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The 95 Percent Solution
School is not where most Americans learn most of their science
than most children in the world, but For starters, most in the U.S. science so rarely occurs. Indicative of the situ-
the performance of older U.S. children learning community agree that the ation nationwide, a 2007 study of San
has been mediocre at best. Interestingly, quality of school science education is Francisco Bay–area elementary schools
however, for more than 20 years, U.S. better at the secondary level than at the found that 80 percent of K–5 multiple-
adults have consistently outperformed preschool and elementary levels. Re- subject teachers who are responsible
their international counterparts on sci- cent statistics show that only about 4 for teaching science in their classrooms
ence literacy measures, including adults percent of U.S. school teachers of kin- reported spending 60 minutes or less per
from South Korea and Japan, as well dergarten through second grade (K–2) week on science; 16 percent of teachers
as Western European countries such as majored in science or science educa- reported spending no time at all on sci-
Germany and the United Kingdom. If tion as undergraduates, and many ence. Consistent science instruction in
schooling is the primary causative fac- took no college-level science courses U.S. schools only begins at the middle-
tor affecting how well the public un- at all. However, the quality of science school level, when every student takes
derstands science, how do we explain instruction at that level is almost a moot at least one or two science courses, usu-
these findings? point because science instruction itself ally taught by individuals with some
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ence and technology as well as piqued
their interest in science and prompted
further inquiries after the visit.
These data were validated by a
“conceptual marker” in the form of a
science specific scientific concept—homeosta-
education sis. Prior to the opening of the new
science center, only 7 percent of the
Los Angeles public could define this
time of day
488 American Scientist, Volume 98 © 2010 Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Society. Reproduction
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engaged in hobbies that involve sci- Pew Internet & American Life Project,
ence, including model rocketry, raising 2006 was the tipping point when the In-
ornamental fish, gardening, rock col- ternet exceeded even broadcast media
lecting and star gazing. Hobbyists such as a source of public science informa-
as these often possess deep specialized tion. The medical profession has come
knowledge of science and invest con- to appreciate that the public today is far
siderable amounts of money in equip- more likely to seek medical information
ment, travel, education and training online than from a “live” healthcare
to refine their craft. Equally important professional; as stated earlier, individu-
are the many events in life, often highly als with serious ailments use the Inter-
personal, which demand increased un- net for continued, deep learning about
derstanding of science “right now.” For their illnesses.
example, when individuals are diag-
nosed with leukemia or heart disease, Science on the Side
they and their loved ones invest large Another emerging area of research in-
amounts of time researching websites vestigates science-related hobbies. Re-
and medical reports in order to learn as search conducted by Marni Berendsen,
much as possible about the particular education researcher and project direc-
disease. Similar behaviors arise when tor of the NASA Night Sky Network,
an environmental crisis occurs such as showed that amateur astronomy club
a toxic spill or the discovery of radon members lacking college-level astron-
gas seeping from the rock on which omy training often knew more general
one’s home is built. With an increas- astronomy than did undergraduate
ingly accessible Internet, becoming in- astronomy majors. Research by oth-
formed about such issues is easy, even ers has also shown hobbyists, many
routine. with little formal training, exhibiting
A small but compelling set of data high levels of knowledge and depth
is beginning to emerge showing that of understanding. Such hobbyists of-
the nonstudent public also gathers ten have collegial relationships with Figure 3. Tess, the 50-foot animatronic body
in-depth science knowledge outside experts in the field and some, having simulator, is part of the World of Life per-
of school. Our research shows that put themselves in the right place at the manent gallery at the California Science
Center in Los Angeles. When she arrived, 7
free-choice learning experiences rep- right time, have contributed scientific
percent of Angelenos could define the term
resent the single greatest contributors discoveries. For example, on March homeostasis. That figure had almost tripled
to adult science knowledge; childhood 18–19, 2010, amateur astronomer Nick by a decade later. (Photograph courtesy of the
free-choice learning experiences also Howes was working from his desk- California Science Center.)
significantly contributed to adult sci- top computer in Great Britain using a
ence knowledge. Schooling ranks at the remotely controlled 2-meter telescope for school, as opposed to learning for
bottom of significant sources of adult located in Hawaii and operated by the life. One study found that the number
science knowledge. Specifically, our re- Faulkes Telescope Project. He dialed or level of mathematics courses taken
search shows that science information up the coordinates of a comet he had in school correlated poorly, if at all, with
sources such as books, magazines, dis- been observing, calibrated his camera mathematical performance in out-of-
cussions with experts, and the Internet and snared a set of six photos showing school, everyday-life situations. In an-
represented the primary mechanisms an object moving away from the icy other study of mathematics learning,
the public uses to delve more deeply nucleus of the comet. What he cap- even individuals who did not do well
into a topic. During the recent dramas tured was the breakup of comet C2007 or were not formally trained in school
surrounding the deep-water oil spill in C3, an observation hailed by the In- mathematics demonstrated the ability
the Gulf of Mexico, news websites such ternational Astronomical Union as a to use math successfully in everyday
as CNN and CNBC, information web- “major astronomical discovery.” life—for example, sellers of candy in
sites such as www.theoildrum.com and Investigations of everyday science street markets and shoppers selecting
even the government’s own NOAA literacy have yielded other interesting good deals. Success in technical and
website were humming with activity as data. For example, a series of studies scientific training courses for ship of-
the public tried to get below the super- by Canadian science-education re- ficers was shown to be unrelated to the
ficial headlines of the six o’clock news. searcher Wolff-Michael Roth and col- relevant knowledge required onboard.
These and other data suggest that the leagues found that members of an en- As observed by Roth and his colleagues
importance of school as a source of vironmental activist group working on in their investigation of adults working
science learning is actually declining the revitalization of a local creek and on a local environmental issue, “There
among the public as citizens utilize an its watershed acted and learned using was little that looked like school sci-
ever-broadening range of information knowledge derived from a wide variety ence, and there was little done in school
resources, including most dramatically of resources, virtually none of which science that prepared these adults for
the Internet, which now represents the required or drew from school-based this or any other similar kinds of prob-
major source of science information for sources. Similar research by others re- lematic situations in life.”
all citizens, including young children. inforces that much of what is learned in Although the role of free-choice
According to research conducted by the school actually relates more to learning learning experiences remains contest-
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United States Japan China Russia cally and socially advantaged subur-
ban counterparts. However, each and
South Korea Brazil European Union every summer of the study, the inner-
city children fell woefully behind; the
70 suburban 70children continued to70gain 70
in performance while the inner-city
60 children stagnated
60 or even declined
60 in 60
performance.
number of visits to informal science
or cultural institutions (percent)
490 American Scientist, Volume 98 © 2010 Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Society. Reproduction
with permission only. Contact perms@amsci.org.
Mitch Kezar/Getty Images Galen Rowell/Corbis
Figure 5. The ubiquity of opportunities for informal science learning is often underestimated. Informative interludes range from strolling with
a birdwatching manual to touring the hydrosphere at one of the nation’s great aquariums. Knowledge seekers can enter the boundless Web
or curl up with the iPad app The Elements—sound, scholarly and hugely popular. (Bottom left image from WebMD.com; bottom right image
courtesy of Touch Press.
experiences such as visits to science science understanding among popu- and forcefully as the Harvard Family
museums. lations typically underrepresented Research Project, which stated:
As the Baltimore study and oth- in science. The report recommended
er research cited above make clear, that to make informal science rele- The dominant assumption be-
not just summer experiences but all vant to children and youth within a hind much current educational
kinds of free-choice childhood expe- community, the development of pro- policy and practice is that school
riences significantly contribute to a gramming and experiences should is the only place where and when
person’s science literacy; early child- be a collaborative effort between the children learn. This assumption
hood experiences form a particularly informal science organization, local is wrong. Forty years of steadily
critical foundation for all future sci- education institutions, and other en- accumulating research shows that
ence learning. The 2009 report on tities within the community such as out-of-school, or “complementary
learning science in informal environ- science-related industries and busi- learning” opportunities are major
ments from the National Research nesses. predictors of children’s develop-
Council, cited earlier, found that not Similar ideas have recently been ment, learning, and educational
only do free-choice science learn- voiced by a range of organizations, achievement. The research also
ing experiences jump-start a child’s such as the National 4-H Council indicates that economically and
long-term interest in science topics, and the American Youth Policy Fo- otherwise disadvantaged children
they also can significantly improve rum. None has stated it so clearly are less likely than their more-ad-
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and the public need to continue to fo-
cus on equity to ensure that this trend
continues.
Serious Fun
However, as the potential beneficial
relationship between science learning
and OST becomes better understood,
there is a temptation to hand these pro-
grams over to schools. This would be
a huge mistake. It is exactly because
free-choice learning is not like school
that it has such value. What is impor-
tant is that children and youth perceive
the free-choice learning experiences that
often occur in typical OST programs as
personally meaningful, engaging and,
dare we say, fun—what educator Da-
vid Alexander calls, “the learning that
lies between play and academics.” The
inclusion of free-choice science learn-
ing experiences in the lives of children
is essential because young children
in particular learn through play. The
prevalence of a play-oriented medium
for educational delivery, which is very
common in the free-choice parts of the
science education landscape, has been
shown to encourage children to interact
with each other, adults and the objects
surrounding them in ways that signifi-
cantly support the development of sci-
ence inquiry skills.
If OST programs are merely devic-
es to extend the school day with more
hours of the same pedagogical experi-
ences, they are unlikely to be successful,
particularly in the long term. In fact, it’s
quite likely that they will do more harm
than good by reinforcing stereotypes of
science and science professionals as dry
and boring and schoollike. Our skepti-
cism and concerns revolve around the
fact that current discussions about in-
Figure 6. A great favorite of young and old: combustion chemistry. “When I talk to my Nobel creasing the scope and quality of OST
colleagues,” said Sir Richard Roberts, winner of the 1993 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medi- programs, though well-intentioned,
cine, “More than half of them got interested in science via fireworks.” (Photographs courtesy almost always focus on how such pro-
of Bryan Jackson and Zambelli Fireworks.) grams can support children and youth’s
achievement in school, rather than how
vantaged peers to have access to forts. According to the Harvard Family such programs should support children
these opportunities. This inequity Research Project’s 2007 Study of Predic- and youth in life.
substantially undermines their tors of Participation in Out-of-School- It seems reasonable to assume that
learning and chances for school Time Activities, participation rates in out-of-school science-learning experi-
success. before- and after-school programs have ences are fundamental to supporting
increased at all levels of family income, and facilitating lifelong science learn-
Fortunately, there are increasing op- with the greatest increase among the ing. We would argue that the current
portunities for youth and families from lowest-income youth. They attribute state of science literacy in America can-
poor and underserved communities this trend to an increasing policy fo- not be explained otherwise. One of the
to engage in out-of-school-time (OST) cus on the benefits of OST, along with major ways that U.S. adults and chil-
science experiences, driven by such extensive funding for the 21st Century dren under the age of 12 differ from
efforts as the NSF Informal Science Community Learning Centers, a pro- their counterparts in other countries is
Education program, which invests in gram of the U.S. Department of Educa- their access to and use of free-choice sci-
community-based science education ef- tion. They suggest that policymakers ence learning opportunities. Compared
492 American Scientist, Volume 98 © 2010 Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Society. Reproduction
with permission only. Contact perms@amsci.org.
with other countries, the U.S. has a
luxurious endowment of such destina-
tions. In the same studies that demon-
strated high correlations between adult
science literacy and levels of school-
ing, utilization of the free-choice science
learning landscape was a strong cor-
relate, as was shown in the Los Angeles
findings discussed earlier in this article.
In other words, utilization of these re-
sources could be a primary or at least
a highly important causal factor in U.S.
adults’ relatively high performance on
international measures of science lit-
eracy and interest.
Similarly, the simplest explanation
Jacques M. Chenet/Corbis
for why American 8-year-olds do so
well compared with their counter-
parts in other countries on the TIMSS
and PISA tests is that young Ameri-
can children have greater exposure to
free-choice science learning opportu-
nities than do children in any other Figure 7. This child at play receives lessons in the physiology of hearing, the physics of sound,
country. Unfortunately, utilization of and the mechanics of biological adaptation, as well as the chance to pretend to be a fox.
these learning opportunities declines
precipitously after age 12 in the U.S.
As has been shown repeatedly, the best Insufficient data exist to conclusively another window. Commissioned position
predictor of student success in school demonstrate that free-choice science paper for the Coalition for After-School Sci-
ence. New York, NY.
is family life. The quality of parent- learning experiences currently contrib-
ing is more important than socioeco- Dorph, R., et al. 2007. The Status of Science
ute more to public understanding of
Education in the Bay Area: Research Brief.
nomic factors, race/ethnicity or qual- science than in-school experiences, but Lawrence Hall of Science, University of
ity of school. Children with parents a growing body of evidence points in California, Berkeley.
who support their learning at home do this direction. There certainly are in- Ferreira, M. 2002. Ameliorating equity in sci-
better than children with parents who sufficient data to refute the claim that ence, mathematics, and engineering: A case
do not. A logical and perhaps more ef- free-choice learning is vitally impor- study of an after-school science program.
fective way for parents to support their tant. Surely the best informed and most Equity and Excellence in Education 35(1):43–49.
children’s learning beyond providing science-literate citizens are those who Fox, S. 2008. The engaged E-patient popula-
homework help is through free-choice enjoy maximal benefits from both in- tion. Washington, D.C.: Pew Internet &
learning experiences. However, as and out-of-school science learning op- American Life Project.
the Baltimore research cited above so portunities. Thus, we would argue for Harvard Family Research Project. 2007. Find-
clearly highlights, the availability and increased efforts to measure the cumu- ings from HFRP’s study of predictors of
opportunities for accessing free-choice participation in out-of-school time activi-
lative and complementary influences
ties: Fact sheet. http://www.hfrp.org/
science learning experiences are not in- of both in- and out-of-school science content/download/1072/48575/file/find-
dependent of income and geography. learning. However, given that at pres- ings_predictor_OSTfactsheet.pdf
By challenging the assumption that ent school-based science education Horrigan, J. 2006. The Internet as a resource
school is the primary place where efforts receive an order of magnitude for news and information about science.
Americans learn science, our goal is not more resources than free-choice learn- Washington, D.C.: Pew Internet & Ameri-
to diminish the importance and value ing options, even a modest change in can Life Project.
of schooling, but rather to suggest that this ratio could make a huge difference. Rahm, J., J. C. Moore and M.-P. Martel-Reny.
what goes on in the other 95 percent of The data suggest it would be a wise 2005. The role of afterschool and community
a citizen’s life may be equally impor- investment. science programs in the lives of urban youth.
School Science and Mathematics 105(6):283–291.
tant, and possibly more important to
increasing science literacy among the Taylor, S. 2008. School science and its controver-
public. Although we are not advocating Bibliography sies; or, whatever happened to scientific liter-
Bell, P., B. Lewenstein, A. W. Shouse, and M. A. acy? Public Understanding of Science 17:55–72.
any diminishment in the efforts to im-
Feder, eds. 2009. Learning Science in Informal
prove and expand school-based science Environments: People, Places, and Pursuits. The
education, we do strongly propose that National Academies Press, Washington. D.C.
it is time to seriously question whether, Bowles, A., and B. Brand. 2009. Learning For relevant Web links, consult this
in the 21st century, schooling should Around the Clock: Benefits of Expanded Learn- issue of American Scientist Online:
continue to be viewed as the most im- ing Opportunities for Older Youth. Washing-
http://www.americanscientist.org/
portant and effective mechanism for ton, D.C.: American Youth Policy Forum.
issues/id.87/past.aspx
advancing the public’s scientific interest Dierking. L. D. 2007. Linking after-school pro-
and understanding. grams and STEM learning: A view from
www.americanscientist.org © 2010 Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Society. Reproduction 2010 November–December 493
with permission only. Contact perms@amsci.org.