EUFIRELAB

EVR1-CT-2002-40028

D-09-06

http://eufirelab.org

EUFIRELAB:
Euro-Mediterranean Wildland Fire Laboratory,
a “wall-less” Laboratory
for Wildland Fire Sciences and Technologies
in the Euro-Mediterranean Region

Deliverable D-09-06

Toward methods for wildland fire suppression planning

Compiled by Francisco RODRIGUEZ y SILVA; Amador MORENO ROBLES

The views expressed are purely those of the writers and may not, in any circumstances, be regarded as stating an official
position of the European Commission
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CONTENT LIST

1 Fire behaviour: basic concepts for suppression activities analysis ....................................................................1

1.1 Topography ...................................................................................................................................................1
1.2 Fuel................................................................................................................................................................2
1.2.1 Fuel loading.........................................................................................................................................2
1.2.2 Size and shape ...................................................................................................................................3
1.2.3 Compacting .........................................................................................................................................3
1.2.4 Continuity ............................................................................................................................................3
1.2.5 Density of the wood.............................................................................................................................3
1.2.6 Chemical substances ..........................................................................................................................3
1.2.7 Fuel moisture ......................................................................................................................................4
1.2.8 Time lag...............................................................................................................................................4
1.2.9 Fuel models.........................................................................................................................................4
1.3 Weather .........................................................................................................................................................5
1.3.1 Temperature........................................................................................................................................5
1.3.2 Water vapour in the atmosphere.........................................................................................................6
1.3.3 Atmospheric pressure .........................................................................................................................7
1.3.4 Pressure and wind ..............................................................................................................................7
1.3.5 General circulation of the atmosphere ................................................................................................7
1.3.6 Local phenomenon..............................................................................................................................8
1.3.7 Fronts and air masses.......................................................................................................................10
1.4 Tables..........................................................................................................................................................12
2 Human and material resources ........................................................................................................................13
2.1 Materials resources .....................................................................................................................................13
2.1.1 Tools..................................................................................................................................................13
2.1.2 Heavy machinery ..............................................................................................................................14
2.1.3 Retardants.........................................................................................................................................14
2.1.4 Fire trucks .........................................................................................................................................15
2.1.5 Fire special vehicles..........................................................................................................................16
2.1.6 Aerial resources ................................................................................................................................16
2.2 Human resources ........................................................................................................................................18
2.2.1 Fire brigades .....................................................................................................................................18
2.2.2 Personal protective equipment’s.......................................................................................................18
2.3 Figures.........................................................................................................................................................19
2.4 Tables..........................................................................................................................................................21
3 Forest fire suppression .....................................................................................................................................23
3.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................................23
3.2 Basic procedures to obtain the suppression of the fire ...............................................................................23
3.3 Line of defence ............................................................................................................................................24
3.3.1 Basic considerations in the construction of the line of defence ........................................................24
3.3.2 Construction of the line of defence ...................................................................................................25
3.3.3 Burning of widening...........................................................................................................................26
3.3.4 Organisation of the personnel for the construction of lines of defence.............................................26
3.4 The line of control........................................................................................................................................28
3.5 Methods of combat......................................................................................................................................28
3.5.1 Direct method....................................................................................................................................28
3.5.2 Indirect method .................................................................................................................................29
3.5.3 The backfire ......................................................................................................................................29
3.5.4 Decision between the different systems of assault...........................................................................29
3.6 Combat phases ...........................................................................................................................................30
3.6.1 Examination ......................................................................................................................................30
3.6.2 Evaluation .........................................................................................................................................30
3.6.3 Planning ............................................................................................................................................30
3.6.4 Tactics used in the resources mobilisation .......................................................................................31
3.6.5 Control of the fire...............................................................................................................................31
3.6.6 Extinction...........................................................................................................................................32
3.7 Figures.........................................................................................................................................................33

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4 Inicident command system ...............................................................................................................................34

4.1 Operational requirements............................................................................................................................34
4.2 Components of the incident command system ...........................................................................................34
4.3 Elements of the incident command system. Organization ..........................................................................35
4.3.1 Command..........................................................................................................................................35
4.3.2 Operations.........................................................................................................................................35
4.3.3 Planning ............................................................................................................................................35
4.3.4 Logistics ............................................................................................................................................36
4.3.5 Finance/Administration......................................................................................................................36
5 Bibliography......................................................................................................................................................38
5.1 References ..................................................................................................................................................38
5.2 Internet links ................................................................................................................................................39

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SUMMARY
Wildland fire suppression is a complex and difficult task, involving serious risks and requiring both physical and
mental skills, professional attitude and an organized approach.
The officers at every level of the fire fighting organisation have to work under constant pressure because fire is
a complex, dynamic phenomenon and its evolution often involves unexpected behaviour.
In this environment, the key to being successful in fire suppression is planning.
Planning in fire suppression refers, at least, to two different levels:
First is the general planning at organization level, as the organization is striving to get ready for the next fire
season and beyond.
This necessarily refers to pre-suppression planning, which serves as the link between prevention (since it takes
place before the eruption of fires, and fire suppression.
Second, fire suppression planning refers to planning for a particular situation, either as the organization strives
to face the eruption of a particular fire or multiple fires in various stages, or as specific forces work on the
suppression of an individual fire.
Obviously, the requirements are quite different between these levels, but the basic knowledge in regard to the
fire and its behaviour, is common and absolutely necessary.
Of equal importance is the knowledge of firefighting methods and techniques, as well as the capabilities and
limitations of the various types of resources.
However, although this knowledge is a prerequisite at every level of fire suppression, the detail and required
depth of understanding may be quite different.
The same holds true for the ways in which this knowledge is integrated in planning.
In this document, the basic knowledge is addressed first, so that the reader is informed or reminded about the
principles on which the planning is built.
In this first part, there is a concise presentation of the most important fire behaviour considerations incorporated
in fire planning.
Also, there is a quick reference to the human and material resources that may be involved in fire suppression.
In a second part, the concepts and methods of suppression planning are discussed further, and the reader is
exposed to some current ideas and approaches, often from non-European countries, that may allow him/her to
identify opportunities for improvements of the planning methods used in his/her organization.

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1 FIRE BEHAVIOUR: BASIC CONCEPTS FOR SUPPRESSION ACTIVITIES ANALYSIS
Fire behaviour is determined by the topography of a
particular area, the types of fuel and weather
conditions.
1.1 TOPOGRAPHY
The topography is the most constant of the three
factors that determine the fire behaviour.
It take part notably in the modifications of the other
two factors.
Topography and weather
The topography has a great influence in the general
winds, modifying its speed, direction and behaviour.
It is the cause of the formation of local phenomenon
that concern notably the fires.
Topography and fuels
The topographic factors such as altitude, aspect,
slope and configuration of the area are directly related
to the class, quantity and moisture of the fuels.
- Elevation: the elevation is a decisive factor in the
development of the vegetation. In relation to the
topic of the forest fires, it can be generalized that
the quantity of fuel diminishes when the altitude
increases.
- Aspect: It have a great influence in the development
of the vegetation. Generally the orientations of
sunlight are drier and have less quantity of fuels
than the shady areas.
- Slope: it has a great influence on the vertical
continuity of the fuels.
Topography and fire behaviour
The different topographic factors together with the
weather and the fuels influence in the fire behaviour in
the following form:
- Elevation: In the hillsides with homogeneous tree
masses the fire behaviour can change notably
according to the zone due to the different degrees
of exhibition to the wind of the fuels of the shrub
layer.
Exposed Fuels:
- Fuels under the woodland without leaves (falling
leaves).
- Fuels without wooded cover above.
- Fuels under the woodland but near to great clear
areas or areas with logging slash.
- Fuel on the summit where the woodland does not
offer protection against the wind.
Partially exposed Fuels:
- Fuels under dispersed woodland.
- Fuels under woodland in the middle of the hill with
wind blowing directly.
Protected Fuels:
- Fuels under lush woodland, in areas with low slope
o near the bottom of the mountain with high slope.
- From the point of view of the fire behaviour of the
fire, the hillsides of valley are divided in three parts:
D-09-06.doc
- Low part: it includes the bottom of the valley. In this
zone the temperatures are high and generally it is
more combustible. The fire can reach a great
intensity and usually can reach the opposite
hillside.
- Middle part: This zone has less quantity of fuels. It is
a very dangerous zone when a thermal inversion
occurs.
- High part: Fire spread is slower because of the less
availability of the fuel, but it is sometimes the most
troubled zone because it is there where changes of
wind, erratic winds and whirlwinds can be
produced.
- Aspect: The fire behaviour can be very different in
the hillsides of sunlight zones than in the shady
zones due to the differences of intensity of local
winds, temperatures and relative moisture, and due
to the quantity of fuel.
- Relief: The configuration of the area has a great
influence in the behaviour of the fire:
- The relief of a mountain influences the
behaviour of the wind; rounded summits
change the flow of the wind, being able to
develop waves of mountain. Nevertheless if
the summits are abrupt it is easy that
turbulences with numerous whirlpools can be
originated.
- The speed of spread is multiplied by canyons
and chimneys due to the ascending and
intense winds.
- When the wind follows the sense of a canyon
whirlpools can be waited in the curves.
- In narrow valleys the hillsides can have in
case of fire a quick warming, being able to
give place to very dangerous situations.
- In fires at the bottom of valleys or depressions
with thermal investments, the fire can
originate explosive situations.
- Slope: It is the main factor. With strong slope the
spread is accelerated, because:
- The fuels are nearer the flames.
- The warm-up of the fuel is quickest.
- The speed of the wind increases.
- The column of convection is rapidly
developed.
The slope has a great influence in the spread of the
fire.
In plain areas and without wind the spread has a
circular form.
In sloping areas and without moderate wind,
replacing the wind direction with that of the maxim
slope.
In areas with slope and with wind the fire is spread
in fan with edges parallel to the wind direction and to
the maxim slope (up).
The speed of spread of the fire is directly related to
the slope.
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1.2 FUEL
Fuel can be defined as every matter of vegetable
origin that can burn.
Evidently the vegetable matter is always
combustible, nevertheless its inflamability changes with
its content of moisture.
From the point of view of the forest fires we
establish the first classification of the fuels:
- Dead fuels: Fallen branches, dry leaves, dry
pasture, etc...
- Alive fuels: Grasses, bushes, plantations.
The characteristics of the fuels depends on:
a. Aspect: the fuels that are located in shady areas will
have a greater level of moisture.
b. Elevation over the level of the sea: elevation is a
decisive factor of the development of the
vegetation. Generalizing we can indicate that the
quantity of fuel diminishes when elevation
increases.
c. Latitude: it determines fundamentally the climate
and therefore the type of vegetation that develops
in the area.
d. Climate: it regulates the species and the
environmental conditions such as the water regime
and the temperature, therefore it regulates the
quantity of vegetable matter that can exist.
e. Soil: The edaphic characteristics that identify it.
f. Age of the vegetation (density and specie): they
determine a great extent the characteristics of the
fuel.
g. Activity and previous management: the utilization
that should have been effected on the mass will
determine the quantity of existing fuel.
In the fight against fires not only it is important to
distinguish if the fuels are alive or dead and which are
its characteristics depending on the previous factors,
but it is necessary to know the spatial disposition of
these fuels; this is, to identify them for its location and
the effect that this could have in the beginning and later
development of the fire.
a. Undergrounds: Roots and other materials that can
be found in the mineral soil.
b. Superficial: Composed by leaves, needles,
branches, shrubs or young trees, trunks, etc. All
those fuels that can be found below 1,5 m of height
on the soil.
c. Air: Branches, foliage, moss, etc, that is over 1,5 m
of height on the soil.
Also it is important to establish the continuity
(horizontal and vertical) that exists among the diverse
strata.
The horizontal continuity will facilitate the spread of
the fire in a certain strata.
The vertical continuity produces the spread of the
fire to the different strata.
An underground fire can turn into an air fire,
originating a crowning (sporadic ignition of the crown of
some tree) or even in a crown fire if the wind and the
topography are favourable to this phenomenon.
Availability of the fuel
When the forest fire happens not the whole
vegetable material that exists burns and is consumed.
Rarely the thickest fuels are totally carbonized, in
the majority of the occasions simply they are scorched.
This indicates that not the whole fuel that existed in
the fire is in conditions to burn.
For it we distinguish among:
- Total fuel: all vegetable matter that is located in the
place of the fire. It can be alive or dead.
- Available fuel: fuel that is in condition to burn and of
be consuming in the fire.
- Remaining fuel: that fraction of the fuel that is not
available to burn, and it stays after the fire.
Probably it has not be burned due to the high fuel
moisture (for being alive or wetted), for being too
big (trunks, stumps, etc) or for being out of the
scope of the flames. For the fire-fighters the most
important fuel is the available fuel, because it is the
one that is hot and helps to increase the calorific
intensity. Major quantity of available fuel exist,
there will be obtained a combustion of major
duration and linear intensity of the fire.
The availability the fuel changes according to:
- The hour.
- The epoch of the year.
- The location.
- The atmospheric time.
- The vegetation.
- The intensity of the fire.
The main characteristics of the fuel are:.
- Fuel loading.
- Size and shape.
- Compacting.
- Horizontal continuity.
- Vertical continuity.
- Density of the wood.
- Chemical substances.
- Fuel moisture.
- Time lag.
1.2.1 Fuel loading
It is measured up for the load or weight of dry fuel
by surface unit (kg/m2, Tn/Ha).
Grater quantity of fuel exist greater intensity the fire
will burn.
Approximately, when the fuel diminishes to the half,
the intensity diminishes to the fourth part.
The quantity of fuel changes of one type of
vegetation to other one.
- Desert: 0-3 Tn/Ha.
- Pasture and shrubs: 2-12 Tn/Ha.
- Bushes: 20-100 Tn/Ha (in moderated latitudes the
usual thing is 5-30 Tn/Ha, with a maximum of 60
Tn/Ha).
- Slash: From 70 Tn/Ha up to 250 Tn/Ha.
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1.2.2 Size and shape
The size of the fuel gives us the relation between
the superficial area of the particle and its volume.
For example a bucket of wood of one cubic meter,
each one has six faces of a square meter, then the
superficial area adds six square meters, therefore the
relation of the superficial area to the volume is equal to
6 m2/m3.
If we divide the bucket the total volume does not
change, but if it increases the superficial area.
The relation area surface/volume will be bigger now.
Some interesting examples of the relation superficial
area/volume are:
- Little branch of 13 mm of diameter: 308 m2/m3.
- Pine needles: 5600 m2/m3.
- Pasture: 6000 m2/m3.
The water and the heat pass through the superficial
area. It is known that the thin fuel has a high relation
area/volume, as it they will have a major surface across
which:
- They absorb or expulse waters down, this way they
change rapidly the fuel moisture.
- They absorb heat from the ardent adjacent fuels. Of
this form they will reach more rapidly its
temperature of ignition.
The thin fuels, not only they ignite easier, but also
they burn rapidly and are burned completely.
Categories of the fuel for its size:
- Thin or light: (<5mm of diameter), verbiage, graze,
cap of decomposition, needles of pine, pasture.
- Regular: (5-25 mm), small branches, small stems,
(shrubs).
- Medium: (25-75 mm), branches.
- Thick or heavy: (> 75 mm), shafts, trunks, thick
branches.
This classification makes sense, since the particles
of a given category cause similar effects in the
behaviour of the fire.
To evaluate the influence that exercises the size of
the fuel in the behaviour of the fire, it is indispensable
to know the quantity of existing fuel in every category of
size.
The form of the fuel determines to a great extent the
facility of this to cause secondary areas.
1.2.3 Compacting
It is the spacing between the particles of the fuel.
That is to say, inside a quantity of fuel, it determines
that percentage they are particles of fuel and that
percentage is an air that one finds between these
particles.
A more compact fuel, it would have a minor quantity
of air between its particles.
A less compact fuel, it would have a major quantity
of air or of space between the particles that compose it.
Therefore, the compacting concerns to:
- The rate of drying. While there is more space or air,
the fuels dry off more rapidly and vice versa.
- The speed of spread. On having had more air the
fire has more oxygen to propagate with more
rapidity.
1.2.4 Continuity
Horizontal continuity
It is the distribution of the fuels in the horizontal
plane.
It is a principal factor in the spread of a fire, because
it is going to define where the flames will propagate and
it will influence the speed that reaches the fire.
There is a great variety of conditions of continuity
nevertheless it will be enough to recognize two classes:
- Uniform: there is no interruption in the fuel the
flames will propagate without barriers.
- Not uniform: the fuel is in dispersed form. It is
surrounded with a clear area or with inflammable
vegetation.
Vertical continuity
Distribution of the fuels in the vertical plane.
It influences the probability of which a vertical fire
transforms in a crown fire.
If the fuels are in staggered form, a great vertical
continuity exists if the forest is pruned well and without
remaining, there is no vertical continuity.
1.2.5 Density of the wood
The most important thing is the calorific capacity,
that is to say, the capacity of the wood to absorb heat
without changing its temperature.
The dense wood, for example from the oak, can
absorb more heat that a lighter wood like that of the
pine, before igniting.
The fuels with few density, since they are the trunks
and rotten stumps, have a very low calorific capacity.
Therefore they do not accept a lot of heat without it
raises the temperatures up to the point of ignition.
These are ignited by many facility and turn out to be
dangerous where there exists the possibility that they
fall fly ashes and generate secondary areas.
1.2.6 Chemical substances
Some fuels contain certain volatile materials
together with the cellulose.
These chemical substances such as oil, wax and
resin do that the fuel that contains them, is available
under conditions that do not allow to burn to other fuels
that lack them.
The chemical substances can concern the linear
intensity of the fire, the difficulty to realize the
liquidation, the speed of spread, etc.
While higher it is the chemical content, more high
places will be the mentioned factors of the behaviour of
the fire, that is to say, linear intensity and speed of
spread.
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1.2.7 Fuel moisture
Content of fuel moisture
Probably, it is the most important factor at the
moment of evaluating fuel.
It influences the probability of a fire begins and in
the behaviour that will adopt as soon as it has begun.
Before the fuel start to fire is necessary to evaporate
the excess of moisture that it contains.
Therefore the fuel moisture determines the heat
quantity needed to ignite the vegetable matter, as well
as the heat that the ardent fuel can move to close
needles.
It is the water quantity in the fuel expressed as
percentage of the dry weight of the fuel.
Wet weight - Dry weight x 100 = Fuel Moisture(%)
Dry weight
It can change almost from 10 even more than 300
%.
The alive fuels, as well as the shrubs, trees and
green pastures, have a very high fuel moisture, so that
they can act like retardants of the fire.
Because of it the relation between alive and dead
fuel is very important in certain combinations of fuel.
1.2.8 Time lag
It is a measure of the rapidity with a particle reaches
the content of moisture of balance.
It is defined as the time needed to loose
approximately 63 % of moisture, or 2/3 of the content of
current or initial moisture and the content of moisture of
balance.
This time depends principally on the size or
thickness, it is to say, of the relation superficial
area/volume) of the particle.
To summarize, the light fuels manage to be more
rapidly in balance with its environment that the thickest
ones.
The content of fuel moisture changes very much
anytime, and from one location to another.
In general, the fuel moisture diminishes along the
season of fires, in relation to the number of days
without rains.
The dead fuels dry off due to the days of high
temperatures and few rains.
It has been determined, that when the fuel moisture
goes down to orders between15 and 25 % the fuel is in
availability of burning.
The alive fuels also dry off.
While the dry season starts , the soil also is drying
off for lack of rains.
The water of the leaves of trees and shrubs is
evaporated, and is not replaced since the land does not
have with that to give them. In epoch of flowering the
shrubs have a content of moisture superior to 300 %.
During the season of fires it can go down up to 80
%. When it lowers to 60 % the vegetation it is arranged
to a conflagration of major proportions.
The content of moisture in the dead fuels always
fluctuates, day after day, hour after hour.
It is necessary the balance between the fuels and its
environment.
The moisture of balance is the condition between
the fuels and its environment.
The balance moisture is the condition where a fuel
neither wins does not even lose dampness with its
environment or for every molecule of earned water the
fuel, it will lose one.
If a particle was exposed to a constant condition of
temperature and relative moisture in an indefinite, at
the time term it would reach a balance with the same
environment.
The thin fuels earn and lose moisture very rapidly.
In contrast the thick fuels are slower in this aspect.
This explains the reason that a serious fire in
pasture a few hours after having rained can be
produced.
Also it is the motive for which the trunks burn with
many intensity in the night, while the pasture is too
much wetted by the dew.
Some of the factors that can cause changes in the
content of fuel moisture are:
1) Condition (alive or dead) of the fuel.
2) Season of the year.
3) Temperature of the air.
4) Relative moisture.
5) Days without rain.
6) If the place is sunny or shaded (due to the effect in
the temperature and in the relative moisture).
7) Wind.
8) Proximity of ardent fuels.
9) Aspect and slope (received radiation).
1.2.9 Fuel models
Combustibility
In order a forest fire exists is not enough that the fire
begins, a spread must exist.
This spread will be very different depending on the
type of vegetation that is burning.
The study of the spread of the fire depending on the
fuel that burns is called as combustibility.
The combustibility can be analyzed by means of
structural visually identifiable models where it is
possible to predict the behaviour of the fire.
The method developed by ROTHERMER considers
thirteen models distributed in four groups: pasture,
bushes, verbiage under woodland and remains of
felling and silvicultural operations.
Every model represents a structural type of
vegetation independently of the species.
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Factors that influence in the spread
In the development of the fire influences besides the
structure of the vegetation, the wind and the relief of
the area.
Nevertheless the disposition of the plants on the soil
stops in major or in minor degree to the wind and
favours or disturbs the movement of warm air
originated by the fire.
The fire is supported by the fuels that they are on
the soil.
Therefore the speed of the wind that it has to be
considered to be on having predicted the advance of
the fire is the correspondent to low height (<2m).
On grasses, for example, the wind is not stopped by
any obstacle, so that it will advance with the maximum
speed, having the relief in mind.
Nonetheless the rubbing on the grass will do that
the wind does not overcome 60 % of the speed that
goes in height (over 10 m.).
On the contrary inside the closed woodland, the
wind falls down up to 10 % of its speed in height.
To medium slope, though the forest is closed, the
wind penetrates easier than at the bottom of the slope,
by what the fuels of the soil must be considered to be
only partially covered.
On the other hand in the summit, the woodland is
scarcely an obstacle and the fuels can be considered to
be exposed.
The wind favours in general the spread of the fire,
though it could stop it if it blows towards the burnt
areas.
The same thing that happens with the relief, the up
slope favours the spread, and the downwards slope
muffles it.
Wind and relief exercise in general an action
combined (sum of vectors).
Criteria for the identification of the fuel models
The criteria to carry out the identification of the
models are the following ones:
- Potential fuel, in very general terms they are:
a. Pasture.
b. Bushes.
c. Forest.
d. Slash or remains of felling.
- Fuel that probably will spread the fire.
- Height and compacting of the fuel.
- To determine the fuels that are present and its
influence in the behaviour of the fire, that is to say,
the fuels are:
e. Green or dead fuel.
f. Thick or thin.
g. Healthy or rotten.
h. Existence of little branches, have or not
leaves,...
1.3 WEATHER
Meteorology is important in forest-fires because:
- The weather forecast is a risk factor and determines
the state of the forest fuels.
- Current weather has a chain effect and determines
the probability of ignition (lightning, combustion).
- Future weather, once a forest fire has broken out,
determines the development and propagation of
the fire.
When a forest fire breaks out a double action with a
reversible effect is presented:
METEOROLOGY ↔ FIRE
With the following repercussions:
- Due to the dryness of the brush and grass (because
of a high evaporation) and arid environmental
conditions (up to 50 consecutive days without rain
in summer), the vegetation covering is stressed
and is vulnerable to conditions which create a high
risk of fire. In these cases, adverse meteorological
variables, like: dry weather, sun at high
temperatures, low moisture, land breezes, etc; or
either favourable conditions, like increased cloud
cover or a chance of rain, acquire great
importance.
- When a fire breaks out, it also disturbs local
meteorological conditions: vertical currents,
increased temperature.
- After the fire, when the vegetation covering has
disappeared, the ground conditions change: colour,
albedo, water-retention capacity, etc. Runoff and
erosion greatly increase. Under these conditions it
is likely that the local climate changes.
Among the main elements of the climate that
influence on forest fires are:
1.3.1 Temperature
Temperature is a measurement of the heat of a
body and is determined by its caloric energy, which is
manifested in the movement of its molecules.
Vertical distribution of temperature
Heating of the atmosphere is the result of the action
of solar radiation on the ground and on the
atmosphere.
Air temperature and its variation is closely related to
three elements: latitude, altitude, and the differing
thermal behaviours of land and sea.
Regarding solar radiation, temperature diminishes
with altitude vertically from a point up to the level of the
tropopause (the troposphere-stratosphere separation)
at a constant rate of 6.4ºC per kilometre on average.
Observation of temperature through meteorological
sounding allow for tracing the “curve state” in
thermodynamic diagrams, which are not always
rectilinear.
Sometimes a zigzag is seen which corresponds with
thermal inversions, in which temperature increases with
altitude, in an air strata.
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Geographic distribution of temperature
The horizontal distribution of temperature on the
terrestrial globe, as can be observed on isothermal
maps (lines that connect points of equal temperature),
is principally determined by latitude and by
configuration and distribution of land and ocean.
Latitude determines terrestrial insolation.
The intertropical area receives higher insolation per
unit of land, as it perpendicularly comes into contact
with solar rays.
As we head away from the Equator and approach
the tropics, while average temperatures remain high,
both daytime and annual temperature ranges (the
difference between the average temperature during the
hottest month and the coldest month) become more
pronounced.
Temperature differences between day and night
begin to be noted.
This implies that the temperature pattern of these
areas is less regular than at the Equator.
On the middle latitudes, the solar rays come into
contact with the Earth’s surface with more obliqueness,
which determines gradually lower average
temperatures.
Higher temperature range and deficient solar
radiation reach their limit at the area of the Poles,
where three factors are united:
- -the transparency of an atmosphere with a low
content of water vapour,
- the reduced quantity of radiation received when
solar rays very obliquely come into contact with the
Earth’s surface (in winter there is zero insolation)
- and the high albedo at the Poles.
Great irregularities are produced with latitudinal
descent of temperature, due to:
- Distorsions brought about by the distribution of
continents and oceans. The thermo-regulating
effect of the oceans is due to:
- Greater specific heat of the water.
- Heat is not distributed only by conductivity, but
also by convection.
- The transparency of the water permits a higher
penetrability of radiations.
- Evaporation contributes to a lowering of
temperature at the hottest times of day.
Variations in the weather
The heating up of the ground during the day
experiences a two-hour delay with respect to the
position of the sun.
In other words, temperature maximums are reached
on land two hours after the zenith.
Due to the almost regular radiation, the minimum is
found shortly before sunrise.
A similar effect is produced in seasonal variations.
Maximum and minimum temperatures come within a
month and a month and a half after maximum and
minimum light.
The maximums are found during the months of July
and August, and the minimum’s during January and
February.
1.3.2 Water vapour in the atmosphere
Water vapour is one of the atmospheric gases that
presents more variations in space and time with regard
to how much is present in the air.
Effectively, water vapour enters into the air from the
sea and humid areas on Earth through evaporation,
while it leaves the air through condensation and
posterior precipitation.
For the Earth as a whole, it seems to be evident that
the amount of evaporated water should be equal to the
total amount of precipitation, on average about 100
litres per square metre per year.
This amount varies greatly from one area to
another.
Generally, it can be observed that annual
evaporation diminishes rapidly from the Equator going
towards the Poles, as well as from the coasts towards
the interior.
The variation in the amount of water vapour
contained in the air of the lower atmosphere is a
function of the type of land, the time of year, the
ambient temperature, and other factors that affect entry
(evaporation) and exit (condensation and precipitation).
In no case does atmospheric air appear as devoid of
water vapour.
That is to say, it is never completely dry, at least in
the lower layers of the troposphere.
However, the degree of moisture can be very
variable, as it oscillates between very low values—
when very dry air is spoken of—and very elevated
values, until what is known as saturation is reached,
which is to say, the maximum amount of water vapour
that the air can contain at a given temperature without
condensation taking place.
There are many ways of expressing Moisture.
- Absolute moisture: the amount of water vapour
contained in one cubic metre of air, expressed in
gr/m3.
- Relative moisture: its value is obtained through a
quotient between the amount of water vapour
contained by a certain volume of air and the
maximum quantity that it could contain until
saturation is reached, in both cases at the same
temperature. It is expressed in an amount out of
one hundred so that 100% relative moisture
represents saturated air, and 0% totally dry air,
without water vapour.
- Dew point: it represents the temperature at which a
determined air mass containing a certain quantity
of water vapour reaches saturation. The way a dew
point is reached is generally through isobaric
cooling at a constant pressure; from which its name
is derived, since dew is produced when the air
reaches 100% relative moisture during nocturnal
cooling, and the water vapour that the saturated air
mass does not retain condenses on grass and
other surfaces.
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EUFIRELAB
1.3.3 Atmospheric pressure
Air, like any other body on the Earth’s surface, has
weight.
The approximate weight of the air that makes up the
atmosphere is 5,500 trillions of tons.
The discovery of this fact points to a notion that is
very important from a meteorological standpoint: that of
atmospheric pressure.
Pressure is not constant at all points and presents
two types of variations.
In a vertical direction, pressure diminishes as
altitude increases, quickly at the lower layers and more
slowly at upper layers.
This is due to the fact that, as mentioned previously,
over half of all the air present in the atmosphere is
concentrated in the first five kilometres of the
troposphere, hence there is a decreasing variation.
Pressure variations in a horizontal direction have
greater irregularity and importance, being directly
related to the distribution of solar radiation and different
areas of warming of the Earth’s surface.
These horizontal variations in pressure allow for
meteorological conditions and different types of climate
to be understood.
If we consider 1013 mb to be normal pressure at
sea level –0 m. of altitude-, it can be observed that on
Earth predominately there are areas with pressures
higher than this (high) and others where normally the
pressure is lower (low).
The persistence of an area of high or low pressure
over the greater part of a year determines two very
representative types of climate: dry, when high
pressures predominate, and humid, when low
pressures predominate.
When pressure values are graphically represented
on a map and isobars are outlined, we obtain an image
of the area of pressures in which a series of figures or
individual isobars are repeated.
The most important are the anticyclones (A) or high,
and the depressions (B) or low.
In the anticyclones, pressure increases towards the
centre.
They are usually larger in size than depressions,
and, can be of dynamic or thermic origin.
The former result from air compression achieved
through a movement of dynamic subsidence (descent)
of the as in subtropical anticyclones.
The latter originate from a strong cooling of the
lower layers of the atmosphere in contact with a very
cold ground.
They are therefore cold anticyclones of lower levels.
In summer, as the ground temperature is increased,
they weaken and even disappear.
Anticyclones that form in winter above continental
regions of the Northern Hemisphere are of this type.
In depressions or areas of low pressure, pressure
decreases towards the centre. They are the result of
dynamic increases (fronts) or thermic (air convection).
1.3.4 Pressure and wind
As seen in the previous module, horizontal pressure
differences exist on the Earth’s surface, which implies
the necessity of a compensatory movement that
displaces air from areas of high pressure, anticyclones,
to those of low pressure, depressions or areas of low
pressure. In this way, wind can be defined as the air
that is displaced to compensate for differences in air
pressure.
Wind, as it moves from areas of high to low
pressure, does not follow a rectilinear trajectory, as
would be the norm, at least in theory.
Instead, it follows a spiral trajectory.
The rotation of the Earth on its axis introduces the
factor of inertia, known as Coriolis Acceleration, which
makes a straight-path trajectory impossible, and a
deviation is produced that is significantly parallel to the
isobar lines, though they are slightly crossed due to
friction with the ground in the lower layers of the
atmosphere.
The wind therefore goes from high to low pressure,
following eccentric elliptical trajectories in anticyclones
and concentric in depressions or areas of low pressure.
In the upper layers of the troposphere, wind is
parallel to the isobars, and because the reason for this
is unknown it is known as geostrophic wind.
The air is directed with increasing velocity towards
the centre of the depression, rotating counter-clockwise
in the Northern Hemispheres, and clockwise in the
Southern Hemisphere.
In anticyclones, the direction of rotation is inverse to
that of depressions and the wind velocity is very low in
general.
1.3.5 General circulation of the atmosphere
The mechanisms of redistribution that tend to
equalize thermal and pressure differences on Earth
require wind circulation on a global scale, a
phenomenon known as general atmospheric
circulation.
In order to understand atmospheric circulation on a
global scale, what occurs close to the ground as well as
in the open atmosphere must be considered.
If the Earth were homogeneous and remained still,
the more pronounced heating of the Equator would
cause air to rise, which would be replaced by the cold
air from the Poles.
The circuit would be closed with a current at the
upper layers that would go from the Equator to the
Poles.
In this way, we would have two convective cells, one
for each hemisphere.
Because the Earth is neither homogeneous nor
motionless, the rotation of the planet should give way to
a deviation to the right of all the wind trajectories, which
prevents the Polar air from reaching the Equator.
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EUFIRELAB
In this way, on the ground, and on the Earth which is
hypothetically homogeneous but which rotates on its
own axis, several rings of pressure are formed: one of
low Equatorial pressure, two of high subtropical
pressure, two of low pressure connected to the polar
fronts and two of high Polar pressure.
The wind circulates on the ground between the high
and low pressures according to the schemes described
when dealing with pressure.
At high altitudes, a wind system appears from the
east from the Poles to the tropical latitudes, in which
the jet stream is included, and a second system of
winds from the East above the Equatorial zone.
Both are separated by the upper part of the
subtropical anticyclones.
1.3.6 Local phenomenon
Local phenomenon are defined as convective winds,
of small scale and of local origin, that arise due to
temperature differences.
They are caused by:
- Convection due to daytime heating.
- Unequal heating and cooling on the ground.
- Gravity, including descending winds due to the
effect of the topography.
Local winds affect forest fires in a direct and
immediate way.
Local winds are:
- Slope winds.
- Valley winds.
- Thermal inversion.
- Breezes.
- Föhn winds.
- Storms.
- Mountain waves.
- Whirlwinds.
1.3.6.1 Slope winds
Ascending slope winds (daytime)
When the sun comes out, the ground of the slopes
turned towards it begins to heat up, and the layer of
cold air in direct contact with it also heats up.
Air particles expand, making themselves less dense
than those that are at the same horizontal level, but
more separated from the slope.
A circulation of slope wind is created above and
parallel to the surface of the slope.
Duration: from 11-12:00 until sunset, or the slope
remains in the shade.
Speed: 6 – 12 km/h.
The ascending layer is narrower on the lower part,
widening at the crest (here turbulence can be
produced).
Descending slope winds (nocturnal)
When the sun stops radiating its energy on the
slope or when night falls, the ground on the slope cools
down, causing a cooling of surrounding air molecules.
When these molecules cool down, they acquire
higher density and due to the effect of gravity a descent
is produced.
Atmospheric conditions at night tend to stabilize,
due to the descent of cold air that is produced.
Duration: from the initial hours of the night until 4-
5:00 a.m. when atmospheric conditions are more
stable.
Speed: 5-10 km/h.
1.3.6.2 Valley winds
These winds are produced between two facing
slopes that are connected at their base.
The basis for air movement is identical to slope
winds.
When a valley is compared to a plain, it can be seen
that the valley contains approximately half the volume
of air of the plain, and its surface is between 20 and 30
% greater (depending on how it is closed off) and
therefore the effects are more noticeable than on an
isolated slope.
Ascending (daytime)
Duration: from 11-12:00 until sunset, or when both
slopes become shaded.
Speed: 16-30 km/h. It reaches maximum values at
15:00.
The ascending air layer is deeper than slope winds.
The winds ascends the valley being feeding by all
the deviations of the secondary valley.
Descending (nocturnal)
It begins at the first hours of the night and ends
before sunrise.
Speed: 5-12 km/h.
A narrow layer on the high part of the valley and line
of peaks, progressively widening as you descend to the
bottom of the valley.
Airflow in valleys and can be seen to be very
affected by existent vegetation in these areas, which
markedly slows down its movement.
If ascending or descending airflow is evident, they
should be kept in mind because of their effect on forest
fires, since their intensity and direction of propagation
can change, although the fire always tends to go
upwards.
Frequently, cold air accumulates in the lower parts
of the valley, causing an inversion.
1.3.6.3 Thermal inversion
We know that as we increase altitude, temperature
decreases 0.65ºC/100m.
It is possible that at a determined altitude, the
temperature instead of diminishing begins to increase;
this indicates to us that that we are in a layer of
inversion.
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EUFIRELAB
In a closed and sheltered valley, the cold air that
descends down the slopes acts as a wedge under the
layers of air that are more separated from the slopes
and that therefore have more difficulty cooling down.
As the night advances, more cold air accumulates at
the bottom of the valley, making the upper layers slowly
move upwards until it stabilises.
The hot band is known as a thermal belt and is
usually situated at two thirds from the bottom of the
valley.
In inversions of 75 m. of thickness, temperature
differences of 13ºC have been measured from the belt
(hotter) to the bottom of the valley (colder).
- Under the thermal belt there is a mass of cold air,
which is very humid and almost saturated.
- In the thermal belt, temperatures are clearly higher
and have a relative moisture lower than the colder
surrounding layers.
- Above the thermal belt the air is more unstable, with
normal moisture progressively descending with
altitude, similar to those existing during the day.
When daytime advances, the slope and the bottom
of the valley heat up, the ascending winds push until
the inversion layer is broken, and descending in the
central part, by convection until the bottom of the
valley.
- Fires above the thermal belt burn equally during the
day, as a function of the moisture and air
temperature.
- Fires in the thermal belt burn more violently; higher
temperature and lower relative moisture.
- Fires below the belt behave in a slow manner, and
with low intensity. Great accumulation of gases in
the lower layers exists, a slow drying of the
brushes, deficiency in oxygen supply. Temperature
in this area is usually low and moisture is usually
high.
When the inversion layer is broken, the effect
produced is similar to that of when a pressure-cooker is
opened.
The inversions can also not be in valleys.
This is produced when a hot front is elevated as it
rides on top of a cold front.
Sea inversions at coastal areas are also caused.
1.3.6.4 Breezes
Different heating speed and equal radiation received
between land and sea bring about high and low
pressures which cause breezes.
Daytime effect (sea breeze)
During the day, the air on land heats up more
rapidly than the air over sea, living rise to low pressure.
The air mass located over the sea heats up more
slowly due to the difference in specific heat between
the land and sea, which causes a high relative
pressure.
Therefore, low altitude wind is generated that blows
from the sea to the land.
It is initiated at mid-morning, 12:00 and ends during
the last hours of the afternoon, with a speed of 5-10
km/h.
Its thickness can be between 400 – 1,000 m. It can
penetrate the earth up to 50 km in very flat coastal
areas.
Nocturnal effect (land breeze)
As the sun sets, the land begins to cool off much
more quickly than the sea, which produces above the
latter a centre of low relative pressures and therefore a
movement of air from the land towards the sea.
It begins two or three hours after sunset and
brusquely ends after sunrise.
A soft wind is produced that is much less thick than
the previous (500 m) and is centred 10 km at sea and
becomes weaker with distance.
1.3.6.5 Föhn effect
We are to suppose that two strong fronts of high and
low pressure exist that are separated by a mountain
range.
If we find ourselves in an area of stable balance, the
mass of humid air from the high pressures will be
displaced towards the area of low pressures.
For this to happen, the obstacle that the mountain
range is assumed to be must be overcome.
The mass of stable and humid air will begin to
ascend.
As its height increases, its temperature will
decrease, and therefore the water vapour it contains
condenses and is discharged in the form of
precipitation.
Once the obstacle is overcome, the air mass will
begin to descend, suffering an adiabatic compression.
Gravity, the aerodynamic effect, and the flow of high
pressure to low pressure will produce an accelerated
descent of very hot and dry air (subsidence).
Föhn winds of 145 km/h have been measured and
relative moistures of 4%.
On cold land with snow, cold Föhn winds can be
produced as in the Bora case.
Föhn winds have great important in forest fires
because they are generally associated with heat
waves, which produces conditions of highest danger.
A Föhn blowing during a fire may make it
uncontrollable.
Föhn winds are known in all regions of the world,
with characteristic names assigned to them.
For example in Spain the most important Föhn
winds are:
- Levante: from the Strait of Gibraltar, that blows
towards the Mediterranean sea, very hot and dry in
summer.
- Poniente: blows in the region of Valencia.
- Terral: blows in the north of Málaga.
- Tramontana: blows in the north of Catalonia and
Baleares. It comes from the Ródano valley and
loses all its moisture when crossing the Alps and
the Pyrenees.
9
EUFIRELAB
- Cierzo: blows from the NW in the valley of Ebro. A
cold and dry wind. The persistence of these gusts
of wind bends plantations of trees according to its
direction.
1.3.6.6 Storms
Storms of a convective type that are produced in hot
weather play an important role in the development of
forest fires.
- If lightning is produced, these may be the causative
agent of the storm. If the storm is dry (there is no
precipitation) and the lightning is intensified by wind
currents produced by the storm, a storm of great
magnitude may break out.
- If, during the course of the fire, vertically-developing
clouds appear, they are happily (erroneously)
received by the fire-fighters, with the hope that the
rain reduces or completely puts out the fire. In the
majority of cases, these clouds do not extinguish,
but instead do just the opposite—they intensify the
fire by discharging vertical currents over the centre
of low pressure that characterizes a large-scale
fire.
These storms of a convective type are caused by
very dangerous clouds known as cumulonimbus
clouds.
1.3.6.7 Mountain waves
When a mass of stable air is rapidly displaced, and
comes into contact more or less perpendicularly with
the edge of a mountain range, without losing its
stability, a front of waves on the leeward side may
originate, and which continues moving along with the
air mass.
If the wave crests touch the ground, a hot, dry wind
may be produced by subsidence, with characteristics
that are similar to the Föhn but much more
pronounced.
Even if the ground is not touched, the first wave
adjacent to the mountain may produce turbulence on
the horizontal axis, blowing on its lower part in a
direction opposite to the upper flow. If mountain chains
exist, there may be an increased effect due to a
phenomenon of resonance.
The formation of very noticeable clouds called
lenticular clouds is an indicator of the presence of the
waves.
1.3.6.8 Whirlwinds
In summer, whirlwinds of air can be seen rising
unexpectedly above dry, reheated surfaces.
These whirlwinds pull dust, leaves, etc. upward.
These whirlwinds arise when an unstable
atmosphere exists in a much hotter area, which
generates a brusque ascending current. Its axis is
practically vertical.
They are more or less stationary and last only
briefly.
They can have any direction of rotation.
Diameter can vary between 3 and 30 m, and heights
can be reached of 2 to 1,300 m in extreme cases.
Tangential velocity is usually 30 km/h, up to 80
km/h.
The ascending speed can cause a reactivation of
the fire.
The same fire, giving off a great amount of heat, can
be a triggering cause as the air rises in an unstable
atmosphere.
If this phenomenon is produced in an area of
flames, a swirl of fire can be aroused, of great violence
and with extremely high temperatures at points in its
interior due to the intense supply of oxygen and
combustible gases.
It may be so intense that it pulls burning branches
upwards, throwing large sparks on top of the flame
front, which cause significant and dangerous secondary
hotspots.
Whirlwinds can also have a horizontal axis when a
flow of wind vertically comes into contact with a linear
elevation of land (mountains, trees, etc.) on the leeward
side a rotation of the layers of air is produced, which
remain between the obstacle and the flow, similar to a
huge horizontal roller.
As the incident angle separates from the
perpendicular, reaching over 30º, the axis of the roller
can begin to rise, becoming vertical.
1.3.7 Fronts and air masses
The air of the troposphere, especially of its lower
layers, is not homogeneous.
In other words, it has different characteristics with
regards to temperature, moisture, and degree of
stability as a consequence of the distribution of solar
radiation and pressure on the ground.
These factors make large air masses have
individually distinct characteristics, so that they do not
mix together and are separated by a continuous
surface.
When this surface undulates due to the pressure
one exerts on another, a front is formed.
Generally, the characteristics of an air mass are
determined by its place of origin.
Therefore, two different types can be distinguished:
Polar air masses and tropical air masses.
The former are always cold and the latter warm. If
they form over continents, they will also be dry; and if
they form over the ocean, they will be humid.
This fact does not influence its degree of stability,
because in order for an air mass to acquire the
characteristics corresponding to a region, they must
remain over it for a long enough time, which would
require a situation of stable weather.
Once formed, air masses do not remain at their
place of origin, but instead tend to be displaced, thus
producing a modification of their characteristics.
Therefore, a mass of cold and dry air, formed in a
continental winter anticyclone, becomes warmer, more
humid and more instable as it crosses the ocean.
10
EUFIRELAB

This is the case for Polar air coming from the

anticyclone of Canada, which after crossing the ocean
produces rain on the occidental coast of Europe.
As a result of their origin and posterior
modifications, the two large tropical and polar air
masses can be subdivided into maritime tropical,
continental tropical, maritime polar, and continental
polar.
If even more thermal characteristics for polar air are
required, one must distinguish between the air masses
formed above the Glacial Arctic Ocean and Antarctic
(Arctic and Antarctic air) and polar air formed at lower
latitudes.
The collision of two air masses with different origins
and characteristics creates a front.
The surface of contact of the front always features
large waves, each of which corresponds with a
depression.
Therefore, the depressions associated with the
Polar front generally appear in groups of between for
and six, forming families.
In the area of the front where these waves are
produced, ascensions of air are created which produce
precipitation.
Disturbances of the Polar front – the most important,
as they separate the tropical air mass from polar air
masses – as they evolve, they move over great
distances.
The principles governing this displacement are still
not well understood; but without a doubt, they are
closely related to overall circulation, and, more
concretely, with the jet stream.
Specifically, because they are related to overall
circulation, air masses and fronts experience a
seasonal fluctuation towards the hemisphere where it is
summer.

11
EUFIRELAB

1.4 TABLES
Table 1-1: Classification of the fuel for size and time of delay. (Time-lag)

FUEL CLASSIFICATION

SIZE (mm) TIME-LAG

<5 1 hour

5 - 25 10 hours

25 – 75 100 hours

> 75 1.000 hours

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EUFIRELAB
2 HUMAN AND MATERIAL RESOURCES
2.1 MATERIALS RESOURCES
2.1.1 Tools
2.1.1.1 Manual tools
The principal manual tools destined for the fight
against the forest fires are the following ones:
- Axes - hoes. (Pulaski): Tool consisting of a plate
reinforced with two steel edges projecting in
perpendicular planes, and a central hole where a
wood handle is inserted. One sheet has the form of
a hoe and another the form of an axe. It is used
equally in direct and indirect attacks:
- Direct attack: the contribution of excavated
loose that is thrown on the flames or embers.
- Indirect assault: opening and amplification of
lines of defense by cutting and unclotting the
fuel.
Elimination of the fuel for excavating and scraping
up to mineral soil, prescribed burning, backburnings,
control of secondary areas, fire mop up and
construction of water points.
- Rakes - hoes (McLeod): This tool is composed of
the following elements:
- Flat and rectangular sheet of steel, in which
one side has a simple edge, whereas on the
opposite edge there are six teeth on the interior
part.
- Steel ring in the form of a plate, which is joined
to the plate by means of four clinches placed in
the center of the sheet.
- Steel tip welded to the plate, on which the
handle is mounted.
- Wood handle.
It is used in extinction in indirect assault.
Amplification and consolidation of lines of defence
by cutting and raking light and scraped fuels, removal
up to the mineral soil; prescribed burning,
backburnings, secondary areas and mop up tasks.
- Axe: Tool consisting of a plate of steel on its anterior
edge and hole on the posterior edge to be inserted
perpendicularly into a wood handle. It is used in
indirect assault, destined for cutting and unclotting
of the fuel.
- Shovel: Tool consisting of steel plate, formed in a
concave way with edges on the lateral borders, and
a tubular hollow formation ending its top central part
which allows receipt of the corresponding wood
handle. In forest fires it is used both in direct and
indirect assault.
- Direct assault: Throwing land on flames or
embers for their extinction by suffocation.
- Indirect assault: Opening and amplification of
lines of defense by means of elimination up to
mineral soil of the fuel that has been excavated,
scraped, and cut short; prescribed burning,
backburnings, secondary areas, liquidation of
fires, preparation of water points.
- Hoe: The hoe is one of the most versatile tools
included in forest-fire fighting. It is composed of:
- Sheet of steel, sharpened at its end.
- Wood handle of adjustable length.
This tool can be used in direct and indirect assaults.
- Pick: Tool formed by a somewhat curved iron or
steel bar, sharp on one end and with an eye in
other for inserting a wood handle. Used in the
extinction of forest fires in indirect assault.
2.1.1.2 Light machinery
Light machinery used in forest fires includes the
following:
- Chainsaw: Light machine made of an explosion
engine, with precise devices of carburetion, ignition,
refrigeration, fuel supply, precise cutting and
greasing apparatus, all of which are incorporated
together and distributed in such a way that its
balanced and ergonomic design facilitates its use
and a maximum world yielded with only one man.
It is provided with a single-cylinder two-cycle
explosion engine that is air-refrigerated. It is
provided with a membrane carburettor with an
incorporated bomb for its functioning in "any
position". It has a generating system for feeding the
ignition, protected from moisture. Refrigeration is
carried out by forced movement of air by means of
a turbine.
The clutch device is automatic and of a
centrifugal type of long duration, and is
appropriately protected from the entry of fats, oils
and mixtures of spilled fuel. It incorporates a hand
protector, automatic chain brakes, anti-rebound
devices preventing chain breakage, vibration
absorption, low noise level, and light-weight unit.
It is a very important element for the fire crews,
whose mission is to cut branches and thick bushes
as well as the knock down trees in order to help to
create firebreaks.
- Brushcutter: is a device used for the elimination or
reduction of fuel. It is formed by a two-cycle engine,
whose movement passes to the cutting organ by
means of a centrifugal clutch, a transmission axis
and a conical couple. Its handling is directed by a
few adjustable grips fixed to the tool-saddle tube
covering the transmission axis.
It is used in the elimination or reduction of fuel by
knocking down of small trees and clearing ground
shrubbery and bushes.
It is operated by a single workman, who carries it in
a shoulder bag, which is held to the shoulders and back
with a harness.
2.1.1.3 Fire tools
- The main tool is:
- Drip torch: Device destined for carrying out
controlled fires like widespread burning and
backburnings. It is mainly composed of:
- A deposit with a five-liter capacity for liquid fuel (1/3
of petrol and 2/3 of diesel oil).
13
EUFIRELAB
- Closing ring.
- Air valve.
- Lance, mouthpiece and burner.
2.1.1.4 Oxigen elimination and combustion retard
tools
It can be distinguished the following tools:
Fire swatter:
Manual tool used in fire extinction.
It is indispensable in suffocation (consisting of
displacement of existing air).
It is used in incipient fires, on light fuels and in
secondary areas during direct assault.
This tool is formed by a metal or wood handle, and a
completion in a surface approximately rectangular in
form (spade).
The spade is formed by two or four sheets of rubber
of 3-5mm thick, including a textile weft in its interior
which is vulcanized to fuse to the rubber.
The fire swatter is beaten on the base of the flames,
and is retained momentarily on the soil to suffocate
them.
The blow must go towards the burned surface so
that the flying embers fall into it.
Backpack pump:
Deposits that have a capacity of between 15 and 20
litters and that can be flexible or rigid.
They are transported on the back by means of a
harness.
A rubber or cliché is connected to the deposit and
ends in a manual pump, through which the liquid is
driven.
It is finished with a scion and a mouthpiece.
According to the type of drive the fire-extinguishers are
classified as:
- Of a simple effect: They are driven upon
moving back.
- Of a double effect: They carry out the drive with
forward and backward movement.
- Of a constant effect: They constantly drive with
forward and backward movement without
intermittence. They are slightly imprecise in
their launch.
According to the type of mouthpiece, they are
categorized as:
- Thread-interchangeable mouthpiece.
- With deflector and continual pulverization.
- Adjustable mouthpiece when turned.
It is used in direct assault in weak fronts, incipient
fires or in light fuels. It is also used in indirect assault to
refresh fuel. It can be used with retardants.
- Explosion fire-extinguisher: Tools of approximately 5
kg in weight and composed of:
- Plastic container with cylindrical form.
- Plastic cylinder that houses the explosive.
- Rapid fuse covered with plastic protective
case.
- Explosive of 15 to 40 grams of gunpowder.
- Fluid in the interior composed of 80 % water
and 20 % chemical retardant.
- Fastening cord that allows for transport.
- Stopper that hooks the fuse and encloses it
in the liquid.
Once the fuse is extracted, explosion fire-
extinguishers or “extinguisher bombs” are placed as
prudently near the edge of the fire as possible.
As soon as the fire arrives, lights the fuse and
explodes the fire-extinguisher, a bubble is created that
is lacking in oxygen from the effects of the explosion,
irrigating the contour with water and retardant, cooling
the nearby fuel and dispersing the vegetation of the
environment.
2.1.2 Heavy machinery
This type of machines are used generally in indirect
assault in order to create lines of defence.
Among these types of machinery it can be generally
distinguished three types: bulldozer (tractor with a
movable front blade), tractor-plow (dual purpose device
to spray water and scrape line) and the trucks with
hydraulic plows (tanker-plow).
These machines can also be used for direct attack.
2.1.3 Retardants
Retardants: Under the generic name of retardants it
is known that additives mixed with water notably
improve the intrinsic properties of the water used in
extinction.
This applies to both aerial and terrestrial resources.
Two types of retardants can be distinguished:
- Long term retardants
- Short term retardants
2.1.3.1 Long term retardants
Long-term retardants: are composed of ammoniac
salts of the sulphate, phosphate, or poli-phosphate
group.
The resultant watery dissolution used in extinction
maintains its effectiveness once the water has
evaporated, though logically, its fire-extinguishing
effects are less pronounced than when fuel maintains
the moisture-content.
Apart from the main component, long-term
retardants, carry, or at least should carry, a series of
additives that permit viable application.
These are:
- Viscous agent: With the purpose of obtaining fuel
adherence and discouraging dispersal of the
discharge.
- Colourings: Indispensable in application with air
means to emphasize the surface wetted by the
discharge.
- Corrosion inhibitor: It avoids the corrosive effects of
ammoniac salts.
2.1.3.2 Short term retardants
Short-term retardants: retardants whose effects last
until the water evaporates; principally used in foams
and viscous retardants.
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2.1.3.2.1 Foams
The different foams commercialised for use in forest
fires are of the “detergent” type, but are specifically
made to treat the forestry fuel.
The foam has a dual effect in fire-extinguishing: it
isolates fuel from the air through the resistant and
continuous cap of bubbles covering the treated
vegetation and adds the most moisture of this
vegetation, since the tensoactive water penetrates the
pores of stems and leaves better. in other words, the
fuel stays wetter and is also obtained with a smaller
quantity of water.
2.1.3.1.2 Viscous elements
Viscous retardant: are products that notably
increase viscosity when mixed with water.
Initially, their use was motivated by two main
reasons: that discharge from planes would not suffer
dispersal, and that water with viscous products or mixed
with retardant adheres to vegetation to obtain an
impregnation of fuel and to prevent the mixture from
being lost upon fallen to land.
Clays, gums, mucilage and powder polymers are
used as viscous retardant.
2.1.4 Fire trucks
Two types exist. Conventional vehicles (trucks) with
a tank and pump assembly that can be removed from or
added onto a vehicle.
The second category consists of integral units which
have the pump built into the engine system of the
vehicle and the water tank constructed as part of the
entire body.
Water can be substituted with chemical retardant,
wetting agents, or foam.
These vehicles are provided with a cistern for storing
water, and with a centrifugal pump driven by the
vehicle’s engine, which allows for both filling of the
cistern and launching of water.
Regarding vehicles with water-transporting
capabilities, fire trucks can be classified in the following
ways:
- Light Vehicles: are provided with a deposit with
approximate water capacity between 300 and 600
litters.
- Heavy Vehicles: whose deposits can store between
3,000 and 4,000 litters of water.
- Supplier Vehicles: with between 9,000 and 11,000
litters of capacity, supply heavy vehicles during fire-
extinction.
2.1.4.1 Light fire trucks
The main characteristics of this type of vehicle are:
- All road vehicle (4x4).
- Power ranges between 64 and 112 C.V.
- Cylinder capacity between 2495 and 3000 cubic
centimetres.
- Cabin can be simple or double, with capacity for 3 or
5 people.
- Water cisterns with a capacity between 500 and
1500 litres, generally made of aluminium or
polyester and glass-fibre reinforced.
2.1.4.2 Heavy fire trucks
The following are common parameters
characterising these vehicles:
- All road vehicle (4x4)
- Power ranges between 170 and 270 C.V.
- Cylinder capacity between 5400 and 6500 cubic
centimetres.
- The cabin is simple for 2-3 people.
- Deposits or cisterns that the vehicles are provided
with for the purpose of water storage have a
capacity ranging between 3000 and 4000 litres.
These units are conceived under the same
parameters as those mentioned previously,
differentiating in the hydraulic systems, the major
dimensions of chassis and the cabinets for housing and
protection of the material.
In this way, the pumps have a major feature in
capacity of aspiration and drive, including a system of
exterior self-defence through high-pressure water
sprayers, in-cabin anti-flip bars, automatic lifts for
changing wheels, and reels for immediate automated
aid.
2.1.4.3 Suppliers fire trucks
The following are the main characteristics of this
type:
- The vehicles do not have all-road frame.
- They have over 300 C.V. of power.
- Cylinder capacity is more than 9000 cubic
centimetres.
- They have a simple cabin for 3 people.
- Storage capacity of its water tank or cistern is
approximately between 9000 and 11000 litres,
made of polyester reinforced with glass-fibre.
These units were initially conceived, for the “in situ”
supply of light and heavy vehicles.
Over the course of time, these units have shown
great versatility, as they can carry out functions similar
to heavy vehicles, except in very rough areas and on
narrow paths, where its manoeuvrability diminishes.
2.1.4.4 Hydraulic material
Hydraulic material is destined for the uptake,
conduction and projection of water and retardant. The
principal and more used in euro-mediterranean
countries elements are the following ones:
- Hydraulic pump: Made of bronze, of centrifugal type,
located in the back part of the fire truck, and driven
by its integral power taking. Connections are
adapted to allow the emptying of all the alveoli of
the bomb and circuits. It can work to low and to
high pressure. A equipment with automatic
regulation of pressure of water exiting of the pump
is included, which allows for selecting the pressure
demanded for any water flow.
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- Hard suction hoses: They are uptake pipes made of
semi-rigid rubber material with a diameter between
70/110 mm; are 2/3 metre-long non-collapsing
sections with interior metallic reinforcement, with
Storz-type joint nut.
- Foot valves with filter: Made of corrosion-resistant
aluminium-alloy, with incorporated uptake joint nut,
and with filter preventing the passage of particles
larger than 5 mm.
- Flexible hoses: Pipes of flexible material that allow
water uptake from the cistern or motor-pump to the
nozzle.
They are habitually constructed of material that
is resistant to deformation by heat, abrasion, or
chemical products, as it generally consists of four
layers composed of nitrile rubber, textile
reinforcement, nitrile rubber and RLH rubber. Those
that are widely used in extinction efforts have:
- 25 mm. diameter in 20-meter sections.
- 45 mm. diameter in 15-meter sections.
- 70 mm. diameter in 15-meter sections.
- Couplings: They are the metallic pieces making up
the connection system of the hoses between
themselves and with the various equipment used in
extinction. The material used for its construction is
composed of anodised aluminium alloys. More
used dimensions of their diameters are 70, 45, 25
mm.
- Bifurcation’s, T derivations and reductions: They are
the connection elements of the pump exits, with
main function being in the ramification of flow in
hose laying, which are made of aluminium,
corrosion-resistant alloy. In short, are fittings for
interconnection of hoses.
- Nozzles: They are devices usually connected to a 25
mm. or 45 mm. coupling, depending on the case of
the hose endings, which direct water in a jet or
pulverised stream, with long-distance propulsion of
the latter. They are made of copper or aluminium
alloy, and have a valve for opening and closing.
- Portable water tanks: They are circular containers,
with inflatable and self-sustaining mouth ring, made
of highly-resistant synthetic fabrics and covered
with rubber RLH. On their lower parts they are
provided with intake and exhaust openings, with
fast-connecting section valves of section. Its
capacity generally ranges between 1000 and 8000
litres.
It serves a purpose of facilitating water
placement into reserves that are found at strategic
points and are difficult to access. They are used
complements to the portable groups of pumps.
- Portable motor-pump: An essential element with
which all units of heavy vehicles are provided. They
are generally made of a light aluminium alloy and
have a two-cycle double-acting engine. Their main
function is the self-supply of heavy vehicle units, as
well as possible use in other auxiliary functions in
extinction efforts.
2.1.5 Fire special vehicles
Among this type of vehicles can be distinguished the
following ones:
- Incident command vehicles.
- Medical aid units.
2.1.6 Aerial resources
Aerial resources are mainly used to locate fires, to
deliver fire-fighters, and to drop supplies, retardant and
ignition devices. (Figure 2-1)
Two types of aerial resources can be distinguished:
- Fixed wing units: Aeroplanes.
- Rotary wing units: Helicopters.
Aeroplanes are used for carrying heavy payloads
over long distances, and for reconnaissance when
circumstances require prolonged flight times.
The manoeuvrability and accuracy of helicopters are
greatly appreciated in forest-fire fighting.
They are limited to small payloads.
When aerial resources are used for taking personnel
and water to the fire, the time it takes for an assault to
begin after a fire breaks out is minimized.
2.1.6.1 Fixed wing
Planes can be distinguished as being of the
following groups:
- Transport planes with an adapted fixed deposit. (F-
27, DC-6, Firecat, Macavia and many other old
models are adapted for this use).
- Military transport planes with back inner door loading
where modular deposits are loaded by a pump or
gravity loading system (C-130, G-222, CN-235,
Transall).
- Agricultural planes provided with a lockgate for rapid
unloading (Thrush Commander, Grumman Agcat,
Air Tractor, Dromader PZL).
- Single-engine amphibian planes expressly designed
for in-flight loading and for releasing at low speeds
(CANSO PNY, Canadair CL-215).
The preference for some groups over others
essentially depends on:
a Its previous availability.
b Its needs for infrastructure.
The first group is very frequent in North America,
where there is an abundance of planes restricted for
general use, which are adapted for fire-fighting.
They need airports with long landing strip and
assistance.
The second group is more widespread due to the
support given by the Armed Forces in the fight against
forest fires.
Nevertheless, their extended use is limited by the
high operation costs of these planes and their restricted
availability, being military devices.
Some modular equipment like that of gravity for
Transall are no longer manufactured due to low
demand.
These planes have big needs for infrastructure.
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The third group, agricultural planes, have extended
through countries like Spain, where a large fleet exists
for fumigation tasks.
Its great advantage is their low need for
infrastructure.
They usually do not have maintenance problems
either.
Additionally, they are very manoeuvrable.
Their main limitation is their loading capacity.
These devices, like the first two groups, must return
to the base to load water and to return to the fire.
They are therefore required to:
a. Establish a reduced area of performance, generally
a 30 km circle around the base.
b. Use retardant of long effect (ammonic) or foam. The
latest PZL devices come equipped with a foam
blender, allowing its release as an alternative to the
ammonic retardant, according to the type of fuel.
Another limitation is its vulnerability to extreme
meteorological conditions.
They also cannot approach the most intense areas
of the fire.
The fourth group, single-engine amphibian planes, is
specifically designed for forest-fire fighting.
Its greatest advantages are the low land
infrastructure that they need and their ability to fill the
cisterns in flight without losing time in landing.
Logically, its use is possible only if natural or artificial
lakes or coastal points with calm sea are abundant near
the forest areas, where loading is possible.
The limit for water capture is within a radius of 50 km
from any point.
These planes have an advantage over the first
group of being able to unload at low speed with
comparable capacity for load (more than 3000 l. for
PBY and more than 5000 l. for CL-215).
The main power of the amphibians allows them to
act in more adverse conditions than light planes or
helicopters.
In all devices it has been observed that the expertise
of the pilot decisively influences manoeuvrability and
precision in unloading.
2.1.6.2 Rotatory wing
They can have several applications:
Observation and alertness:
The smallest devices have an advantage over the
planes in these missions, due to manoeuvrability, as
well as the possibility of landing in small clearings,
which also allows them to be used for prevention
purposes.
Unloading:
The bamby buckets, allow for precise unloading.
(Figure 2)
The ventral tanks with curtain-style unloading,
recharged in flight with a pump placed in the helicopter,
increase the possible pace of unloading.
The helicopters can unload in very steep zones, on
almost vertical inclines and in deep valleys.
Nevertheless, they cannot approach the most
intense areas of the fire and have higher meteorological
limitations than planes.
Regarding this function it is necessary to analyze
both operability and cost, in comparison with planes. In
general, with the same load the cost of the plane is
several times lower than that of the helicopter.
Only the lack of infrastructures for planes can make
for a clear decision in favour of helicopters.
Other than water, helicopters can be used to
transport brigades to barely accessible zones.
In North America and Australia they are also used
for lighting backfires with a device called a “helitorch".
Transport of personnel.
For this function it is evident that the helicopter is
unrivalled.
In areas of 30 to 40 km radius around the base
helicopters allow to shorten the assault time to less than
fifteen minutes in all cases, placing equipped personnel
at the most suitable point.
Additionally, for this purpose, big devices are not
needed.
It is enough when five people with tools and crew
are able to be transported.
The main disadvantages of helicopters are their high
operation cost and their complex maintenance.
In this regard it must be kept in mind that the
turbines must have protection against dust, as
operations develop anywhere in the forest and always
in dry weather.
2.1.6.3 More used planes and helicopters.
In the following the more used in forest fires
applications aircrafts are shown:
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2.2 HUMAN RESOURCES
2.2.1 Fire brigades
A basic unit is composed by an specialists' squad,
formed by 5 workers and a foreman. (Figure 2-3)
They are professional and have a helicopter for their
transport and rapid mobilisation in the works of
extinction.
2.2.2 Personal protective equipment’s
The different elements that compose personal
protective equipment are:
Fireproof trousers:
Clothes garment for personal protection made of
inflammable fabric, which is fitted to the body at the
waist and extends down to cover the leg up to the
ankles, where has an ankle-fitted closing.
Generally the trousers will be of a straight type with
two pockets in the front and two back in the back.
Fireproof shirt:
Clothing garment of personal protection, made of
inflammable fabric, which covers the torso and the arms
up to the wrists, with a neck closed with a row of
buttons.
It has a ‘haberdasher’ neck and on the chest are two
pockets.
Fireproof overall:
Clothing garment for work, designed for personal
protection, elaborated in inflammable fabric that
uniformly covers the trunk and the upper and low
extremities, allowing access through buttons on the
front.
Extinction boots:
Safety footwear made of leather, with hard-rubber
sole with high fusion point, sewn with highly-resistant
thread to the body of the boot, which is provided with
half a leg.
The ankle and the lower part of the leg must be well-
protected and fitted by means of a closing with fireproof
cords and metallic eyelets.
The heel and the toe will be reinforced with leather,
and will have an internal insole of material that insulates
from heat possibly encountered when passing through
burnt areas.
The sole is made of nitric vulcanised rubber.
Helmet:
Element with a hemispherical form, made of a rigid,
resistant plastic material resist, used to protect the top
part of the head and especially the cranial cavity.
It is composed of the hard shell of the helmet and of
the harness or headband, which serve for adjustment in
attachment to the head.
It is provided with a chin-strap for binding it to the
chin.
Fireproof hood:
Made of inflammable fabric, its main function is to
protect workmen’s necks from thermal radiations and
establishing an air chamber between the nape of the
neck protector and the skin.
Extinction goggles:
Instrument used for protection of the eyes, are made
up of a mount and a wide-field visor, with strap for
fixation to the head that binds it in front of the eyes.
This element allows protection of the eyes from
emitted gases, smokes, embers and particles in
suspension, originating from the forest fires.
Extinction gloves:
Element integrated into the personal protective
equipment of obligatory use for integral members of the
reserve squad, who intervene in the extinction of forest
fires.
It is defined as an element designed for protection of
the hands and elaborated in leather, designed with the
same shape as the hand, and allowing the inter-digital
movement, with sufficient roominess that avoids
scratches and bothersome pressures.
Other:
Other than the elements mentioned previously,
personal protective equipment can also include:
- Canteen: Hermetic container that is highly
impact-resistant, of limited size with capacity
of no more than two litres. Its purpose is the
transport and storage of drinkable liquids for
the soldier’s personal use during forest-fire
extinction. The container is kept in a felt
case.
- Helmet torch: Torch for personal use of
limited dimensions, with great lighting power
under adverse conditions, destined for the
personnel intervening in extinction: nocturnal
efforts or during dim solar light, condensation
of smoke, particles, fog,...
- Self-filtering antiparticle mask: Protective
device for the respiratory tract that is
adaptable to the face by means of fastening
straps, covering nose and mouth, to basically
prevent inhalation of suspended particles and
pollutants by means of filters.
- Personal first aid kit: Unit of reduced size and
of a rectangular bag shape containing
medicines and products used in carrying out
emergency first aid.
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2.3 FIGURES

Figure 2-1:

Figure 2-2

19
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Figure 2-3

20
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2.4 TABLES
Table 2-1: More used planes
Model Canso CL-215 Dromader GRUMMAN
Piston Turbo 164-B 164-C
Type
Amphibious Amphibious Amphibious Land based Land based Land based
Payload 4000 l. 5500 l. 5500 l. 2200 l. 1500 l. 1800 l.
Engine
Power 2100 CV 2200 CV 967 CV 600 CV 750 CV
Number 2 of piston 2 of piston 2 of turbo 1 of piston 1 of piston 1 of piston
Fuel consumption 700 727 840 140-160 180 180-200
l/hour
Autonomy (hours) 4 4,5 4,5 3 2 2
Cruise speed 300 304 380 205 210 240
(km/h)
Operacional speed 145 144 146 170 165 210
(km/h)
Type of runway Cement Cement Cement Land Land Land
Minimal lenght of 800 A 799 A 835 A 458 400 400
runway (m)
750 T 707 T 777 T

Model AIR TRACTOR TRUSH COMMANDER

AT-502 AT-503 AT-802-A S-2R T-15 S-2R T-34
Type
Land based Land based Land based Land based Land based
Payload 2900 l. 3000 l. 3500 l. 1800 l. 2100 l.
Engines
Power 750 CV 1198 CV 1424 CV 680 CV 750 CV
Number 1 of turbo 1 of turbo 1 of turbo 1 of turbo 1 of turbo
Fuel consumption l/hour 180-200 200-210 200-250 180 195
Autonomy (horas) 5 4 4 4 4
Cruise speed (km/h) 280 280 330 190 197
Operacional speed (km/h) 225 225 320 160 160
Type of runway Land Land Land Land Land
Minimal lenght of runway (m) 400 400 450 400 400

Table 2-2: More used helicopters

Model BELL 47 BELL 206 LR BELL 204 BELL 205 Tank BELL 205 BELL 212
Personnel
Type
Monoturbo Monoturbo Monoturbo Monoturbo Monoturbo Biturbo
Payload
People 1 5 9 - 11 13
Water - - 800 l. 1300 l. 1500 l. 1500 l.
Engines
Type LYCOMING ALLISON 250-C T5311 A T5313 B T5313 B PTST-38x2
20B
Power 305 CV 420 CV 1100 CV 1400 CV 1400 CV 900x2 CV
Fuel consumption l/h. 70 300 330 325 325 360
Cruise speed km/h. 137 204 200 200 200 260
Model

BELL 214 B BELL 214 ST ALQUETTE ECUREUIL BK 117 SOKOL Mi-8

350B-2
Type
Monoturbo Biturbo Monoturbo Monoturbo Biturbo Biturbo Biturbo

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Payload
People* 14 18 6 5 8 11 22
Water 2400 l. 2400 l. 500 l 500 l. 5 l. 1500 l. 2500 l.
Engines
Type LYCOMING GENERAL ARTOUSTE ARRIEL IB LTS 101 650 PZL-10W ISOTOV
T-6508D ELÉCTRICA IIIB ASTAZOO Bix2 TV2-117ª
CT72A XIV
Power 2930 CV 1625x2 CV 870 CV 641 CV 592x2 CV 900x2 CV 1700x2 CV
Fuel consumption l/h. 360 400 210 130 240 325
Cruise speed km/h. 222 240 200 217 230 235 200

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3 FOREST FIRE SUPPRESSION
3.1 INTRODUCTION
After a fire has been detected and the veracity of its
existence has been confirmed, the person in charge of
the co-ordination centre carries out the mobilisation of
necessary resources according to an organised and
technically hierarchical system.
Criteria for number, types and categories of human
and material resources that are released for the fire
depend on the fire’s level of evolution and the degree
indicating the characteristics of the fire’s dynamical
spread.
3.2 BASIC PROCEDURES TO OBTAIN THE
SUPPRESSION OF THE FIRE
The basic procedures undertaken during
suppression should be focused on the elements in a
triangular relationship of the existence of combustion
that keep the fire going and define a forest fire.
- Actions on the oxygen.
- Suffocating flames by isolating fuel from the air.
- Covering fuel with soil.
- Covering with water.
- Using a fire-beater.
- Violently and momentarily displacing the air
mass that is in contact with the burning fuel
- Causing an explosion.
- Beating collections of branches.
- Using a fire-swatter.
- Increasing the proportion of oxygen in the air
and increasing water vapour.
- Spraying pulverised water.
- Actions on heat: Through of cooling and reducing
the temperature of the burning fuel.
- Applying of pulverised water.
Heat is absorbed in the processes of changing state.
For liquid to convert to vapour, 540 Kcal/litres is
needed by the water, therefore this appears to be an
effective element in capturing energy originating from a
front of flames.
In the absence of water, applying mineral soil is a
possibility, though this
- Actions on the fuel.
Given that the presence of oxygen is permanent and
water is a scarce resource of only temporary effect,
extinction efforts are more intensely focused on the fuel
present.
- Cutting off the continuity of the fuel in the
fire’s path by establishing a band that is fuel-
free between burnt areas, and that is wide
enough to prevent ignition by radiation and/or
convection.
- Modifying moisture content by spraying
water.
- Preventing combustion by covering it with
chemical products.
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3.3 LINE OF DEFENCE
A line of defence is a line that is constructed in the
path of the fire, in order to break or cut off the continuity
of the fuel.
The ways in which it is accomplished are:
- Mechanised
- Bulldozer (of different types).
- Graduated forest steps.
- Manual
- Created by fire-fighter using special tools for
forest-fire management.
Therefore, strips of land of varying length and width
are constructed in the path of the fire where necessary:
- Cutting and extracting all the atmospheric, surface
and underground fuel.
- The ground is scraped up to the mineral soil.
- The fuel is deposited on the exterior (far) side (to the
opposite side of the fire).
- The intermediate fuel is burned, between the line
and the fire, in order to extend the area that is
devoid of fuel, this type of burning is known as
“widened burning”, which hopefully facilitates
creation of strips of land scraped up to the mineral
soil. Its contribution to the line of defence:
- Efficiency.
- Security for the fire-fighters.
- Increases the production rate of the construction
process
3.3.1 Basic considerations in the construction of
the line of defence
It must be planned in such a way that:
- The line of defence can be constructed before the
fire comes to it.
- It must be effective in the retaining process.
The following factors must be taken into account:
- Size of the fire: The magnitude of the area to be
worked at the extinction will determine which
longitudinal dimensions and special distributions
will have the line or lines of defence to be
constructed.
- Speed of spread: Knowing the speed of spread, as
well as to predict its increase or decrease will allow
determining to which distance it must be located.
- Operative Capacity of the personnel: It has great
importance, since the ability to confront the
challenge of the work and its effective development
will determine the success of the career in time and
in space to be established between the front of
advance of the fire and the brigade.
Main factors:
- Level of training, formation and specialised training
of the members who compose the group of fire-
fighters.
- Team work spirit.
- Adaptation and knowledge of the area where the
construction works of the line of defence are being
developed.
- Previous knowledge of the personnel’s performance
against different circumstances:
- Slope.
- Type of fuel.
- Characteristics of the soil.
- Daytime.
- Aspect.
Actions for the construction of a line of defence
Location: It consists of defining the path and location
that will have the line of defence (or lines of defence),
as well as the different types or forms chosen to
proceed to its execution.
The location’s task relies on the person who has
depending on the type of fire, the role of Chief of
Extinction.
The one with the task of locating the line of defense
is called “line locater”
Any line must be located beginning and ending at
the “points of anchorage”, that is to say, at the existing
barriers or at extinguished parts of the edge of the fire,
in order to prevent that the fire penetrates the line
through areas with fuel which has not been removed
yet.
The “line locater” functions are the following:
- To mark the drawing of the line.
- To evaluate every situation, taking advantage of the
opened places which facilitate and guarantee the
work.
- To pay attention to the safety of the personnel.
- To lead the group of fire workers through the path
which saves time and energy.
- To control that the right distance is kept between the
line of defence and the border of the fire, in order to
prevent that the fire penetrates the line.
3.3.1.1 Forms and development of the line of defence
It can be distinguished the following:
Vertical line to advance
In procedures by means of indirect attack first of all
a vertical line to the advance of the fire is located and
built, in those areas where it is checked that the speed
of spread of the fire in relation to the speed of
construction of the brigade is superior.
It is necessary to leave enough area in the middle in
order to allow that the burning of widening which are
executed in parallel by the opening of the line should
penetrate a safety distance in the fuel before meeting
the front of advance of the fire.
As soon as the line has been built and the burning of
widening advances in a safe way consuming the fuel in
the middle, the following phase consists of separating
the brigade or work team into two units in order to
accomplish the work of the lines of defence on both
sides, staying on the main one, this one must be drawn
like the vertical line with the direction of head of major
advance.
On each side, if the conditions allow it, the
construction of the lines can be carried out by major
proximity to the border, since the speed of spread and
the linear intensity of the fire are minor on the sides.
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The work continues until the lines get together.
Eventually, if the fire allows it, it will be possible to
change from indirect assault to direct, completing the
line of control at the very border of the fire.
Indirect line (oblique assault)
If the front of advance is wide rather than narrow
and moves relatively fast, the line of defence is to be
built in angle with regard to the front.
This procedure will allow that the front of advance
does not meet the line before the burning of widening
has been completely fulfilled in the whole route of the
drawn line.
This performing way allows that the squad of work
has more time to build the line at he same time that
controls the possible appearance of secondary focuses.
Two feet line (Two feet method)
This procedure corresponds to a direct assault
executed to two feet at the border of the fire, that is to
say, the line of defence applied to a fire which advances
inside the safety parameters (slowness, small height of
flame), (little radiant energy); typical of zones with
absence of slope, wind and load of fuel for unit of small
surface.
Segmented line
It consists of an indirect simultaneous assault on
several focuses and directions of an irregular front of
advance.
The personnel is arranged in small units and each of
the units constructs a line perpendicular to the advance
of every fire.
In a second phase these lines get together to form a
constant line along the whole front.
The third phase of the assault consists of the normal
movement around the sides, with both lines joining at
the bottom to complete the control line.
Auxiliary line
Against certain conditions of the fire’s performance,
it is possible to choose to locate a line of defence in a
certain place, still knowing that it will not be able of slow
down the fire, but at least this provides a delay in the
advance of the fire, enough time to build the second line
safer than the first one.
3.3.2 Construction of the line of defence
With manual tools and chainsaws
This procedure includes the following phases:
- Cutting of the aerial and superficial fuel. This is to be
carried out with cut tools like axes, chainsaws…
The cutting does not consider the removal of heavy
fuels, since the “line locater” will have to plan the path
of the line of defence, surrounding the dense
accumulations of fuels to reduce the works of cut to the
minimum, saving with it time and energy.
The extent of the cuttings, among 1 and 4 meters,
will depend on the fuels.
- Cutting and scraping the superficial fuel up to the
mineral soil.
By means of tools of scraped such as PULASKI,
MCLEOD, hoe and spade of cut, one the fuel is to be cut
and dragged, cutting the roots and digging the area up
to the mineral soil. This latest operation is very
important to avoid the spread for humus or roots.
The extracted material must be settled on the
exterior edge. The width of the scraped and smoothed
area varies from 1 to 2 meters depending on the
situation.
The lines through the bushes (fire model n º 4) must
be wider than the lines in opened forest. To major wind
speed major width will have to have the line of defence.
The line of defence at a slope and on the sides is to be
wider than the one at the bottom of the fire.
With heavy machinery
The use of heavy machinery presents relative
limitations to:
- Existence of the type of machine needed.
- Enough time to carry out the transfer from its original
place up to the “waiting area”, defined in the
proximities of the fire.
- State and dimensions of the access roads up to the
waiting area.
- The topography, the best performances are obtained
in plain area and in slopes up to 15 %. With
situations of slope, the building of the line of
defence must be started at the top of the slope.
- The structure of the soil.
- The type of machine to be used for the building the
of lines of defence consists of: a bulldozer tractor
with hydraulic shovel, ripper, capstans, reverse
gear, protected cabin and with lights to allow the
work at night.
Application:
- Integral construction of the line of defence, support
by means of squad chainsawers.
- Enlargement and widening of a line of defence made
manually.
- Clearing of fuels placed in the line by means of the
tractor shovel.
- Recovering of fuels at the exterior side of the line of
defence, by means of dragging and contribution of
land (half or full shovel).
- Enlargement of preventive lines of defence and
preventive existing strips in the region, as
infrastructure of support in the extinction works.
Constructive procedures
A. One line
The light fuel and the weather conditions allow
working at the proximity of the fire. If it is not of a great
intensity, there is no possibility of secondary focuses.
B. 1+1 + ... line
Conditions similar to those mentioned before with
the risk that it expands to bushes.
The parallel lines are to be built 4 meters away from
each successively.
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EUFIRELAB
The dynamic spread will be diminished crossing
every line, providing its control
C. Two lines
When the load of fuels is major and the weather
conditions of major adversity to those described on the
previous methods: two parallel overlapped lines are to
be built, remaining any vegetation between them.
The drawing of the second line must be finished
before the fire reaches the first one.
D. Two lines + burning
If weak secondary focuses appear due to the low
speed of the wind, the moisture relatively high and to
the structure and distribution of the vegetation: a
burning of widening of 20 to 50 meters is to be carried
out, leaning on the first line of defence.
It has to be monitored until the front of advance
meets the burning of widening.
E. 2+2 lines
If occurs an increase in number and intensity of the
secondary focuses, in this case:
- Two pairs of separated lines (3-5 meters) are to be
built, the fourth line must be finished before the fire
reaches to the first one.
- Sometimes it can be advisable to make a burning of
widening in the strip from 3 to 5 meters which
separates the second line of defence from the third
one
- When the secondary areas present major intensity,
and if a burning of widening is made from the first
line of defence to the front of advance, the meeting
of both fronts provokes an increase in the
appearance of secondary focuses, so it must be
tried that this so called meeting appears at the
double distance where the secondary focuses first
appeared.
F.Multiple lines (3-4 overlapped lines)
The construction is similar to the double lines when
the conditions of the fire get worse progressively.
The consolidation tasks of lines must be carried out
by means of the tidy and sequential work of:
- Workmen's brigades.
- Vehicles of surveillance.
- Vehicles of extinction.
- Land based planes.
- Heavy machinery.
The tractors are to be manoeuvred at tandem, when
it occurs in a fire with rapid advance.
3.3.3 Burning of widening
It is carried out to extend the zone deprived of fuel
without additional work of the brigade or machinery.
It begins from the internal edge of the line and there
are in use elements and technologies of ignition similar
to those in prescribed burnings.
The burning of widening will have to be carried out
as the line is constructed, avoiding burning ground
which still does not have the support of the line nor to
delay the ignition to do it later in a hurry, creating an
interior edge with abundance of fire difficult to monitor
and control.
If the line of defence presents its path according to
an ascending slope, the burning will have to be done
from up to down.
With the burning of widening in its advance the
spread of the fire must be watched in order to prevent it
from provoking the ignition of the fuel in the exterior
edge, exceeding the line.
Fire swatters, shovels and backpack fire
extinguishers are to be used in order to control the
irregularities which could arise in the development of
the burning and consequently it can be necessary to
correct the development of the burning. (Figure 3-1)
3.3.4 Organisation of the personnel for the
construction of lines of defence
A. Mixed method
Sections of the line to be built are assigned to the
fire-fighters, in order to make specific jobs for example
cutting or scraping.
Since the tasks need different tools, the brigade is
divided into two groups each group is to be headed by
the fire-fighters carrying the cutting tools.
The men are arranged quite separated from each
other, and each one executes his job in his part of the
line.
When the fastest one arrives to the section initiated
by his partner next to him, he walks and advances up to
the head, passing the rest of the colleagues and
restarting his job in the new position.
The exchange of positions makes that all men
rotate, except the “line locater”, who must go to the
head choosing the location.
Advantages
- It is simple and easy to supervise.
- Every worker knows which his task is.
- It allows to use members who do not have
knowledge and experience, since the individual
variations in efficiency can be compensated,
changing the extension of the line assigned to him.
Disadvantages
- The persons' movement carrying the tools is
dangerous.
- The movement from the finished section up to the
new position implies waste of time.
- Fires with a fast dynamic spread can exceed the line
before it is finished.
B. Progressive method
In this procedure of opening and construction of the
line of defence every fire-fighter advances without
having to change his relative position in the row, in this
way the squad advances as an only unit.
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Every fire-fighter moves on as he executes the work - Given a situation, which forces the personnel’s
which corresponds to the tool assigned to him. reorganization, difficulties can arise due to the
distance between the fire-fighters.
The work is done based on a few hits of his tool and
- It is only appropriate in fires which present a very
then he moves on.
slow spread, more or less static.
In this way the line is drawn as the personnel
advances, the last fire-fighter finishes the work.
This method is based on the following principle: “If a
worker needs 10 tool hits to build a part of 2 meters
line, this can be built by 10 men giving each one an only
tool hit every 2 meters as they move on".
Personnel’s organization
1) “Line locater”.
2) Cut tools, executing the cutting or removing.
3) Scrapping tools, digging up to mineral soil.
4) Elements of ignition, for the burning of widening.
5) Tools of extinction controlling the fire in the burning
of widening.
Characteristics
6) The number of cutting tools depends on the type of
fuel.
7) It is faster and less flexible than other methods.
8) It requires an intense supervision in order to keep a
suitable progressive speed.
9) The fire-fighters can change their position in line
organization, but the tools’ position does not
change.
10) In rough areas and with dense vegetation this is the
fastest method to construct the line of defence with
hand tools.
11) For safety reasons there must be a minimal
separation of 3 meters between the fire-fighters.
12) As methodological combination, the squad can be
divided into teams which construct parts of the line
in a progressive way, at the same time they move
on alternatively.
C. Individual assignment method
The fire-fighters are arranged in intervals at the
border of the fire, each one of them stays in an
assigned zone, and there every fire-fighter is entirely
responsible for his own work, doing every necessary
task.
Advantages
- It allows an immediate and simultaneous work in a
major perimeter.
- Each fire-fighter has his own responsibility, what
stimulates his interest.
- If the personnel is experienced, beside needing little
supervision or any supervision at all, good
performances are obtained.
- It reduces the possibility of damage when managing
tools, since there is space between the fire-fighters.
Disadvantages
- In mixed fuels two or more tools are needed by
every man.
- The supervision can present difficulties, due to the
personnel’s distribution through the whole area.

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3.4 THE LINE OF CONTROL
It is defined as the very set of natural and artificial
fireproof barriers, as well as the extinguished borders of
the fire which are used to fix the closing predictable line,
where depending on the activities to develop any
possible progression would remain paused, remaining
therefore the perimeter of the surrounded fire, being the
existing fuel statically consumed in the inner part.
One or several lines of defence are part of the
control line.
A line of defence is built, and the control line is set.
Possible elements for a control line:
- Natural barriers: rivers, rocks, sandbanks, etc.
- Artificial barriers: reservoirs, paths, railways, fences,
etc
3.5 METHODS OF COMBAT
Not only at the beginning of the action, but also
during the surrounding process of the fire in the control
line, and even in some moments of the extinction, the
action against the fire can be performed in two general
ways, depending on the distance of the control line at
the fire’s border, that is, its perimeter.
3.5.1 Direct method
The control line is established when acting at the
very border of the fire, when acting mainly on the
flames and on the fuel immediately next to them.
This method implies:
- To cool the fuel with water, chemical products or
land.
- To remove the air oxygen, covering the combustion
zone with land.
- To cut the running of the fuel close to the flames, by
means of a line of defence, in this situation this is
not widened through a burning of widening.
Use
- Beginning fires.
- Superficial fires.
- In small focuses of a bigger fire when there is not
too much energy loosening. (Heat / surface) and
smoke.
Tools to use:
- Cutting tools.
- Scrapping tools.
- Suffocation tools
Advantages
- It allows reducing the fire damages to a minimal
surface.
- The work is effective and leaves a cool border which
does not require an intense clearance.
- In those fires which have developed occupying a
great area, it presents a major safety for the fire-
fighter, since in case of emergency situations
resulted from fire explosions (i.e. break of the
thermal belt), the fire-fighter can reach quickly the
burnt and cooled areas behind the fire.
- Having water, it is as an effective method.
Disadvantages
- The fire-fighters are exposed to the smoke and to
the heat radiation.
- In rough areas, the personnel’s movement is
dangerous.
- The arising of embers can give rise to the
appearance of secondary focuses which can
surround the fire-fighters between two fronts, this
increases the risks increase when this happens in a
slope.
- More effort is needed when following the fire
borders.
- Grouping the personnel in small areas can cause
accidents and the risk which it implies in the tools’
handling.
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Attacking the critical areas 3.5.3 The backfire

It consists of giving prior attention to the areas which Based on the method of indirect attack, it consists of
threaten with moving the ignition to new fuels. creating a fire of great magnitude, which leans on a
safety fence or from a line of defence, trying that the
It is about reducing or stopping the spread and the
created fire moves towards the main fire.
linear intensity of the fire to make the situation easier to
handle, before establishing the control line. Since in each fire arises a type of low pressures, in
which ascending streams originate, with suctions up to
Cooling the edge border
the superficial level, it takes place when both fronts are
When the fire at the border has been extinguished close to a reciprocal attraction what accelerates the
for some unfavourable reason, the combustion (night meeting between them, with a strong consumption of
moisture, slope changes...) a review is must performed the fuels in the middle, what provokes the complete
in order to extinguish heat centres, which could be extinction of both fronts.
suddenly reactivated.
It requires a careful planning, as well as a strict
3.5.2 Indirect method control of very position of all human resources and
existing materials in the fire, as well as of those material
Procedure by which the control line is established at
goods different from the forest ones which could exist in
a certain distance of the border and using the fire is the area where the backfire will be developed.
considered a tool to remove the fuel in the middle.
3.5.4 Decision between the different systems of
Use
assault
- When the smoke and the aroused caloric energy
disables the personnel’s job next to the border. Not only at the very beginning of the attack (incipient
- When the area presents complicated developments. attack), but in any other moment, even in the last phase
- When the vegetation is dense and the types of fuel (liquidation), modalities of direct and indirect attack, will
are complicate from the energy and dynamic be used, depending on the different conditions in the
spread point of view. fire’s area.
- When the perimeter of the fire is very irregular and
It can happen that in a part of a flank a direct attack
forces to an excessive work, without guarantees to
may be used since it represents minor difficulties,
reach successfully its conclusion.
whereas in other zones an indirect attack may be used.
- When the fire spreads fast, and there is a wide front
and constant continues of embers. The decision, taken by the fire leader, may consider
- When there is an intermittent crowning progression. when and where each attack system may be
performed.
Advantages
This decision must be solidly based on two previous
- Safer work for the fire-fighters.
phases of great importance:
- The work conditions are more comfortable for the
- Recognition. Evaluation.
personnel what guarantees keeping the productivity
- Planning.
for a longer time.
- Location of the control line.
- With this method advantage is taken of every natural
- Definition of the lines of defence to construct.
and artificial barrier, when missing fuels, lines of
- Quantification and qualification of the human
defence are constructed which are necessary to
and material resources needed develop the
close the control line.
jobs.
Disadvantages
- Loss of the nearest vegetation.
- Bigger perimeter of the control line, to which major
attention must be paid in order to avoid that the fire
could go beyond it.

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3.6 COMBAT PHASES 3) Consideration and location of potential threatened

The phases than composed the fight against forest
fire are:
1) Detection. Communication. Automatic send of a fire-
fighters’ squad by helicopters.
2) Examination. Evaluation. Initial Planning. Incipient or
initial attack.
3) New examination. New evaluation. New planning.
Decision to perform the extended attack (major
number of forces).
4) Control.
5) Liquidation.
6) Complete extinction.
7) Demobilization of human and material resources.
3.6.1 Examination
Phase which aims to a knowledge of facts, “in situ”,
a knowledge of facts of what is happening, in order to
act consequently.
The examination must take into account:
- The exact location of the fire.
- Type of fire:
- A superficial fire.
- A crown fire.
- A subsoil fire.
- Size of the fire.
- Speed of spread:
- Slow (<20 m/min.).
- Middle (20-30 m/min.).
- Dangerous (30-80 m/min.)
- Critic (> 80 m/min.).
- Threatened goods.
- Affected surface.
- Weather local conditions.
- Area.
- Burning fuel.
- Fuel which will probably enter combustion.
- Access routes and the size of these.
- Other information of interest.
It is important to communicate the result of the
examination to the head office.
3.6.2 Evaluation
In every work aimed to extinguish forest fires, the
activities linked with the evaluation are constant, since
through them will be done the study and analysis of the
fire current conditions and those foreseeable conditions
which could possibly arise.
The responsibility of this analysis relies on fire
leader, since the future actions to be taken in order to
control the forest fire are based on the conclusions
obtained from the evaluation.
Considerations
1) Past, present and future weather conditions
(weather forecast).
2) Evaluation of the existing resources for the attack.
a. Squads, air resources, terrestrial means, level
of experience of the different types and steps.
b. Characteristics of the equipment’s.
c. Estimated time of arrival at the fire.
goods in the direction of the fire’s spread
4) Consideration on the fire-fighters’ safety, material
means to be used and the local inhabitants.
5) Calculations of the current and future fire potential
behaviour, depending on the expected direction of
the active fronts of the fire.
6) Assertion of how the size and the behaviour of the
fire, will determine the quantity of human and
material resources to be used.
7) Making of an attack plan based on the previous
evaluations, establishing a period of time for its
performance and development.
8) Production of an alternative attack plan, in case of
different conditions, when it becomes impossible to
continue applying the initial plan.
9) Accomplishment of the evaluation continued on the
results obtained from the application of the
approved plan.
10) Permanent communications established and
assured with and by the head office.
3.6.3 Planning
Any activity aimed to the extinction of forest fires,
must belong to the designed plan, what means, that it is
included within the sequence and order of actions that
determined to be developed in a certain time forming
the total of actions planned to get the control and later
complete extinction of the forest fire.
Composition of the plan
A. Strategy
Decision of the aimed objectives that implies saying
clear and concise declarations of what it is to be done,
in order to achieve the fixed purposes.
The aims must be:
- Measurable (fixing the maximal surface affected by
the fire in 40 hectares).
- Recognizable.
- Communicable, to the whole personnel for the total
knowledge of the facts of the designed plan of
actions.
B. Tactics
Procedures used to perform the actions or the aims
of the strategies.
Example: on the left side of the line of defence will
be carried out by two tractors and the cooling of the
right side will be carried out by the amphibious planes.
C. Schedule
The fire leader must to organise the quads
according to the chosen tactics and strategies, in order
to reach the aimed objectives.
A schedule must be fixed for every section, what will
allow that the interventions can be executed in a
systematic way.
Second interventions will be carried out when the
first ones have been concluded.

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It is important that the planned schedules are
fulfilled; for example: after the opening of a line of
defence manually built, a widening will be made by
heavy machinery and thirdly a backfire.
3.6.4 Tactics used in the resources mobilisation
Principles for the location of the line of defence
1) To locate the line to a suitable distance of the fire so
that there is enough time to accomplish the total
extinction and the fire could be eliminated under
previously conditions foreseen.
2) To leave enough time to allow that the available
forces construct the line of defence at the same
time that the secondary focuses are extinguished
and possible heavy fuel is removed.
3) To make the line of defence as short as possible.
4) To use the easiest route when the drawing the line
without covering for it too many surface.
5) To avoid the biggest dangers when constructing the
line of defence, trying to establish a safety distance
between the line and the dangers which must be
left in the fire’s area.
6) To avoid winding lines and closed angles.
7) To use, where possible, the natural barriers, to
improve and make easier the construction of the
line.
8) To use machinery in the construction of the line
providing that it is possible.
9) To care about the personnel’s safety, in every
phase of the line construction.
10) To restrict the area where the secondary fires are
so numerous that it turns out impossible to get the
single extinction.
Principles of construction of the line of defence
1) The line should not be wider than needed, since it
could delay the construction of the line itself, being
possible due to such a delay that the fire passes
the line for certain part of its course which was not
ready yet, ruining all the work previously done.
2) To clear the line up to the mineral soil.
3) To scatter the embers and materials which burn
inside the fire area.
4) To increase the line’s efficiency, cooling the nearest
fire with land or water.
5) To reduce the fuel’s height near the line, if the time
allows it, before the fire comes closer.
6) To build deep ditches with a high rim to stop the
rolling substances.
Principles in the use of the backfire
1) To recognise the location and the suitable moment
to make the backfire within the safety parameters.
2) To use qualified personnel.
3) To locate and construct the line of defence correctly,
where the backfire will be leant on.
4) To measure the time of the operation correctly,
establishing the place where both fronts meet.
5) To take advantage of the current weather conditions
as well as those foreseen for the next hours.
6) To determine the right sequence to reach the aimed
goals, with the achievement of the backfire, paying
attention to the personnel’s co-ordination within the
fire different sectors.
7) The backfire must be developed in a the suitable
speed, in order to get the necessary width of the
burning so that the consequences of having built
the backfire can be kept, The backfire should not be
overcome by the characteristics of dynamic spread
of the front flame, which is aimed to extinguish.
8) To take advantage of the draughts created by the
main fire and the slope. Depending on the daytime
of the local winds.
9) To begin the backfire in the highest sector of the line
of defence, so that the action starts slope down.
10) To avoid the closed angles in the line, given these
circumstances the burning must be performed in a
paused way.
11) Auxiliary backfires must be used if the weather
conditions are unfavourable.
12) The burning must be stopped if it is observed that
the backfire does not progress in the aimed way.
13) To guarantee that the whole personnel know the
plan and it is totally clear for every one before
beginning the backfire.
14) To have a safety plan, in case unforeseeable
circumstances may provoke a wrong behaviour in
the backfire.
Principles to use of the water
1) To use the water rationally, in a fire always water is
always considered to be a short resource.
2) To throw the water directly to the base of the flames,
to win efficiency.
3) It is needed that the personnel with manual tools
work next to those who handle the hoses, to make
the use of the water more effective, with major
intensity in the extinction.
4) To establish good communication between the
personnel who handle the hoses and those who
handle the motor-pump.
5) To count with the set of utensils and accessories to
change the conditions of the (throwing water,
according with the characteristics fire
characteristics).
6) To watch that the water supply is permanent.
7) The access roads must not be blocked with vehicles;
hindering the emergency exit in cases of danger.
8) The use of the water needs constantly the use of
manual tools for tasks of support and consolidation.
3.6.5 Control of the fire
Realisation of critical situations
- Change in the wind’s speed.
- Change in the wind’s direction.
- Increase of the fire’s spread’s speed.
- Change in the speed of the wind’s motion’s
direction.
- Embers which could pass the control line.
- Change in the environmental temperature.
- Change in the linear intensity of the fire.
- Acknowledgement of technical investments.
- Dangers of fire explosions.
Surveillance of the fire situation
- Location of fire front.
- Characteristics and influences of the fuels.
- Weather consequences.
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- Work routes. - Assignment of resources.

- Communications. - Leadership.
- Location and availability of the attack forces: - Personnel.
- Human resources. - Equipment.
- Specialised material resources. - Aerial resources.
- Land resources.
Estimation of the type of action to carry out (type of
- Radio communications.
work)
- Plan of changing positions.
- To supply a map of the area of the fire considering
- Holding communications between the head
the sequential perimeters for every period of time
office of operations and the control position in
(t).
the fire.
- To forecast the speed of spread for every active
front, inside the perimeter of control. Foreseeable 3.6.6 Extinction
influences:
It involves the whole combing of the area, checking
- Slope.
and eliminating the heat points or elements of
- Aspect.
combustion, inside the perimeter controlled at the forest
- Fuels.
fire. It means a hard, dirty and necessary work.
- Wind.
The phase of extinction can represent even more
- Relative moisture.
than 50% of the attack’s time.
- Natural barriers.
The purpose of the extinction is to avoid the
- Daytime.
possibility of the appearance of new outbreaks.
- Needed time for the arrival of the changing
human resources for the work of control. Applied technology
- Planning of the attack: 1) The extinction can begin at any moment during the
- To divide the fire in different areas/zones. attack against the fire, if the front of the fire burns
- To decide where to build the control line. intensively; it is possible to begin the extinction at
- To decide the order and priority of the lines the bottom area, sides or at those zones which
of defence to be built. seem to be calmed.
- To set the construction methods. 2) It is necessary to select the most important and
- Estimation of needs for every area/zone: dangerous zones to concentrate there the efforts.
- Human resources. 3) Stages or phases.
- Material resources. a. Allow that some of the still burning fuels get
- Setting of waiting areas. consumed, paying special attention to those
- Setting of camps. which are close to the control line of control,
- Time of arrival of the requested resources. since these burn in fast and safe way.
- Safety for the personnel and for their b. Construct defence secondary around the islands
actions. and / or not burnt arms. (Application burning of
- In the changing operations of the leading widening).
position of the extinction, the next leader must c. Go around the trunks outside its location leaving
be provided of: them parallel to the slope to prevent them from
- Guidance about the fire general situation. rolling.
- Location. d. Cut any dead burnt tree to ascertain if there is
- Area. internal combustion.
- Fuels. e. Mix every burning material with mineral soil until
- Location of the resources. it gets extinguished.
- Updated summary of the different phases f. Dig and to scrape the stumps up to the roots
which the fire has gone trough, including the and mix the embers and the coal with the
state of control. mineral soil.
- Forecasts of behaviour. g. Monitor externally the control line checking that
- State of the dynamic spread. there are not secondary focuses.
- Weather consequences. h. Inspect the lines of defence, checking that there
- Threatened goods. are not roots in combustion which they could
- Plan of aimed actions. cross them.
- Tasks assigned in every area/zone. i. Constant vigilance of the perimeter, at least the
- Type of tasks. eight daytime hours after the complete
- Location and development of the tasks. extinction.
- Method of intervention, strategy and tactics. j. The liquidation work must be carried out by a
- Special safety measures. personnel different from the one doing the
- Safety plans established in extinction extinction.
general plan.
- Precautions.
- Specific potential dangers.

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3.7 FIGURES

Figure 3-1

Figure 3-2

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4 INICIDENT COMMAND SYSTEM
The Incident Command System (ICS) is a
management system used to organise emergency
response and was designed to offer a scalable
response to incidents of any magnitude.
It is an operating system that can be adapted to fit
any type and size of incident.
The system can expand or contract as the
situation changes.
4.1 OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS
- Level of training, formation and specialised
training of the members who compose the group
of fire-fighters.
- Team work spirit.
- Adaptation and knowledge of the area where the
construction works of the line of defence are
being developed.
- Previous knowledge of the personnel’s
performance against different circumstances:
- Slope.
- Type of fuel.
- Characteristics of the soil.
- Daytime.
- Aspect.
4.2 COMPONENTS OF THE INCIDENT
COMMAND SYSTEM
Incident command system works properly thanks
to nine fundamental components.
These components are the following:
1) Common terminology: Everyone involves in the
fight against the fire uses the same language. All
the resources which take part in the fight are
defined and all their functions are properly
designated and named.
2) Modular organisation: The system is modular and
its organisation expands and contracts according
to the size and complexity of the incident.
3) Integrated communications: The system must
arrange an adequate communications plan. This
plan must contain several communication
networks such as a command net, a tactical net,
a support net, an air to ground net and an air
tactics net.
4) Unified command structure: The system must
have a unified command structure where general
incident, objectives and strategies are set.
5) Consolidated action plan: The system must have
an operational plan which includes the objectives
and strategies to be used in order to control the
incident.
6) Level of control: The level of control for
emergency management personnel goes from
three to seven.
7) Designated incident facilities: The system must
have a special infrastructure in order to manage
the emergency. This infrastructure must be made
up by the following elements:
- Command post: Point from where the
emergency is managed.
- Incident base: Location where the support
actions are carried out.
- Camps: Areas where the personnel in charge
of the fight against the forest may eat or rest.
- Staging areas: Temporary areas where the
personnel wait for their exit to the fire.
- Helicopter base: Areas from where
helicopters can operate.
- Heliports: Areas where helicopters can land.
8) Fire fighting resources: Single resources, task
forces or strike teams.
9) Resource management: The system must allow
knowing every time the status of the different
resources.
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4.3 ELEMENTS OF THE INCIDENT COMMAND
SYSTEM. ORGANIZATION
The incident command system is made up by five
organisational elements:
- Command: Person responsible for the
information, safety and confidence.
- Operations: Ground and air resources.
- Planning: Incident, resource status and technical
specialists.
- Logistics: Service, communications, medical and
food supply and facilities.
- Finance/Administration: Time records, cost,
wages and procurement.
4.3.1 Command
The command unit is in charge of the control,
management and supervision of the general tasks
which include the extinction of the forest fire.
The command unit is led by and incident
commander who directs the complete management
of the incident.
This command unit is completed by:
- Safety Unit: It is in charge of analysing and
assessing the hazardous and unsafe conditions.
- Information Unit: It is responsible for compiling all
the information related to the fire.
- Liaison Unit: It is responsible for co-ordinating the
different agencies and organisations which take
part in the incident.
4.3.2 Operations
Operations are in charge of carrying out the
incident action plan.
These are directed by the Operation Section
Chief.
Its basic structure includes sections,
divisions/groups, air operations and staging areas.
Divisions and groups are set up when the amount
of resources (individuals, task forces, attack
equipment) are more than those recommended by
the Operation Section Chief.
In these cases the fire perimeter is often divided
into sections in order to divide the emergency in the
operation areas, taking advantage of the natural
separations of the ground, as well as the geography
and the fuels, the same happens with those areas
where the resources can be used in a more effective
way.
On the other hand the groups are to be
established in order to divide the emergency, in this
case, into functional areas (rescues, structure
protection, etc).
Divisions and groups are normally named with
letters (A, B…) and they can be started under the
same emergency.
Sometimes sections can be established which
group together divisions and groups.
The sections are normally set out in the following
cases:
- When the number of divisions/groups is higher
than the advisable supervision level from 5:1 for
the Operation Section Chief.
- When the nature of the emergency requires a
structure of functional sections.
- When the emergency is multi-territorial.
In case of establishing different sections in order
to manage the emergency, these sections are to be
distinguished through numbers (“Section 1, Section
2”…)
The means employed in the scheme in the ICS
can be used in the following way:
- Individual means: These work in an individual way
normally like a unique mean in the initial attack.
They can also be used in later attacks or in
situations when big fires occur.
- Task forces: It has to do with the combined work
of every type of different means, joined to
manage a concrete temporary task.
- Attack equipment’s: This is a specific number of
means of the same type and class which are to
perform the attack jobs.
The staging areas are areas placed inside the
emergency area which are defined by the Operation
Section Chief in order to allow the temporary setting
of the available means.
The Operation Section Chief is responsible for the
management of the staging areas staying under his
control every means with an availability interval of
three minutes.
The air operations are firstly organised by the
Operation Section Chief.
The organisation, size and use of the air
operations will basically depend on the necessities of
the emergency and the availability of the air
resources.
In case of emergencies of a bigger significance,
the Operation Section Chief can assign an Air
Operations Chief.
This is justified when:
- The complexity of the air operations requires
additional support and effort.
- The emergency requires the use of the air means
for tactical and logistic activities.
The air support supervisor is responsible for the
setting, keeping and operation of the infrastructures
supporting the air means.
4.3.3 Planning
The Planning Section is in charge of the
compilation, evaluation and dissemination of the
tactical information related to the emergency.
This section is also responsible for the
development of the Incident Action Plan.
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EUFIRELAB

In order to fulfil its functions this section can count The organisation of the logistics section is divided
on four main units as well as on several specialists into the following units:
who co-operate with the evaluation and analysis of - Supply unit: This unit is responsible for arranging,
the emergency situation. receiving, storing and processing all the means,
personnel and necessary supplies. At the same
This section is led by the Planning Section Chief,
time, this unit is also in charge of providing the
who is responsible, as we have seen before, for the
facilities and the personnel, who get, process,
compilation, evaluation and analysis of the whole
store and distribute all the arranged supplies.
information concerning the emergency, as well as for
- Facilities unit: Its responsibility is that of
the development of the Incident Action Plan for every
managing, operating and demobilising all the
phase of the operation.
facilities used in the support of the emergency
The Planning Section Chief is also responsible for operations, as well as its maintenance and
the development of the possible alternatives and the safety.
leading of the planning meetings. - Ground Support unit: Its main responsibility is that
of the maintenance and repair of the tactical
This section can normally count on the following
equipment, vehicles and mobile equipment for
units: the land support. This function is fulfilled, during
- Means unit: This is responsible for the control of the emergencies of big significance, by keeping a
the assigned means. The unit will keep the state
transport centre (cars, trucks, minibus, buses…)
of the means up-to-date. in order to transport the personnel from one
- Situation state unit: This is responsible for the place to another.
compilation, processing and organisation of the
- Communications unit: This unit works with the aim
information concerning the state of the fire of developing the plans in order to make more
situation. Summaries about the situation are to effective the use of facilities and communication
be supplied, as well as maps and information.
equipment’s.
- Documentation unit: This unit is responsible for - Food unit: Its main aim is that of providing the
keeping the emergency files complete and right food service to the emergency troops.
correct.
- Medical unit: This unit is in charge of all the
- Demobilisation unit: This unit is responsible for the medical services, developing an adequate
development of a demobilisation plan for the medical plan which will be integrated in the
emergency. This plan includes the specific
Incident Action Plan.
instructions to be followed by the whole
personnel as well as the necessary resources to 4.3.5 Finance/Administration
demobilise.
The finance section is justified when it is
- Technical specialists: Together with the four units
necessary on the side of the agency or agencies
previously analysed, the planning unit can count
responsible for establishing a financial service.
on technical specialists who can co-operate
The possible units which can compose this
directly with the Planning Section Chief, in this
section are the following:
way the technical specialists can join any of the
- Time unit: This unit has the responsibility of
four units which compose the section, helping
controlling that the assistance documents are
any other section of the ICS or forming an
correctly filled in. This unit is also responsible for
independent unit inside the section. Among the
the time documents of the different means used.
main specialists who can co-operate in the fire
- Shopping unit: Its task is to manage and run all
emergencies the followings must be enhanced:
the financial information concerning the contracts
specialists in fire behaviours, specialists in
of the suppliers.
environmental impact, specialists in meteorology,
- Compensations and indemnities unit
or specialists in costs analysis…
- Costs unit: This unit is established in order to
4.3.4 Logistics obtain, register and analyse the costs resulting
from the emergency as well as to calculate the
The aim of the logistics section is to supply the costs estimations.
necessary support to the rest of the units and
sections which compose the ICS, except for the air
support.
The logistics unit is responsible for the supply of
the facilities, transports, provisions, maintenance and
fuel for the equipment as well as food and medical
services.
The logistics section, led by the Logistics Section
Chief, is made up of six units which in case of big
emergencies or emergencies with many facilities and
equipment’s, can be grouped into two branches
(Service Branch and Support Branch).

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EUFIRELAB
Graph 1: Incident Command System Structure

COMMAND

Information Safety

Liaison

OPERATIONS PLANNING LOGISTICS FINANCE ADMINISTRATION

Air Operations Branch Resources Unit Service Branch Support Branch Time Unit

Air Support Group Situation Unit Communications Unit Supply Unit Shoopping Unit

Air Tactical Group Documentation Unit Medical Unit Facilities Unit Compensation and indemnities Unit

Staging Areas Demobilization Unit Food Unit Ground Support Unit Cost Unit

Branch 1 Technical Specialists

Division A

Division B

Division C

Branch 2

Division D

Division E

Division F

37
EUFIRELAB
5 BIBLIOGRAPHY
5.1 REFERENCES
ANDERSON, H.E. 1982. Aids to determining fuel
models for estimating fire behaviour. USDA,
Forest Service. General Technical Report INT-
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ANONYMOUS. Decreto 71/1992, de 5 de mayo, por
el que se aprueba el Plan de lucha contra los
incendios forestales en la CAA, y se dictan
normas para su prevención, extinción y
reconstrucción de las superficies afectadas.
ANONYMOUS. Ley 5/1999, de 29 de junio, de
Prevención y Lucha Contra los Incendios
Forestales. (COMUNIDAD AUTÓNOMA DE
ANDALUCIA). BOE número 190-1999 Sección I.
CASTELLÓ, J., TEHAS, P. 2003. Multicriterio Riesgo
de Propagación. Salamandra. Barcelona.
CHANDLER, CHEHEY, THOMAS, TRABAUD,
WILLIAMS. 1991. Fire in Forestry. Vol I,II. Krieger
Publishing Company. Malabar, Florida.
DOMÍNGUEZ VILCHES, E. 2002. La utilización de
los medios aéreos en la conservación de la
naturaleza. I Symposium Nacional Técnicas de
los Medios Aéreos en Incendios Forestales.
Córdoba (Spain), pp 11-24.
DUDFIELD, M., LATAPIE, B. 2003. Paper for the 3rd
International Wildland Conference. Incident
command system (ICS).
EGMASA-JUNTA DE ANDALUCIA. Comportamiento
del fuego. 1998. Sevilla.
EGMASA-JUNTA DE ANDALUCIA. Dispositivo de
Incendios. 1998. Sevilla.
EGMASA-JUNTA DE ANDALUCIA. EPI. 1998.
Sevilla.
EGMASA-JUNTA DE ANDALUCIA. Maquinaria y
herramientas. 1998. Sevilla.
FULLER, M. 1991. An introduction to wildland FIRE.
Behavior, management, firefighting and
prevention. Forest fire. Wiley Nature Editions.
New York.
GALTIÉ, J., PEYRE, J.S. 2003. Riesgo
socioeconómico de incendios forestales en áreas
mediterráneas. Salamandra. Barcelona.
GONZALEZ CABAN, A. 2000. Sistema de manejo de
emergencias (SME); funciones. Estructuración.
Coordinación. In VELEZ, R. (ed) La defensa
contra incendios forestales: Fundamentos y
Experiencias. McGraw-Hill. Madrid, pp 16.23-
16.65.
HAMILTON, L., MORGAN, G., WILLIAMS, J. 2003.
Paper for the 3rd International Wildland
Conference. Guiding principles for wildland fire
management.
ICONA. Curso Superior de Defensa contra Incendios
Forestales. 1987.
OLLERO, A., ARRUE, B., MARTIEZ DE DIOS, J.R.,
VIEGAS M.T., VIEGAS D.X., PICARD C.
GIROUD F., BOVIO G., CAMIA A.
FRANCESETTI A. 1999. “Fire suppression
characterisation”. INFLAME Project. Deliverable
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RODRIGUEZ TREJO, D.A. 1996. Incendios
Forestales. Mundiprensa. México.
RODRIGUEZ y SILVA, F. Class notes of the subject
Forest Fires.
RODRIGUEZ y SILVA, F. 2000. Ejemplos de planes
de defensa en España. In VELEZ, R. (ed) La
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Fundamentos y Experiencias. McGraw-Hill.
Madrid, pp 11.17-11.56.
RODRIGUEZ y SILVA, F. 1998. Local evaluation of
the forest fires risk through danger indices,
application to the forest regions of Andalusia. In
VIEGAS, D.X. (ed) III International Conference on
Forest Fire Research – 14th Conference on Fire
and Forest Meteorology. ADAI, Luso-Coimbra, pp
1071-1084.
RODRIGUEZ y SILVA, F. 1994. Modelos de gestión
ordenada de la defensa contra los incendios
forestales. Congreso Forestal Español, pp 239-
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TEIE, W.C. 1994. Firefighter’s handbook on wildland
firefighting. Teie. Rescue, California.
VELEZ, R. 2000. La defensa contra incendios
forestales: Fundamentos y Experiencias.
McGraw-Hill. Madrid.
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5.2 INTERNET LINKS http://juntadeandalucia.es

http://www.boe.es http://www.madrid.org
http://www.comadrid.es http://www.proteccioncivil.org
http://www.focverd.net
http://www.incendiosforestales.org
http://www.iawfonline.org/
http://www.forestfighting.com

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