1.

ELECTRONICS
Electronics
Branch of science dealing with devices, circuits and systems that control the flow of
electrons in various media, like vacuum, gas, liquid and solid

1.1 Types of Electronic Components

Passive Component
a device that dissipates power
cannot control current and does not generate voltage
examples: resistors, capacitors, inductors
Active Component
a device that does not dissipate power
can control current and can do rectification or amplification of voltage
can change an energy from one form to another
examples: diodes, transistors, tubes, display devices

2. ATOMIC STRUCTURE

2.1 Substances
Atom
smallest particle that retains characteristics of element
all matter is composed of atoms
naturally neutral with equal negative electrons and positive protons
Ion
an ion is a charged atom
negative ion, an atom that received an extra electron
positive ion, an atom that gave off an electron
ionization, a process of losing and gaining of electrons
Element
a substance that cannot be decomposed any further by chemical reaction
there are around 109 known elements
Compound
a substance made of two or more elements
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 Molecule
basic component of a compound

2.2 Particles of Atom

Electron
basic quantity of negative electricity
valence electrons, the outmost electrons
bound electrons, the inner electrons
free electrons or conduction electrons, electrons that are free to move
charge = -1.602 x 10-19 C
Proton
basic quantity of positive electricity
1840 times heavier that electron
charge = +1.602 x 10-19 C
Neutron
neutral particle in atom
most massive
charge = none
Mass of Electron, Proton and Neutron
melectron = 9.108 x 10 -28 g
mproton = 1.672 x 10 -24 g
mneutron = 1.675 x 10 -24 g
Atomic Number
equals the number of protons of an element
hydrogen has 1, silicon has 14, germanium has 32, copper has 29

2.3 Bohr Model

planetary-like structure of representing an atom
an atom having a central nucleus with electrons revolving at certain orbits
the nucleus contains protons and neutrons

Ne = 2n2 Ne is the maximum number of electrons in orbits, n is 1 for K shell, n is 2

for L shell, n is 3 for M shell, and so on
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3. ELECTRICITY
Electricity
flow of charges in a circuit
lightning is a natural electricity
can be produced by chemical reaction or by conversion of mechanical energy or simply by
friction

3.1 Open and Close Circuit

Open Circuit
the conducting path has an infinite resistance
the current is zero but voltage is maximum
Short Circuit
the conducting path has zero resistance
the current is excessive but the voltage is zero

3.2 Electrical Quantities

Charge (Q)
quantity of electrons or protons
coulomb (C), unit for electric charge
1 C = 6.25 x 10 18 electrons
Electric Current (I)
flow of charges moving in the same direction due to an applied voltage
its symbol I stands for intensity of electron flow
dc current, flows in only one direction
ac current, flows in alternate directions periodically
ampere (A), unit for current
1A=1C/1s
Voltage (V)
the same as potential difference or electromotive force
force that is used to move electrons
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 dc voltage, with only one polarity
ac voltage, the polarity alternates
volt (V), unit for voltage
1V=1J/1C=1W/1A
Resistance (R)
opposition to the electric current
limits the amount of current in the circuit
ohm ( ), unit for resistance
1 =1V/1A
Conductance (G)
reciprocal of resistance, G = 1/R
siemen (S), unit for conductance, formerly mho
1 S = 1 A / V = (1 ) -1
Power (P)
rate of doing work or transferring an energy
watt (W), unit for electric power
1W=1J/1s
1 hp = 746 W
Work (W)
energy dissipated or generated in a circuit
joule (J), unit for work or energy
electronvolt (eV), unit for energy on a single electron
1 eV = 1.6 x 10 -19 J
Impedance (Z)
combination of resistance and reactance in ac circuit
phase angle between the voltage and current ranges between -900 to +900
Admittance (Y)
reciprocal of impedance
Reactance (X)
resistance offered by capacitive and inductive elements
Susceptance (B)
reciprocal of reactance

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3.3 Basic Formula

Q = It
V = IR = IZ
P = VI = I2R = V2/R
W = Pt = QV
G = 1/R
:=2 f
T = 1/f
B = 1/X
Z2 = R2 + X2
< = tan-1 X/R
pf = cos < = R/Z
Y = 1/Z

where B, susceptance
f, frequency
G, conductance
I, current
P, power
pf, power factor
Q, charge
R, resistance
t, time
T, period
V, voltage
W, work or energy
X, reactance
Y, admittance

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 Z, impedance
C, angular frequency in radians / second
D, phase angle
3.4 AC Sine Wave
VPP = 2 VP
VAC = VRMS = VEFF = 0.707 VP
VDC = VAVE = 0.637 VP

Form Factor = VRMS/VAVE

VPP = peak-to-peak voltage
VP = peak voltage
VAC = ac, rms or effective voltage
VDC = dc or average voltage

3.5 Electrical Wires

Circular Mil (cmil)
Unit for cross-sectional area of wires
A(cmil) = [ d(mil) ]2
1 cmil, area of wire with 1-mil diameter
4 cmil, area of wire with 2-mil diameter, and so on
American Wire Gage (AWG)
standard gage to indicate wire sizes
gage number ranges from 1 to 40
AWG # 40, wire with smallest diameter
AWG # 22, wire for electronic circuits
AWG # 14, for house wiring

3.6 Protection Devices

Fuse
protection from overload during short circuit condition
excessive current melts the fuse element
slow-blow fuse, melts only on continued overload, used in motor circuit
Circuit Breakers
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 short circuit protection with spring as a thermal element
spring expands in heat and opens the circuit

4. MAGNETISM
Magnet
can attract pices of iron
lodestone, a natural magnet
alnico, permanent magnet often used in loudspeakers
keeper, placed across poles to maintain strength during storage
air gap, air space between poles of magnet
degaussing, another name for demagnetization
Curie temperature, where materials lose magnetism
toroid, electromagnet with close magnetic ring core

4.1 Magnetic Quantities

Flux (B)
the number of available magnetic lines of force
maxwell (Mx), cgs unit for flux
weber (Wb), SI unit for flux
1 Mx = 1 magnetic line
1 Wb = 1 V· 1 s = 1 x 10 8 Mx
Flux Density (C)
specifies the amount of electromagnetic lines per unit area
gauss (G), cgs unit for flux density
tesla (T), SI unit for flux density
1 G = 1 Mx / 1 cm2
1 T = 1 Wb / 1 m2
Magnetomotive force (mmf)
amount of magnetizing force or magnetic potential
coercive force, needed to reduce flux density to zero
domain, arrangement of atoms under mmf
gilbert (Gb), cgs unit for mmf
ampere-turn (At), SI unit for mmf
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 1 At = 1.26 gB
Magnetic Field Intensity (H)
amount of magnetomotive force per unit of length
oersted (Oe), cgs unit for magnetic field intensity
ampere-turn per meter, SI unit for H
1 Oe = 1 Gb / 1 cm
1 At/m = 0.00126 Oe

4.2 Permeability
Permeance (F)
property that concentrates the magnetic flux
reluctance, reciprocal of permeance
retentivity, ability to retain magnetism

4.2.1 Materials According to Permeability

Ferromagnetic
highly attracted to magnets
strongly magnetized in the same direction as magnetizing force
with very high permeability, from 50 to 5,000
examples: alnico, cobalt, iron, nickel, permalloy, steel, ferrites
ferrites, nonmetallic materials but ferromagnetic, like ceramic
Paramagnetic
slightly attracted to magnets
weakly magnetized in the same direction as the magnetizing force
with permeability slightly greater than 1
examples: aluminum, chromium, manganese, platinum
Diamagnetic
slightly repelled by magnets
weakly magnetized in opposite direction as the magnetizing force
with permeability slightly less than 1
examples: antimony, bismuth, copper, gold, mercury, silver, zinc

4.3 Formula for Magnetic Circuits

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 C=B/A M - flux density
N - magnetic flux
A - area
mmf = IN mmf - magnetomotive force
I - electric current
N - number of turns

H = mmf/L H - magnetic field intensity

mmf - magnetomotive force
L - length

µ = C/H µ - permeability
M - flux density
H - magnetic field intensity

mmf = B R mmf - magnetomotive force

N - magnetic flux
R - reluctance

5. LAWS, THEOREMS, RULES

Kirchoff’s Voltage Law

It states that the algebraic sum of the voltage sources and voltage drops in any closed path is
equal to zero.
Kirchoff’s Current Law
It states that the sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of currents leaving the
same node.
Superposition Theorem
In a linear, bilateral network having more than one source, the current and voltage in any part
of the network can be found by adding algebraically the effect of each source separately. All
other sources are killed temporarily; with independent voltage sources shorted and independent
current sources opened.

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Thevenin’s Theorem
Any network with two open terminals can be replaced by a single voltage source in series with
a single resistance.
Norton’s Theorem
Any two-terminal network can be replaced by a single current source in parallel with a single
resistance.
Millman’s Theorem
It is a theorem that provides a shortcut for finding the common voltage across any number of
parallel branches with different voltage sources. This common voltage equals the sum of
currents in parallel branches divided by the sum of conductances in parallel branches.
V = QI/QG
Coulomb’s Law
The force between charges is proportional to the amount of charges, and is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between charges.
Faraday’s Law
The amount of induced voltage is directly dependent on the number of turns of a coil and on the
rate a flux cuts the conductor.
Lenz’ Law
States that the direction of the induced current produces magnetic field that opposes the action
that produced the induced current.
Ampere’s Law
This is the basic principle of electric motors. It states that any current-carrying conductor
located in a magnetic field, at right angles to the lines of force, will be pushed by a force that is
directly proportional to the flux density, current, and length of conductor.
Left Hand Rule
It is used to determine the magnetic polarity. It states that if a coil is grasped with the fingers of
the left hand, curled around the coil in the direction of electron flow, the thumb points to the
north pole of the coil.
Right Hand Motor Rule
This is used to determine the rotation of a motor. If the index finger points to the direction of
flux, and the middle finger to the direction of electron flow in conductor, then the thumb will
point to the direction of the force.

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