments below the
for the central part of the Fan through which one Fan. Densities were measured for a few dozen
of the present gravity lines traverses. The seismic rock samples cored from the drill holes in the
velocities corresponding to the first sediment layer Andaman sedimentary arc (both in its eastern and
of the Bengal Fan as observed for two profiles western shelves) (samples obtained through the
located approximately along 13” N and 17 o N courtesy of the Oil and Natural Gas Commission,
latitudes (after Curray et al., 1982) and those India). These density data (Table 2) also suggest
given by Naini and Leyden (1973) are also in this that the average density for the sediments is of the
380 M. MUKHOPADHYAY AND M.R. KRISHNA

TABLE 2

Rock stratigraphy and lithology encountered in the Andaman wells (courtesy O.N.G.C., India) and the measured rock densities. The
inferred rock density from seismic velocities using the Nafe-Drake curve is also included here for correlation

Age Gross lithology Number of Measured density Inferred density

samples range (g/cm3) range from seismic
data (g/cm3)

Miocene-Pliocene Calcareous siltstone 3 1.90-1.99 1.9-2.20

and and coarse fragments
younger of clay
Predominantly calcareous 6 2.20-2.30
elastic
Mid- Upper Predominantly claystone, 3 1.90-1.93
Miocene ash beds are present

7 Calcareous siltstone 3 2.35-2.54 2.40

? Sandy siltstone 6 2.42-2.55

Lower Miocene Claystone and shale 9 2.51-2.64

Upper Cretace- Claystone, igneous and 5 2.52-2.67
0”s volcanic material
mixture 2.60

Cretaceous Altered basic intrusives, 2 2.68-2.70

and extrusive igneous rocks
? Basic to ultrabasic volcanic 3 2.65-2.67
tuff

order of 2.40 g/cm3 to a depth of 2-3 km from the observed anomalies using the GEM 10 gravity
the sea bed beneath the Andaman shelf. field (Lerch et al., 1979); the amplitude of the
regional gravity varies from 8 to 10 mGa1 for the
Gravity models traverses. Two-dimensional computer-based grav-
ity models given here for the three profiles were
Figures 7-9 illustrate the broad gravity changes computed using the polygonal method of Talwani
along three regional traverses, AA’ through CC’, et al. (1959). The computed values were matched
acquired from the Indian and Malayan/Burmese to the observed gravity anomalies within 2 mGa1.
continental margins across the Bengal Fan and the Figures 7-9 show that the gravity anomalies
Andaman/Burmese arcs (Figs. 1 and 5 for traverse are largely negative, ranging from - 70 to - 80
locations). The traverses use bathymetric and mGa1 over the cratonic areas of the Indian shield
gravity point values along the ships’ tracks in and over the east coast basins underlying the
offshore areas (data source: US Defence Mapping profiles. On approaching the ECMI, a relative
Agency), but they were extended onshore for some gravity high over the inner shelf rapidly changes
100 km or more in India and Burma in order to to a shelf edge gravity minimum (lowest free-air
delineate broad gravity changes within the con- under the profiles varies from - 50 to - 110
tinental interior away from the respective con- mGa1). Farther oceanward, the free-air anomalies
tinental margins. The gravity anomaly variation rise to about - 30 mGa1 over the abyssal plains of
along the three traverses is interpreted here in the Bengal Fan. This gravity change from the
terms of upper and lower crustal mass anomalies; Indian shield margin across the ECMI to the
seismic data from the Bengal Fan constrain these Bengal Fan is typical of the crustal edge effect
interpretations (see below). For interpretation pur- known for passive continental margins (Dehlinger,
poses we first removed the regional gravity from 1978)-a gravity high over the inner shelf and a
GRAVITY FIELD AND DEEP STRUCTURE OF THE BENGAL FAN 381

narrow but conspicuous gravity low at the shelf thick at the coastal region, and it thickens gradu-
edge, with a steep gravity gradient between them. ally toward the shield interior. This crustal config-
The shape and magnitude of the shelf edge gravity uration for the east coast agrees with that already
minimum are, however, largely dependent on the proposed by Subrahmanyam and Verma (1986) on
local morphology of the continental slope and the the basis of the regional gravity field and its
sediment fill of the continental margin (see Schlee correlation to elevation and surface rock densities
et al., 1979). The ECMI shelf edge gravity low for the Eastern Ghats. The two-layer metamorphic
ultimately changes to mild negative anomalies crust assumed for the east coast granulite terrain
(F.A. = -20 to - 30 mGa1) oceanward over the can only be a gross generalization of the crustal
Bengal Fan. Figures 7-9 illustrate how this gravity structure in the absence of crustal seismic data.
change occurs in different parts of the east coast Smithson and Brown (1977) suggest that the lower
under the Palar basin (profile AA’), the Godavari crustal rocks in normal continental areas are
Valley adjoining the Eastern Ghats (profile BB’), mostly metamorphics of approximate intermediate
and the Mahanadi Valley (profile CC’) from south composition, rather than basaltic, gabbroic or
to north. For profile AA’, the noted gravity change charnockitic rocks (also see Percival, 1989). From
for transitional crust occurs over a 60 km wide this view point, the density value assigned to the
paleo- and present-day continental slope off the lower crust seems generally appropriate. Gravity
Madras coast where sediment thickness is nearly 4 variation across the ECMI is interpreted in Figs.
km (Sastri et al., 1973). Seismic data demonstrate 7-9 in terms of a crustal transition between the
that the sediment thickness increases to about 8 Indian shield on the west and the Bengal Fan to
km below the adjacent abyssal plains of the Ben- the east. The crustal mass anomalies depicted in
gal Fan (Curray et al., 1982). Seismic velocity the models imply a wider transitional crust below
values underlying both profiles AA’ and BB’ range the ECMI at the latitude of the Mahanadi basin
from 2.4-4.9 km/s in the sediment layer, while a (profile CC’) as compared to that for more south-
distinct higher velocity of 6.-6.5 km/s is observed ern areas; the transition presumably occurs over a
for top part of the metamorphic crust under the distance of about 300 km in the former area.
ECMI (Figs. 7 and 8). Detailed seismic control, Oceanic crust also clearly thickens in the same
however, is lacking for this critical region where a direction; the gravity model infers a nearly 20 km
crustal transition is postulated. Velocity values in thick oceanic crust along the eastern edge of the
oceanic igneous crust below most parts of the Mahanadi offshore basin, following the Eocene
Bengal Fan are in the range 6.0-7.5 km/s and hinge zone proposed by Talukdar (1982) (Fig. 1).
show a gradual increase from shallow to deeper The thickened oceanic crustal wedge almost abuts
crust (a lone velocity value of 8.0 km/s at the the transitional crust below the ECMI. This seems
margin of the 85 o E Ridge (Fig. 7) is taken here to to occur on a regional scale, exceeding 700 km in
represent the mantle top), although the Bengal north-south direction subparallel to the east coast.
Fan Moho has not yet been mapped seismically. Some support for the thickned oceanic crustal
For gravity modelling we assumed a two-layer wedge model comes from Raleigh- and Love wave
metamorphic crust at the Indian shield margin. dispersion studies (Brune and Singh, 1986). These
This is supported by the available Deep Seismic studies suggest a thicker than normal oceanic crust
Sounding profile data across the Mahanadi and for western parts of the Bengal Fan (Brune, 1989,
Cuddapah basins (Kaila and Tewari, 1986). Using pers. commun.). Deep refraction data are neces-
the Nafe-Drake velocity-density relationship, we sary however, for further refinement of the gravity
infer (Mukhopadhyay and Krishna, 1989) that the model for this critical region. It is possible that the
upper and lower crust at the margin of the Indian thick oceanic crustal wedge may have originated
shield have average density values of 2.80 and 2.90 through an initial stage of sea-floor spreading
g/cm3 repectively; this crust extends beneath the volcanism, analogous to what is proposed for other
ECMI across the east coast basins. We further passive margins, such as the Norwegian and
assume that the continental crust is nearly 28 km Greenland continental margins (e.g., Hinz, 1981;
382 M. MUKHOPADHYAY AND M.R. KRISHNA

Hinz et al., 1987) (also see, Talwani and Eldholm, file BB’ crossing coastal Burma, no active subduc-
1973; Foucher et al., 1982). By definition, it is also tion of the Indian plate occurs. The Benioff zone
the oldest oceanic crust that now lies closest to the under profile AA’ extends to a depth of about 180
continental margin (see, among others, Schuep- km. The descending lithospheric slab below 75 km
bath and Vail, 1980) provided, that no westward depth along profile AA’ is considered to be a zone
jumping of a ridge had occurred below the Bengal of mass excess; following Grow (1973) we assume
Fan at this location. On its landward side, the that the lithosphere is denser than the surrounding
continental crust bears evidence of lithospheric asthenosphere by about 0.05 g/cm3. The com-
stretching and cooling, producing subsiding basins puted gravity effect due to the descending litho-
on the surface. Future studies of magnetic anoma- sphere (below 75 km depth) is greatest (about 32
lies in areas of the thickened oceanic crust under mGa1) over the deepest part of the Benioff zone at
the ECMI as proposed in our gravity models the Andaman volcanic arc (inset in Fig. 7), and
could prove interesting. decreases to about 7 mGa1 at the Andaman trench.
Buried beneath the sediments of the Bengal The gravity effect is even less farther west over the
Fan is the 85” East Ridge, which was created NER. The observed free-air values are corrected
when the Indian Ocean lithosphere was very for the regional gravity as well as for the descend-
young. The lithosphere flexed readily due to the ing lithospheric effect, and the remaining anoma-
load of the ridge (Liu et al., 1982) producing lies are interpreted (in Figs. 7 and 9) in terms of
significant mass anomalies underlying the ridge. subduction of the Indian plate beneath the Anda-
Evidence for this is a conspicuous gravity low man-Burmese subduction zone. Our models for
(minimum F.A. = - 75 mGa1) oriented north- profiles AA’ and BB’ show that the NER gravity
south coinciding with the buried ridge. The gravity high is probably caused by a compensatory mass
low is traceable from 6614”N latitude (Fig. 5) of inferred density 2.95 g/cm’ in the uppermost
but its continuity farther north is uncertain. Pro- mantle. Although the proposed anomalous mass at
file AA’ crosses the gravity low at about 14”N, the base of the crust is conceptually similar to that
where the available seismic data (after Curray et previously proposed by Bowin (1973) for portions
al., 1982; Liu et al., 1982) define the top surface of of the NER south of the equator, the present
the ridge and its flanks (Fig. 7). The gravity low is model suggests that the anomalous mass has out-
explained by oceanic crustal materials forming the wardly dipping sides on a semi-regional scale,
ridge and its underlying root in the lithosphere; which act, possibly, as a cushion for isostatic
the density contrast between crust and sub-crust is compensation at the crustal base. The gravity high
assumed to be -0.5 g/cm3. The model shows that of the NER is proportionately much less than
the anomalous crustal mass is about 10 km thick would be otherwise required by its topography,
and 120 km wide, and is embedded in the upper which suggests isostatic compensation of the NER
lithosphere buried below about 6 km of Bengal topography. The proposed gravity models cannot
Fan sediments. however, be used to determine whether the com-
The northernmost segment of the NER, which pensatory mass under the NER is a consequence
plunges beneath the Bengal Fan sediments (see of isostatic root formation in an oceanic environ-
above), is traversed by both profiles AA’ and BB’ ment, if it is a product of underplating of the
(Fig. 1); the ridge has a substantial positive grav- upper mantle rocks at the base of the crust. The
ity anomaly (around 40 mGa1) compared to the present models are only partly constrained by
Bengal Fan gravity field (Fig. 5). In order to seismic data from the northern parts of the NER
interpret the gravity high, we first remove the deep (Figs. 7 and 8) where the anomalous mass not
gravity effect due to the Indian Ocean lithosphere only plunges below the Bengal Fan sediments but
subducting below the Andaman arc. The Benioff also partially subducts eastwards beneath the
zone geometry underlying the profile AA’ is de- Andaman subduction zone because of its oblique
fined by the teleseismic data for the period 1954- orientation. Hence the NER gravity high observed
80 (source: I.S.S. and I.S.C. Bulletin). Along pro- on profiles AA’ and BB’ may also consist of
GRAVYN FIELD AND DEEP STRUCTURE OF THE BENGAL FAN

contributions from crustal deformation in the form gravity models corresponding ot the Andaman-
of an “outer gravity high” seaward of the Anda- Burmese subduction complex traversed by profiles
man trench (also see Watts and Talwani, 1974). BB’ and CC’ suggest that the sediments forming
The bipolar gravity signature for the Anda- the subduction complex are, in part, denser (by
man-Burmese subduction zone is observed in each about 0.02-0.03 g/cm3) than their neighbouring
profile, although the location of the gravity trench sediments (of density 2.40 g/cm3) at equiv-
minimum with respect to the trench axis as well as alent depths. However for profile AA’, we suggest
the amplitude and shape of the anomaly differ that the subduction complex underlying the
along the strike of the Andaman-Burmese arc. Nicobar Deep in the central Andaman arc also
Such local gravity variations probably reflect possibly contains slices of mafic rocks (of inferred
changes in the underlying mass distribution at the density, 2.90 g/cm3) within about 2 km depth of
juncture between the underthrusting Indian plate the sea bed (Fig. 7). The mafic rock slice in the
and the overriding Burma plate (Mukhopadhyay, sediment column shown in the model possibly
1988; Mukhopadhyay and Dasgupta, 1988). Grav- originated through accretion along the east margin
ity models imply that the total sediment thickness of the Andaman forearc, but confirmation must
at the subduction zone is lo-12 km; underlying come from deep seismic reflection data (see Silver
igneous crust extends to a depth of about 27 km et al., 1978, for gravity models for the Indonesian
according to the Benioff zone configurations (see arc). It is of interest to note that mafic rocks in
above), where phase transition possibly takes place different proportions have been encountered at
under higher pressure (also see Grow and Bowin, depths of 2-3 km in the wells drilled under the
1975; Riddihough, 1979). For the southwest con- Nicobar Deep, at locations just north of profile
tinental margin of Burma, Paul and Lian (1975) AA’, by the Oil and Natural Gas Commission,
reported comparable estimates of sediment thick- India (DGM (Geol.), O.N.G.C., Madras, pers.
ness (Neogene-Upper Cretaceous) on the basis of commun., 1989).
seismic reflection data. Between the trench and The Andaman-Burmese volcanic arc traversed
the Burma coast, the presence of a local gravity by all three profiles is delineated by a prominent
high as traversed by the profile CC’ (Fig. 9) is north-south gravity high, both offshore and on
explained in terms of a denser, compared to trench land (see above). However, taking into account the
sediments at equivalent depths, (by at least 0.02- gravity effect of the descending lithosphere, the
0.03 g/cm3) accretionary wedge forming the sub- apparent gravity ‘high’ is really a moderate gravity
duction complex. The same gravity high is low. Hence, a low-density zone is inferred to un-
traversed by profile BB’ in coastal Burma (Figs. 5 derlie the volcanic arc in all three profiles. The
and 8). At present no detailed seismic data are densities under the volcanic arc shown in the
available to support this interpretation. However, models are purely arbitrary; they are inferred
Hamilton (1979) reported a seismic section for the merely to fit the observed anomalies. Generally,
subduction complex across the Java trench (south we assume that the volcanic arc density is about
of the Andaman arc) that showed distinctly higher 0.03-0.1 g/cm3 less than adjacent densities, and
seismic velocities for the rocks of the outer arc that they extend through the whole crust/litho-
subduction complex (e.g. melange, imbricated sphere. Grow (1973) has argued that the presence
sediments, and tectonically intercalated slices from of volcanoes requires lower densities and a ther-
oceanic plate) (fig. 10 in Hamilton, 1979). Most mally weak lithosphere. Closs et al. (1974) have
recently, Clowes et al. (1987) have also reported shown that heat flow values in the Andaman
distinctly higher velocity zones in the subduction volcanic arc region fall off linearly with their
complex under Vancouver Island in western distance from the volcanic arc. Very high heat
Canada. Such high velocity regions are believed to flow values have been observed in the Andaman
represent the imbricated mafic or accreted region; the highest measured value is 5.9 hfu.
mafic/ultramafic rock slices within the sediment These factors possibly indicate that hotter (and
column scraped off onto the overriding plate. The possibly lighter) crust/lithosphere is present un-
384 M. MUKHOPADHYAY AND M.R. KRISHNA

der the Andaman volcanic arc; however a detailed tion in rock density within the trench-arc sedi-
seismic velocity model is necessary to supplement ment column below the arcs is also inferred from
the gravity models. A high density (or 2.90 g/cm3) the gravity models, in particular the accreted sedi-
volcanic plug is required at shallow depths to ments at the plate juncture. Verification of such
explain a local gravity high of 40 mGa1 amplitude inferences can come only from further seismic
over the Barren-Narcondam volcanic islands in control. Thick sediments (8-10 km) may be ex-
the north Andaman Sea (Fig. 7). The Andaman pected at the subduction zones, as shown by the
Sea east of the volcanic arc is underlain by typical gravity models. The Andaman-Burmese volcanic
oceanic crust, which ultimately joins continental arc appears to underlie a regionally extensive, low
crust of the Malayan continental margin at the density rock column, penetrating the crust and
Mergui Terrace (Curray et al., 1982; Mukho- deeper lithosphere. This inference must also be
padhyay, 1988). The proposed gravity model for tested through seismic wave propagation studies.
the crustal transition under the Mergui Terrace The Ninety East Ridge and the 85’E Ridge pre-
infers a two-layer, semi-continental crust nearly 24 sent contrasting gravity signatures; the gravity
km thick, with densities of 2.80 and 2.90 g/cm3 models infer an isostatic compensatory mass at
for the upper and lower crust, respectively. For the crustal base of the former, whereas the latter
profiles BB’ and CC’, we use similar crustal den- has formed by thickening of the crust which is
sity configurations to infer semi-continental crust buried by the thick sediments of the Bengal Fan.
below the “Eastern Trough” (east of the Burmese The geology of the northeast Indian Ocean and
volcanic arc) in Burma (Mukhopadhyay and its surrounding continental margins present some
Dasgupta, 1988) extending towards the Shan scarp. very fundamental and fascinating problems. How-
Further east lies the Shan Plateau forming the ever, more geophysical data control in several
eastern Burma highlands that are covered by critical areas are necessary to improve our present
Paleozoic rocks (Mitchell and McKerrow, 1975) understanding of the region.
(Fig. 1). The Shan-Sagaing transform is believed
Acknowledgements
to mark the boundary between the Burma and
China plates; the latter includes the Shan Plateau. Gravity data used in this article were supplied
Conclusion by the U.S. Defence Mapping Agency. The study
was partly supported by grant 24 (158)/EMR-II
On the basis of a revised gravity anomaly map of the C.S.I.R., Government of India. We be-
for the northeast Indian Ocean and other seismic, nefitted from discussions with Professor J.R. Cur-
geological, and density data, we present crustal ray of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography.
structure interpretations for three regional geo-
physical traverses across the Bengal Fan and its References
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