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THE CLIMATE OF TALL BUILDINGS :
AN INVESTIGATION OF BUILDING HEIGHT IN BIO-CLIMATIC
DESIGN
Table of Contents
1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 6
1.1 Introduction to the Topic ................................................................................. 6
1.2 Reasons for the Study .................................................................................... 7
1.3 Previous Related Studies of Building Height and Sustainable Design................ 7
1.4 Organisation of the Study ............................................................................... 7
2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES & METHODOLOGY .......................................................... 9
2.1 Key Objectives of the Research Report ........................................................... 9
2.2 Scope of study - definitions of tall buildings ...................................................... 9
2.3 Methodology for sourcing vertical climate data................................................. 9
2.4 Methodology for thermal imaging studies....................................................... 10
3 LITERATURE REVIEW OF VARIATIONS IN MICRO-CLIMATE WITH INCREASING
HEIGHT ABOVE THE GROUND ........................................................................... 12
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 12
3.2 Climate scale and sources of measurements................................................. 12
3.3 Urban influences on rural micro-climate......................................................... 12
3.4 Variations in solar radiation with increasing height ......................................... 13
3.5 Variations in air temperature with increasing height ........................................ 14
3.6 Variations in humidity with increasing height .................................................. 16
3.7 Variations in wind velocity and direction with increasing height ....................... 17
3.8 Variations in building infiltration with increasing height .................................... 19
3.9 Variations in air pressure with increasing height ............................................. 19
3.10 Variations in rainfall with increasing height..................................................... 20
3.11 Variations in building energy usage with increasing height .............................. 21
3.12 Variations in embodied energy usage with increasing height........................... 22
3.13 Summary .................................................................................................... 23
3.13.1 Nature and gradients of micro-climates in rural and urban areas ......... 23
3.13.2 Effect of building height on energy usage and internal micro-climates in
tall buildings .................................................................................... 24
4 FIELD MEASUREMENTS OF VARIATIONS IN FAÇADE THERMAL RADIANT
TEMPERATURES WITH INCREASING HEIGHT ABOVE THE GROUND................ 26
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 26
4.2 Time and weather conditions ........................................................................ 26
4.3 Image results & observations ........................................................................ 27
4.3.1 Eastern elevation............................................................................. 27
4.3.2 Northern elevation ........................................................................... 28
4.3.3 Western elevation............................................................................ 29
4.3.4 South elevation ............................................................................... 30
4.3.5 North elevation podium .................................................................... 31
4.4 Summary of variations and gradients of radiant temperature changes in field
study........................................................................................................... 31
5 ANALYSIS OF VERTICAL MICRO-CLIMATE DATA FROM THE LITERATURE
REVIEW & FIELD STUDY..................................................................................... 33
5.1 Analysis of vertical climate data and principles from the literature review......... 33
5.1.1 Classification of vertical climate zones .............................................. 36
5.2 Analysis of thermal imaging of the MLC Centre.............................................. 36
5.3 Diagrammatic analysis of the effects of building height on micro-climate &
building characteristics................................................................................. 38
5.4 Case study of the application of temperature lapse rate to HVAC design in the
Freedom Tower ........................................................................................... 39
5.5 Summary of analysis for tall buildings in urban locations................................. 40
Peter St. Clair 1 24/02/2010

6 DISCUSSION & POSSIBLE APPLICATIONS OF BUILDING HEIGHT TO THE BIO-
CLIMATIC DESIGN OF TALL BUILDINGS ............................................................ 42
6.1 Discussion of vertical micro-climate characteristics & atmospheric processes .. 42
6.1.1 Patterns of micro-climate in urban areas – the case for the use of
building height in bio-climatic design................................................. 42
6.1.2 Variability of micro-climate in urban areas - the case against the use of
building height ................................................................................. 43
6.2 Possible applications of building height & the “vertical micro-climate” to Bio-
Climatic Design ........................................................................................... 44
6.2.1 Building operational energy performance .......................................... 44
6.2.2 Building performance and durability .................................................. 45
6.2.3 Building energy generation............................................................... 45
6.2.4 Building types and locations ............................................................. 48
6.3 Bio-climatic design tactics for tall buildings based upon building height............ 48
6.4 Relationship of building height & vertical micro-climate to other aspects of
sustainable development .............................................................................. 52
6.5 Summary of potential applications to bio-climatic design................................. 52
7 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................... 53
7.1 Implications ................................................................................................. 53
7.2 Future research ........................................................................................... 55
8 APPENDIX............................................................................................................... 56
8.1 Additional field measurement data ................................................................ 56
8.1.1 Eastern Elevation ............................................................................ 56
8.1.2 Northern elevation ........................................................................... 56
8.1.3 West elevation................................................................................. 56
8.1.4 South elevation ............................................................................... 56
8.1.5 North elevation podium .................................................................... 57
9 REFERENCES ......................................................................................................... 58

List of Figures
Figure 1 – Ken Yeang’s proposal for the Tokyo Nara Tower of 180 storeys .......................... 5
Figure 2 – 350 m radius study area surrounding MLC Centre in Sydney CBD..................... 11
Figure 3 – Urban canopy layer and urban boundary layer .................................................. 13
Figure 4 - The affect of solar radiation on tall buildings ...................................................... 13
Figure 5 - Additional reflection & absorption of sunlight & shade around tall buildings .......... 14
Figure 6 - Diurnal variation of temperature lapse rate in a rural environment ....................... 14
Figure 7 – Influence of seasons and weather on temperature variation near the ground ...... 15
Figure 8 – Decreasing temperature fluctuation with height above the ground ...................... 15
Figure 9 – The effect of wind on temperature gradients (lapse rates).................................. 16
Figure 10 - Water vapour stratification in the lowest 100m on clear days ............................ 16
Figure 11 - Diurnal variation of wind speed at different heights........................................... 17
Figure 12 – Reduction in wind speeds due to terrain roughness......................................... 18
Figure 13 – Effects of building type and height on wind turbines......................................... 18
Figure 14 - Wind flow around a tall building ...................................................................... 19
Figure 15 - Mass air flow with varying wind speeds & increasing building height ................. 19
Figure 16 - Stack effect for idealized building .................................................................... 20
Figure 17 – Driving rain intensity on a tall building ............................................................. 21
Figure 18– Annual electricity consumption in a 12 storey apartment building ...................... 22
Figure 19 – Relationship of energy use & building height in Hong Kong commercial buildings
...................................................................................................................................... 22
Figure 20 – Embodied energy variation with increasing height ........................................... 23
Figure 21 – Relationship of building height and weight ...................................................... 23
Figure 22 – The MLC Centre looking north with denser building clusters beyond ................ 26
Figure 23 – Time and weather conditions ......................................................................... 26
Figure 24 – Digital and IR image of MLC Centre east elevation.......................................... 27
Figure 25 – Vertical radiant temperatures ......................................................................... 27
Figure 26 – Digital and IR image of MLC Centre north elevation ........................................ 28
Figure 28 – Digital and IR image of MLC Centre west elevation ......................................... 29
Figure 30 – Digital and IR image of MLC Centre south elevation ........................................ 30
Figure 32 – Digital and IR image of MLC Centre podium north elevation............................. 31
Figure 34 – Analysis of effects of building height on vertical micro-climate.......................... 39
Figure 35 – Freedom Tower by SOM ............................................................................... 40
Figure 36 – Urban climate zones by Stewart and Oke ....................................................... 43
Figure 37 – Approaches to bio-climatic design & enhanced bio-climatic design ................... 44
Figure 38 - DMC Tower ................................................................................................... 46
Figure 39- The Pearl River Tower .................................................................................... 47
Figure 40 – Electricity potential for increasing floor numbers and locations ......................... 47
Figure 41 – Thermal imaging data summary (east elevation) ............................................. 56
Figure 42 – Thermal imaging data summary (north elevation) ............................................ 56
Figure 43 – Thermal imaging data summary (west elevation)............................................. 56
Figure 44 – Thermal imaging data summary (south elevation) ........................................... 56
Figure 45 – Thermal imaging data summary (north elevation podium) ................................ 57

List of Tables
Table 1 – Analysis of vertical micro-climate characteristics in rural and urban locations from
the literature review & field measurements ....................................................................... 33
Table 2 – Summary of thermal imaging data for the MLC Centre considering only the subject
building facades.............................................................................................................. 37
Table 3 – Summary of thermal imaging data for the MLC Centre considering the subject
building facades & adjacent low rise building facades........................................................ 37
Table 4- Conceptual bio-climatic tactics for tall building elements, form and fabric............... 49
Acknowledgements
Krishna Munsami for his technical expertise and use of thermal photography equipment.
Haico Schepers from Arup for initial discussions of ideas.
Chris Arkins from Steenson Varming for discussions of mechanical engineering design
methods and possible applications of vertical climate.

Figure 1 – Ken Yeang’s proposal for the Tokyo Nara Tower of 180 storeys
(Johnson 2004, p108)

1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction to the Topic
In tropical cities such as Singapore the climate above the urban canopy is milder and not subject
to the same temperature and humidity as at street level where solar radiation is absorbed by the
ground (Beedle, Ali & Armstrong 2007). These improved comfort conditions may provide
opportunities for low energy solutions such as passive cooling whilst also promoting outdoor
living. In Hong Kong where residents’ desires for better views and increased access to daylight
and fresh air have been a principle driver for increases in building height, the higher levels of
buildings are sought after. In cold climates such as in Moscow the lower levels of tall buildings
can provide better living conditions where the higher levels over-heat due to vertical pressure
differences causing mechanically warmed air to rise through stairs and shafts.
External conditions that vary with height include the surrounding building densities and heights,
day lighting levels and reflections from roof tops. The internal character of tall buildings change
with height through varying structural requirements, window to wall ratios, levels of privacy and
outlook. The opportunities to harness the wind and sun for renewable energy are also reported to
increase with additional height above the ground. On the other hand the embodied energy of
materials increases and floor area and cost efficiencies decrease with increased height above the
ground as a result of the increasing structural demands.
Tall buildings consist of many external and internal conditions that vary incrementally with
increased height above the ground. This is distinctly different to low -rise buildings that are
exposed to a limited number of micro-climatic variations at ground level. The use of micro-
climatic design in low-rise buildings is well established where local variations in soil conditions,
topography and vegetation result in varying solar access, temperature, airflow and humidity wind
patterns. In this case bio-climatic design applies the varying horizontal micro-climate conditions
through climate matching tactics such as site planning, correct orientation and variations in
façade and material type to reduce operational energy usage and improve human comfort.
Bio-climatic design tactics for tall buildings are largely undifferentiated from those employed for
low-rise buildings responding primarily to orientation and not height above the ground. This is in
contrast to the structural design of tall buildings which must consider varying external forces
such as wind loads that result from increasing wind speeds with height. Architectural and
environmental control solutions rarely respond to building height and instead provide uniform
facades from the ground to roof level.
This report investigates the nature and gradient of vertical changes in micro-climate and
atmospheric processes to consider if they support new or enhanced tactics for bio-climatic
design. It evaluates the application of building height to the bio-climatic design of tall buildings
through the use of micro-climatology, urban climatology and thermal imaging. The report
integrates results of past related studies and considers case study examples.
The basis of this investigation is Rudolf Geiger’s seminal work ‘The Climate Near the Ground’
which presents hundreds of studies by micro-climatologists from the time of it’s first edition in
1927 to more recent studies included in the 2009 edition. This includes measurements of vertical
changes in climate with increasing distance from the ground. The additional influences of the
urban environment on the vertical climate are investigated based upon research by Oke and other
urban climatologists who identified the Urban Heat Island effect. More recently Stewart and Oke
have developed a system for classifying local climates in cities that may assist with the assessment
of tall building micro-climates on urban sites. The study includes field measurements of thermal
radiant temperature of a 228m tall commercial building in the Sydney CBD. The vertical climate
of rural areas and urban areas are compared with these field measurements to determine if
applications exist to the bio-climatic design of tall buildings typically located in urban locations.
The report concludes with a series of conceptual bio-climatic design tactics related to building
height that will form the basis of proposed future research and development and may contribute
to a design primer for architects and engineers.

1.2 Reasons for the Study
This study seeks to make a contribution to the field of ecologically sustainable design by
promoting a climate responsive design model for tall buildings. This can contribute to climate
mitigation, improved human health and a regionally appropriate model for tall buildings in the
developed and developing world. Specific reasons include:
1. The 21st century will be unique in seeing an unprecedented growth in man-made climate
change. During the next three decades, the world population is expected to increase
from 6.1 to 8.1 billion (Roth 2009 p1) with much of this growth concentrated in tall
buildings in urban areas located in less developed countries.
2. Tall buildings generate a significant level of green house gases due to their high
dependency upon air conditioning and lighting and the high embodied energy content of
their special structural systems. These systems can lead to an energy usage double that of
a low-rise building of the same area (Roaf 2005, p247, 256).
3. Climate sensitive design can cut heating and cooling energy use by 60% in commercial
buildings and 70% in residential buildings and so may represent the single largest means
to reduce the environmental impact of buildings (Roodman & Lenssen 1995 pp33, 38,
39).
4. Global reductions in energy supply and access may reduce the continuing viability of
total HVAC solutions in tall buildings. Lower energy models that harness and modify
the micro-climate may provide necessary alternatives.
5. There is an absence of meteorological information and performance guidelines regarding
vertical surfaces in cities (Oliver 2005).
6. Much of the bio-climatic design literature considers low-rise buildings. The literature
related to tall buildings distinguishes bio-climatic design strategies by climate zone and
does not consider building height.
1.3 Previous Related Studies of Building Height and Sustainable Design
1. Ken Yeang and engineers Battle McCarthy described generic changes in structural and
environmental conditions with increased height for the Nara Tower, an unbuilt project
of eighty storeys in Tokyo (Richards 2001, p72, 73).
2. Leung and Weismantle of SOM examined the application of temperature lapse rates to
super tall buildings showing reductions in energy usage through the use of Energy Plus
modelling of multiple vertical and horizontal compartments. Whilst the focus of the
paper is on HVAC design they conclude with suggestions for architectural treatments
(Leung and Weismantle 2008).
3. Guthrie of Arup reviewed the relationship of tall buildings and renewable energy
showing that whilst winds increase with height this may not support building integrated
wind generation (Guthrie 2008).
4. Ronald reviewed a broad range of related issues asking the question “How tall is a
sustainable building?”. He concludes there is not adequate research available to
determine this and few tools and models with which to optimise the benefits of height
against the greater resource usage required for tall buildings (Ronald 2008).
1.4 Organisation of the Study
Chapter 2 describes the research objectives, methodologies and definition of tall buildings
employed in this study. Chapter 3 reviews vertical micro-climatic principles and data from the
literature related to natural and urban environments and the internal micro-climates of tall
buildings. Chapter 4 provides field measurements of the vertical distribution of thermal radiant
temperatures in a 228m high commercial building in the Sydney metropolitan centre. Chapter 5
analyses relationships between the literature and field measurements in the context of bio-
climatic design. Chapter 6 discusses the case for and against the use of vertical climate principles

and possible applications to bio-climatic design. It provides conceptual building tactics that with
further development may provide a design primer for building design professionals. Chapter 7
presents the conclusions and identifies further research necessary to establish if the vertical
micro-climate concept can contribute to practical and verifiable climate mitigation applications in
tall buildings.

2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES & METHODOLOGY
2.1 Key Objectives of the Research Report
The objectives of this report are to:
1. Investigate the nature and gradient of changes in vertical climate in the natural and urban
environments as documented by micro-climatologists and urban climatologists and
analyse possible applications to the bio-climatic design of tall buildings. Consider how
these climatic characteristics may vary to those of low-rise buildings.
2. Investigate the effect of building height on energy usage and explore if increasing
building height could reduce operational energy usage and off-set the increased
operational and embodied energy inherent in taller structures.
3. Measure the quantitative effects of building height on the outdoor temperature of a tall
building in an urban area and compare the results to the principles and data determined
from the literature review.
4. Assess the value and applications of vertical micro-climate to the bio -climatic design of
tall buildings based on the extent of evidence. Develop conceptual bio-climatic building
tactics based upon building height as a design primer for architects and as a basis for
future research.
5. Build upon previous related studies of building height by considering the application of
micro-climatology and thermal imaging not seen in the literature and considering the
implications to architects.
2.2 Scope of study - definitions of tall buildings
Definitions of tall buildings can help to identify the differences between tall buildings and low
rise buildings. The Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat does not define tall buildings in
terms of the number of floors but by “whether or not the design, operation or urban impact are
influenced by the quality of tallness and require special measures in planning, design and
construction when compared with buildings representative of ordinary construction” (Beedle
1978, p7). Other tall building characteristics that distinguish them from low-rise buildings include
high net density (ratio of floor space to area of site) and a building height that extends above the
urban canopy.
Yeang provides a definition for skyscrapers as ‘essentially a tall building with a small footprint
and small roof area with tall facades’ (Yeang 1999, p24). His definition distinguishes between
skyscrapers, medium-rise and low -rise buildings however common to Beedle he differentiates tall
buildings by their special structural and engineering systems that result from their height.
ASHRAE defines tall buildings as those higher than 91m (Ellis, Torcellini 2005). Buildings taller
than 305 m are commonly referred to as “super tall”.
The definition employed for this report is by the British Council for Office Tall Buildings
Working Party which defines tall buildings as ‘a tall building is not a low building that is simply
extruded vertically, but one that is differently designed’. Importantly the threshold at which tall
buildings become technically distinct is identified as 20 storeys (approximately 80 metres). Step
changes occur in construction costs with increasing building height where for example structural
design must be enhanced and area efficiencies and economic returns are reduced with every
additional 10-20 levels (Strelitz 2005, pp7-9).
2.3 Methodology for sourcing vertical climate data
Little literature exists on the applications of vertical changes in climate to building design. The
methodology is therefore to identify principles and data from disciplines including micro-
climatology, urban and building climatology, atmospheric sciences and services engineering. This
includes detail meteorological data by Geiger typically measured in rural areas, climatic and
thermodynamic principles describing the moderating effects of cities by Oke, gradient scales such

as the Beaufort Wind Scale which consider terrain roughness and the International Standard
Atmosphere. Conceptual investigations by Battle McCarthy for the experimental design of the
Tokyo Nara Tower are reviewed which consists of diagrams with brief notes but without
scientific references.
2.4 Methodology for thermal imaging studies
The objective of the field study was to draw conclusions regarding the effects of urban
conditions on the vertical variations and gradients of air temperature shown by micro-
climatologists in the natural environment. Thermal imaging measures radiant temperature which
is the energy emitted from heat sources in the environment such as facades and roads. Measuring
the external radiant temperatures of facades provides some correlations with air temperature.
This is a key factor in determining the suitability of passive strategies such as natural ventilation
and the use of thermal mass. Thermal imaging also provides complete data for all points within
the image that could not be achieved with thermometers. Radiant temperatures also provide an
indication of sol-air temperatures and the associated heat transfer through facades giving an
indication of how cooling loads may vary with building height.
The building selected was the MLC Centre in the Sydney CBD which at the time of its
completion was the tallest building in the world outside of North America. At 228m it remains
one of the tallest buildings in the world constructed of reinforced concrete and was Sydney's
tallest office building from 1977 to 1992
(http://www.emporis.com/application/?nav=building&lng=3&id=108161). It was selected for
this study due to it:
 Being the second tallest building in the Sydney CBD it provides the opportunity to
measure temperature from street level to a point above the urban canopy due to the
surrounding lower height buildings.
 The MLC Centre contains a variety of frontages to enclosed streets, open urban spaces
and closely positioned buildings of a variety of heights providing the opportunity to
measure temperature to facades that vary in exposure to building density and solar
radiation.
 The relatively high degree of openness surrounding the building provides the
opportunity for full height images of the building and adjacent buildings and streets
from a variety of locations.
 The octagonal plan shape and uniform elevation design removes self shading effects that
may otherwise be caused to solar access and wind movement. The elevations are
oriented towards the eight 8 cardinal directions allowing the effects of sun movement on
differently oriented facades to be considered.
The methodology used for the photography was to calculate the distance required from the
building based on focal length and scribe a 350m radius around the building (Figure 2). Four
locations were then identified to the north, west, south and east from which to photograph the
building. The photography was completed on a warm day with low -medium wind speeds typical
of a summer’s day in Sydney. The time selected was from 7.15pm onwards which was
immediately after sunset. The camera equipment used was a Flir B660.

Figure 2 – 350 m radius study area surrounding MLC Centre in Sydney CBD
(1- Camera position for east elevation, 21- Camera position for north elevation, 3- Camera position for west elevation,
4 - Camera position for south elevation)

3 LITERATURE REVIEW OF VARIATIONS IN MICRO-CLIMATE WITH
INCREASING HEIGHT ABOVE THE GROUND
3.1 Introduction
Micro-climatology is considered a sub-division of climatology. Oliver defines this as the scientific
study of micro-climates focused on the atmospheric layer between the ground and a point at
which the effects of the ground features such as vegetation cover, slope and building density
cannot be distinguished from local climate. Micro-climates extend vertically from just below the
ground to several hundred metres above the ground during the night and to approximately one
kilometre above the ground during the day when the effect of solar radiation is greatest. The
horizontal extent of micro-climate is considered to extend from several millimetres to one
kilometre (Oliver 2005, p486).
The scale of climate most commonly applied to bio-climatic design is meso-climate which
dictates mean solar radiation, temperatures and rainfall across a region. However there is less
attention paid to the local climate or micro-climate. Page shows this is of particular importance in
the design of tall buildings where there are significant variations in local climate dependent upon
building density and height contributing to the Urban Heat Island (UHI) (Page 1973).
The literature related to micro-climatology in rural areas provides extensive data within a variety
of climate zones. This section will review this literature to determine if this can contribute to the
bio-climatic design of tall buildings based on building height. The additional influences of the
urban environment are also investigated although less meteorological data exists describing
variations in vertical climate in urban areas (Page 1973, p63). This is partly advanced by Stewart
and Oke’s new classification system (Stewart & Oke 2009) although actual vertical meteorology
in cities is scarce.
3.2 Climate scale and sources of measurements
Geiger describes all meteorological elements as being subject to change with vertical height and
horizontal distance due to the varying effect of the ground (Geiger 1973). Whereas the principle
zone of micro-climatic influence in a low rise building is horizontal the principle zone for a tall
building is vertical. Varieties of literature describe different scales and characteristics of vertical
micro-climates and are relevant to the micro-climate of tall buildings. These are categorised as:
1. External micro-climate in the lowest 100m - Geiger provides a summary of research data
based on the lowest 100m of the atmosphere on natural and level sites without
vegetation.
2. External micro-climate in the boundary layer up to 1000m – Oke, Page and Lowry
describes the general influences of the urban environment on micro-climate as a result of
the local configuration of urban spaces, streets and buildings.
3. External micro-climate of the standard atmosphere - The International Standard
Atmosphere (ISA) provides an atmospheric model of how the air pressure, temperature,
density, and viscosity of the Earth's atmosphere change over a wide range of altitudes. It
consists of tables of values at various altitudes.
4. Internal micro-climate – Field tests have studied the effects of the stack effect, wind and
air pressure on the internal vertical environments of tall buildings such as those by
Diamond of the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory.
3.3 Urban influences on rural micro-climate
Tall buildings are primarily located in urban and suburban locations and so the influence of the
city on rural micro-climates is important to the study of the climate of tall buildings. Tall
buildings in groups cause their own micro-climates (Beedle, Ali & Armstrong 2007, p218) which
are effected by urban geometry, surface thermal properties and human made waste heat inputs
(Emmanuel 2005, p.24). Oke distinguishes between two vertical strata being the urban canopy
(the zone from the ground to the average height of buildings) and the urban boundary layer
above that can extend up to 1000m as seen in Figure 3. Whilst winds are light the boundary layer

is mostly influenced by the ground conditions and can lead to significant vertical differences in
climate character such as air temperature. Temperatures are less tied to surface features in the
case of stronger winds caused by larger scale weather systems w hich can mix the atmosphere and
remove small scale differences or micro-climatic effects (Oke 1978, p5).
Figure 3 – Urban canopy layer and urban boundary layer

(Lowry 1991, p135)
3.4 Variations in solar radiation with increasing height

Solar radiation is a function of meso-climate however can vary locally through changes in
altitude, surface albedo and pollution levels (Geiger 1973, p442-447). The absorption and
emission of solar radiation by the ground surface forms the greatest effect on the lower
atmosphere in a rural environment.
Solar radiation levels in cities are reduced due to polluted urban atmospheres however this is
typically counteracted by reduced surface albedo leading to only minor variations to the solar
gains experienced in the rural environment (Oke 1974, pp4, 17). Exposure to solar radiation is
influenced by building clustering, density and height leading to shade and reflection from
adjacent buildings (Figure 4, Figure 5). The areas of a tall building above the urban canopy layer
will typically receive greater solar radiation than below the urban canopy which may be shaded
for portions of the year due to greater exposure and reflections from adjacent rooftops (Givoni
1998). Additional solar radiation is received by vertical surfaces (facades) in urban areas from low
altitude sun in the morning and evening than would be the case in a natural environment (Oke
1974, p18). The ability of building mass to cool at night time through radiation to the sky is
reduced by the sky view factor meaning that denser building clusters will experience greater heat
retention at night time as seen in Figure 4 (Lowry 1991, p141).
Figure 4 - The affect of solar radiation on tall buildings

(Emmanuel 2005, p25)

Figure 5 - Additional reflection & absorption of sunlight & shade around tall buildings
(Lowry 1991, p135)
Leung and Weismantle describe solar radiation as increasing 4 -5% with each additional 300m of
building height under clear sky conditions (Leung & Weismantle 2008, p6).
3.5 Variations in air temperature with increasing height
In natural environments the temperature of the air layer near the ground is determined by the
surface conditions, the transport of heat upwards and the extent of air mixing regardless of the
effects of the surrounding area (Geiger 1973, p68). This temperature is graded vertically from
warmer at the surface to cooler higher in the atmosphere. This vertical gradient is known as the
temperature lapse rate or the rate of decrease in temperature with height.
In Figure 6 Geiger shows that daily patterns, temperature ranges and peak temperature times vary
with the distance above the ground. Peak temperatures are delayed further into the afternoon
with increasing height and with seasonal influences where they can be delayed by between 1 and
2 hours in winter (Geiger 1973, p70, 71). Figure 7 shows that the variation of temperature lapse
rate and the shifting of the peak temperature at heights up to 17m are much higher on bright
days than cloudy days.
Figure 6 - Diurnal variation of temperature lapse rate in a rural environment

(Geiger 1973, p73)
Figure 7 also demonstrates that the temperature lapse rate changes diurnally typically sitting
between + 2.0 °C (increasing temperature with height) during the night time and -2.0 °C
(decreasing temperature with height) during the afternoon for each 100m of additional height
above the ground for altitudes between 16 m and 61 m. Figure 8 shows that the temperature
lapse rate from the ground to a height of 50m is about 1.5 °C on a clear day and reduced
significantly on over-cast days. At heights above 100m the ground provides less influence on air
temperature and follows the adiabatic lapse rate of approximately 1 °C for each 100m of
additional height (http://www.tpub.com/content/aerographer/14312/css/14312_47.htm).
The Standard Atmosphere model indicates a lapse rate of approximately 1 °C with each 150m of
additional height or 6.5 °C per 1000m (http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/atmosphere/).

Figure 7 – Influence of seasons and weather on temperature variation near the ground
(Geiger 1973, p76)
Figure 8 – Decreasing temperature fluctuation with height above the ground

(Geiger 1973, p76)
The temperature lapse rates to altitudes of 100m are inverted at night time due to the cooling of
the ground commonly causing temperatures to increase with additional height (Geiger 1973,
p80).
Oke shows that the influence of a large city on air temperature can extend up to 200-300m above
the ground and in some cases to 500m and beyond (Oke 1973, p51). The effects of a city on the
vertical temperature gradient are influenced by changes to ground surface character, increased
shade at lower levels and exposure to solar radiation at higher levels, fluctuating wind patterns
and air mixing and the impact of vertical surfaces (walls) upon solar absorption and re- radiation.
Urban Heat Island (UHI) models show that the atmosphere can be contained with an ‘urban
dome’ assuming calm air. In addition to the urban boundary layer and the urban canopy layer
Oke identifies a surface zone from the ground to approximately 50m which is characterised by
unstable temperatures (Oke 1974, p52).
Temperature is also affected by wind velocities particularly from the ground to a height of 2m
where a lack of mobility of air allows the effects of solar radiation absorption and emission to be
maintained (Geiger 1973, p120). Figure 11 shows that the vertical temperature gradient (or lapse
rate) decreases as wind velocity increases during the night time whilst the effects of wind during
the day time are negligible. Changes to air temperature due to the effects of wind reduce with
increasing height.

Figure 9 – The effect of wind on temperature gradients (lapse rates)
(Geiger 1973, p124).
In summary air temperature is shown to reduce with increasing altitude. The temperature lapse
rates may vary in cities with the effects of building clustering and the UHI however studies have
shown rates of between 5.5 and 6 °C per 1000m of height (Oke 1974, p53). The greatest diurnal
and annual variability of temperature is at the ground level. The range of temperatures and the
delay in reaching maximum or minimum temperatures increases with increasing distance from
the ground (Lowry 1991, p17).
3.6 Variations in humidity with increasing height
In the natural environment humidity is influenced by the ground in a similar way to temperature
where evaporation from the ground surface is directed upwards as vapour leading to decreasing
humidity (or vapour pressure) with height (Geiger 1973, p104). Measurements show that the
humidity gradient decreases with additional height above the ground during the day and is subject
to an inversion at night time whereby the humidity increases with height. The levels of humidity
at ground level are subject to much higher variation consistent with the principles described for
temperature variations.
Figure 10 again indicates water vapour pressure decreasing with height and being at lowest levels
at 2.00pm in the afternoon and highest levels at 8.00am in the morning. This phenomenon is
reduced with higher latitude where there is insufficient convection to carry the water vapour
upwards (Geiger 1973, p108). The data demonstrates that variability in humidity is greatest up to
40 – 50m above which the range and gradient of humidity remains more constant.
Figure 10 - Water vapour stratification in the lowest 100m on clear days

(Geiger 1973).

Atmospheric humidity in urban areas is generally lower than in rural areas during the day and
higher than in rural areas during the night time. However the effect of the city on the change in
humidity with height is considered “small in magnitude” by Oke (1974, p58) and Lowry (1991,
p143) although 4-8% less overall than in rural areas (Oke 1991 pp74, 75). Higher levels of shade
near the base of tall buildings, wind downdrafts at building faces and the UHI may influence the
humidity gradient (Oke 1974, p59). Leung and Weismantle also confirm the tendency for
reduced moisture levels with altitude (2008, p6).
In summary it can be expected that the humidity will reduce with increasing altitude during the
day and increase with increasing altitude at night time. The ground plane will experience greater
variation in humidity levels and the stability of humidity increases with additional building height.
3.7 Variations in wind velocity and direction with increasing height
Wind velocity and direction is a result of large-scale differences in air pressure with the flow of
air being from areas of higher pressure to areas of lower pressure. Local winds are small-scale
winds produced by locally generated pressure gradients. Wind speeds at 500m above the ground
are fairly constant however below this height they are affected by the surface of the earth which
acts as brake on the movement of the air (Aynsley 2007, p2). Wind speeds typically increase with
additional height (Lim 1994) and over the course of the day as demonstrated by Figure 11. At
lower levels there is a distinct diurnal pattern in mid latitudes where wind speeds peak at midday
and reduce at night time. At heights above 100 m the reverse is the case with wind speed peaking
during the night and being minimised in the middle of the day.
Figure 11 - Diurnal variation of wind speed at different heights

(Geiger 1973, p115)
Figure 11 also demonstrates that this variation of wind speed is due to the decreasing influence
of the ground at night. Random fluctuation in wind speed and direction also increases with
greater terrain roughness such as varied building heights (ASCE pp5, 7). This can occur within a
timescale of a few seconds or minutes.
In urban areas buildings and topography reduce average wind speeds in the urban canopy layer.
Figure 12 shows that the terrain roughness will reduce the wind speeds at all heights while
maintaining the trend of increasing wind speed with height. For example the reference wind
speed of 100% at 10m altitude at an airport occurs at 30m in a suburban area and at 150m in an
urban area. This logarithmic increase in wind speed with height does not necessarily apply in all
cases where for example wind speed maxima are found between 50m and 120m in Tokyo (WMO
1988, p7).

Figure 12 – Reduction in wind speeds due to terrain roughness
(Aynsley 2007, p2)
The University of Delft have categorised differing urban wind conditions for the purposes of
selecting suitable wind turbines. Figure 13 shows that tall buildings clustered with buildings of
similar heights experience greater changes in wind direction and greater turbulence than tall
buildings that rise above the urban canopy (Smith 2008, p109, 110). The effects of wind
turbulence reduce the effectiveness of wind-turbine performance which prefers a strong laminar
wind where all of the air flows in a single direction
(http://www.buildinggreen.com/auth/article.cfm?fileName=180501a.xml).
Figure 13 – Effects of building type and height on wind turbines

(Smith 2008, p110)
Urban areas shows a higher level of air turbulence by 30-50% but this reduces with increasing
height (Oke 1974, p65). Sharples shows that increased local wind speeds lead to increased
convective heat transfer from the building fabric influencing the heating and cooling loads at
each level (Sharples 1984). Wind direction in the urban boundary layer can change direction by

up to 10-20 ° bending around the city from both sides up to 200-300m (Oke 1974, p68). Cities
also produce updrafts and downdrafts due to their rougher shape and their warmer surfaces as
shown in Figure 14 (Lowry 1991, p147).
Figure 14 - Wind flow around a tall building

(Oke 1987, p269)
In summary it can be seen that wind speeds increase with increasing altitude due to the lessening
influence of the ground and buildings whilst air turbulence decreases with increasing height.
Higher wind speeds with height will also contribute to greater cooling of building fabric by
means of convection and infiltration (Lowry 1991, p140).
3.8 Variations in building infiltration with increasing height
Diamond shows that the flow of air into a building as infiltration varies at different levels of the
building. In medium rise apartments and with high winds air flow increases with height on the
windward facade whereas in low wind conditions the air flow reduces with height. On the other
hand air flow through the façade reduces with height on the lee side of the building (Feustel &
Diamond).
Figure 15 - Mass air flow with varying wind speeds & increasing building height
Windward side (left) and lee side (right) - (http://epb.lbl.gov/homepages/Rick_Diamond/LBNL43642-
roomvent_98.pdf)
3.9 Variations in air pressure with increasing height

Air pressure is the force exerted by the weight of air above and so decreases with additional
height above sea level due to there being less air above to exert a force downwards. The vertical
reduction in external air pressure causes the air to expand forming the basis for the vertical
reduction in air temperature discussed earlier
(http://www.tpub.com/content/aerographer/14312/css/14312_47.htm).
In the urban environment air pressure is further influenced by the effects of wind around
building clusters creating positive and negative air pressure zones related to prevailing wind
directions and speeds. In the case of tall buildings these differences in external air pressure
influence the:
 vertical movement of wind externally in the form of updrafts and downdrafts,

 indoor air pressure differences, driving heat upwards through building voids with air
flow moving from high to low pressure,
 levels of infiltration and ex-filtration through the building envelope due to pressure
differences across the exterior wall.
Figure 16 describes how the pressure differences between the building interior and exterior
together with the building height form a stack effect which drives air vertically (the chimney
effect) and through the building envelope (infiltration and exfiltration) ( http://www.nrc-
cnrc.gc.ca/eng/ibp/irc/cbd/building-digest-104.html).
Warmer indoor air rises up through the building in the heating season and escapes at the top
through openings or leakage. The rising warm air reduces the pressure inside the lower levels of
the building, forcing cold air to infiltrate through openings and leakage. The stack effect is
reversed in the cooling season with air flowing downward within the building but is weaker due
to reduced temperature differences between the interior and exterior.
Figure 16 - Stack effect for idealized building

(http://www.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/eng/ibp/irc/cbd/building-digest-104.html)
3.10 Variations in rainfall with increasing height

The quantity of rainfall in the natural environment varies with altitude as a result of the varying
dewpoint with mid and upper slopes typically receiving more rainfall then lower slopes (Geiger
1973). The trajectory of rain is affected by the local wind speeds and directions and the effects of
the surrounding topography on wind.
In the urban environment the quantity and trajectory of rain is significant and varies with height
and wind speeds. This influences the moisture transfer co-efficient of facades and thereby the
level of heat transfer into buildings (Blocken & Carmeliet 2004). Driving rain also affects the
durability of building materials where moisture enters the building envelope. In Figure 17 Page
shows that in light winds the driving rain intensity is on the roof whilst in strong winds the upper
levels of the windward façade receive the greatest rain intensity. The windward face can receive
more than double the rain intensity than the roof in very high winds. In summary driving rain
intensity increases with increasing building height and wind speed.

Figure 17 – Driving rain intensity on a tall building
(Page 1976, p52)
3.11 Variations in building energy usage with increasing height

The internal micro-climates and energy usage of tall buildings are effected by their external
micro-climate and building height.
Cooling and heating loads are impacted by the combined effects of external air temperature and
solar radiation and the convective influences of wind on the building fabric which vary with
height. Feustel and Diamond show that other influences include pressure driven movement of
heat upwards in tall buildings and levels of infiltration and ex-filtration through facades
(http://epb.lbl.gov/homepages/Rick_Diamond/LBNL43642-roomvent_98.pdf). Therefore the
increasing exposure of tall buildings in the city with increasing height can lead to varying energy
balances at each level of tall buildings.
The energy use patterns of tall buildings are influenced by their building height and floor area.
Cho shows that these factors determine the surface area which is a major contributor to heat
gains and losses through the building envelope. The surface area relative to the floor area and
building volume actually reduces with increased height in buildings of the same floor plate area.
Cho’s study shows that a 30 storey building with a smaller floor plate size will have an increased
surface to volume ratio of 47% when compared to a 90 storey building with a larger floor plate
(Cho 2005, p1007).
Relative to low-rise buildings tall buildings of the same floor area can use double the amount of
energy due to the increasing requirement for lifting of people water and goods (Roaf, Chricton &
Nicol 2005, p256). Approximately half of the energy is used in the operational energy of
buildings. Van den Dobbelsteen shows that for tall buildings above 36 stories the material,
environmental and energy costs increase exponentially and that each floor plate area has an
optimum number of floors (Van den Dobbelsteen et al 2007 p.181, 186).
The maximum height of a building that can be supported by renewable energy is 2-3 stories of
floor area in the case of roof mounted solar technology in a hot climate (Phillips, Beyer & Good
2009, pp34-35). The use of case of façade mounted
Figure 18 demonstrates the pattern of operational energy usage in a 13 storey residential building
in a heating dominated cold climate. Energy use peaks at Level 3 and then reduces vertically until
the upper-most level where the energy use spikes again due to the lack of an insulating level
above.

Figure 18– Annual electricity consumption in a 12 storey apartment building
(http://epb.lbl.gov/homepages/Rick_Diamond/LBNL43642-roomvent_98.pdf)
Energy usage was shown to increase with increasing height in the cooling dominated hot climate
of Hong Kong with HVAC and lift energy showing some step changes in tall buildings at 7-10
levels and again at 25 levels as seen in Figure 19 (Rovers 2008).
Figure 19 – Relationship of energy use & building height in Hong Kong commercial buildings
(http://www.sustainablebuilding.info/post-crash/files/tallbuildings-UIA-paper-010608-rovers.pdf )
Cho’s study showed that energy use per unit area can be less in the case of taller buildings with
wider floor plates than in shorter buildings with smaller floor plates (Cho 2005, pp1007, 1008).
3.12 Variations in embodied energy usage with increasing height
Embodied energy usage is increased per unit of floor area with increasing building height
(Treloar et al 2001) as seen in Figure 20. This is attributed to the greater requirement for
structural steel content for stiffening and can be seen most clearly in the upper floors.

Figure 20 – Embodied energy variation with increasing height
(Treloar et al 2001, p210)
In Figure 21 Ali shows that the average weight of steel per square foot increases with increased
height. Studies of real buildings including the Commerzbank in Frankfurt, show a significant
reduction in the efficiency of materials with increasing height and that at 36 levels the loads for
both energy and materials start increasing exponentially (Van den Dobbelsteen et al 2007).
Figure 21 – Relationship of building height and weight

(http://www.sustainablebuilding.info/post-crash/files/tallbuildings-UIA-paper-010608-rovers.pdf )
3.13 Summary
The following conclusions are drawn for this chapter against the study objectives:
3.13.1 Nature and gradients of micro-climates in rural and urban areas
1. Oke and Geiger identify a number of broad vertical climate zones in rural and urban
environments that may be significant to the bio-climatic design of tall buildings:
 roughness layer at a 0 – 2 m
 turbulent surface layer at 0 - 50m (reducing to a few metres at night time)
 the urban canopy layer (from ground level to the average height of buildings)
 the micro-climate layer most influenced by the ground at 0 – 100m
 the urban boundary layer extending from the average height of buildings to between 200
and 500m
2. Climatic conditions in the natural environment vary significantly with height with the
widest ranges being closer to the ground. Changes with height include reduced air

temperature, air pressure and humidity with increased height. These result from
atmospheric processes such as the temperature lapse rate and additional influences of
the ground within the lowest 100m. The gradients of change are greatest within the
lower 100m due to the influence of the ground with reductions in air temperature up to
3 °C per 100m after which the atmospheric lapse rate of 1.0 °C per 100m applies. Wind
speeds and solar radiation increase with additional height. Humidity reduces with height
with the greatest variability being within 40-50m above the ground.
3. The range of climate conditions in the natural environment and the vertical gradient of
climatic change varies at different heights above the ground. Proximity to the ground
leads to a greater range of diurnal and annual conditions (more extremes) but a slower
rate of change (more stable). Greater distance from the ground leads to a reduced range
of climatic conditions and vertical gradients of change. The speed of weather change is
described as being faster higher above the ground by McCarthy (Richards 2001). This
may be supported by Geiger’s data that shows higher altitudes to be less affected by the
stabilising influence of the ground.
4. The urban environment influences the vertical climate patterns that exist in the natural
environment. Changes with height in the urban environment are shown to be more
complex due to the development of multiple micro-climates in and around building
clusters and as a result of the UHI. Oke shows for example that the influence of a large
city on air temperature can extend to between 200 and 500m above the ground. Air
temperature is shown to reduce with increasing altitude as is the case in natural
environments however the lapse rate is more variable in urban environments. Humidity
is also shown to reduce with increased height to a similar level as in the natural
environment. Wind speed was shown to increase with height however at differing rates
to those in the natural environment due to the effects of buildings whilst turbulence will
decrease with height. Winds accelerate at the urban canopy level leading to increased
driving rain exposure on facades. Varying air pressures between the top and bottom of
tall buildings can lead to high speed vertical winds not present in the natural
environment. Solar radiation levels increase with height although more significantly solar
exposure is modified at lower levels by street canyons providing shade and at higher
levels by rooftops providing reflected solar radiation.
5. Considerations that were not reviewed include natural light, traffic noise, and carbon
dioxide, air pollution such as sulphur dioxide, dust and electro-magnetic interference and
in certain climates mosquitoes. Each of these characteristics may also vary with height,
location and time of day and may further influence the quality of the outdoor and indoor
micro-climate.
3.13.2 Effect of building height on energy usage and internal micro-climates in tall
buildings
1. Internal micro-climates in tall buildings are influenced by external conditions such as
changing temperature and air pressure differences which increase with height and
contribute to façade infiltration and ex-filtration. Higher wind speeds with height will
contribute to greater cooling of the building fabric. Increasing levels of energy are
required to move air and water per m2 with increased height although reduced air
pressure with height can reduce fan energy in HVAC systems.
2. Operational energy usage is shown to increase with increased building height in hot
climates due mostly to increased HVAC and lift energy. The energy use has been shown
to reduce at each level toward the roof in a low-rise tower in a cold climate partly due to
the stack effect causing infiltration of cold air at lower levels, the upward movement of
hot air and ex-filtration at upper levels.
3. Embodied energy use increases with increased building height with step changes in
material efficiencies at 7 – 10 and 25 storeys due to the requirement for higher strength
materials and greater use of steel reinforcing.

4. Access to cooler and cleaner air for natural and mechanical ventilation and sunlight for
PV generation increases with increased building height and clearance from the urban
canopy. Whilst wind speeds increase with height this does not necessarily provide
suitable laminar flow for roof mounted wind turbines and may not increase effective
wind power generation.
5. The effects of solar radiation, building shading and the stack effect on the internal
micro-climate of tall buildings suggests that higher temperatures and cooling loads will
be experienced at the upper levels and lower temperatures at lower levels. Conversely
lower heating loads have been shown in winter to upper building levels in a cold climate
due to rising heat from the stack effect and increased infiltration of cold air at lower
levels.

4 FIELD MEASUREMENTS OF VARIATIONS IN FAÇADE THERMAL
RADIANT TEMPERATURES WITH INCREASING HEIGHT ABOVE THE
GROUND
4.1 Introduction
Air temperature is a key component of vertical climate and is critical to the application of passive
and HVAC design strategies. Whilst the temperature lapse rate is systematic and relatively
constant in the natural environment as shown by Geiger the literature reviewed does not detail
lapse rates in urban areas. These may vary due to the influence sky view factor, building heights
and densities, albedo, shading and the extent of man made heat sources such as traffic on the
micro-climate and UHI (Stewart p9). Thermal imaging was completed of the MLC Centre
measuring thermal radiant temperatures to provide a comparison with the rural micro-climate air
temperature data and determine the level of influence of the UHI dome vertically by measuring
vertical temperature gradients at different levels in the same way as shown by Geiger in rural
areas.
The MLC Centre is constructed of pre-cast concrete with recessed banded windows. The plan
shape is octagonal providing eight elevations each facing a cardinal direction. The building is
raised on retail podium of three stories and separated from other buildings over 100m in height
by several city blocks (Figure 22). It forms the tallest building in a cluster of lower buildings
between 50m and 100m in height. Images were taken between 7.15pm and 8.30pm on a warm
summer day with a partly overcast sky on the 19th November 2009 being early summer. Sunrise
had occurred at 5.41am and sunset at 7.39pm.
Figure 22 – The MLC Centre looking north with denser building clusters beyond
(http://www.sydneyarchitecture.com/images/CBD- PIC_0071.JPG)
4.2 Time and weather conditions

5 PM 8 PM
Temperature (C) 28 25
Dew Point (C) 19 18
Humidity 57% 67%
Wind 18 km/h NE 16 km/h NNE
Conditions Mostly Cloudy Overcast
Precipitation 0% 0%
Cloud Cover 82% 100%
Figure 23 – Time and weather conditions
(http://www.google.com/ig?hl=en&gl=#max8 (Viewed 19th November 2009))

4.3 Image results & observations
4.3.1 Eastern elevation
26.6 °C
26
25
24
Sp1
23
Sp3 22
21
Sp2
20
Li2 Li1 19.9
Figure 24 – Digital and IR image of MLC Centre east elevation

View from east at 7.50pm
Figure 25 – Vertical radiant temperatures

Temperatures plotted from ground level (left) to roof (right)
Figure 25 shows a variation in façade radiant temperature from 27.0 °C at the ground level of
adjacent buildings to 21.9 °C at roof level of the MLC Centre. The temperature at the lowest
point on the subject façade not obstructed by adjacent buildings measured 23.3 °C at
approximately 90m. This represents a vertical gradient of -1.0 °C with each 100m for the upper
levels which is consistent with the adiabatic lapse rate. The lower levels of the subject building
are obscured and provide no measurements however adjacent south facing low rise buildings
demonstrate temperatures between 25.5 °C at roof levels and 27.0 °C at ground level
representing a vertical gradient of 1.58 °C with each 100m for the lower levels.
Other observations include the variation in temperatures with façade material where ranges of
0.5 - 1.0 °C are seen between opaque spandrel panels and recessed glazing in the subject building.

Figure 24 clearly shows the upper levels of the MLC Centre façade to be up to 3.0 - 4.0 °C cooler
than the facades of the adjacent low-rise buildings.
4.3.2 Northern elevation
26.6 °C
26
25
24
Sp3
Sp2 23
22
21
Sp1 Li2 20.0

Li1
Figure 26 – Digital and IR image of MLC Centre north elevation


Figure 27 shows a variation in radiant temperature on the north-east facing façade from 26.0 °C
at the ground level to 21.4 °C at roof level. This represents an average vertical gradient of – 2.1
°C with each 100m over the full height of the MLC Centre. The temperature at approximately
120m on the north facade measured 23.2 °C representing a vertical gradient of -1.66 °C with
each 100m for the upper levels of the subject building which is higher than the adiabatic lapse
rate.

Other interesting observations in Figure 26 and Figure 27 include the difference in the
temperatures of downward facing soffits which are 3.0 °C warmer than the adjacent outward
facing parapets. Glazing is shown at below 20 °C and down to 3 °C corresponding to the sky
temperature.
4.3.3 Western elevation
28.9 °C
Sp3
28
26
Sp1 24
Sp2
22.4
Li1
Figure 28 – Digital and IR image of MLC Centre west elevation


Figure 29 shows a variation in radiant temperature on the west facing façade from 27.2 °C at the
ground level of adjacent buildings to 25 °C immediately below the subject building roof level at
220m. The lowest point on the façade not obstructed by adjacent buildings measured 27.3 °C at
75m. This represents a vertical gradient of -1.59 °C with each 100m for the upper levels which is
higher than the adiabatic lapse rate.
The lower levels of the building are obscured and so no clear measurements were taken however
adjacent west facing low rise buildings demonstrate temperatures of up to approximately 29.0 °C
approximately 15m above the ground. On this basis the lapse rate would be -1.95 °C per 100m
for the lower levels.
The lowest temperature to the MLC Centre façade was 24 °C at approximately 175m above the
ground coinciding with a recessed plant room level. The highest temperatures recorded were up
to 44.4 °C to stone and metal facades and canopies within the street canyon to the north facing
façade of other buildings in the foreground.

4.3.4 South elevation
27.5 °C
27
26
Sp3 25
24
23
22
Sp1
21
Sp2
Li1 Li2 20.1
Figure 30 – Digital and IR image of MLC Centre south elevation


Figure 31 shows a variation in radiant temperature on the south facing façade from
approximately 28.0 °C at the ground level of foreground buildings to 22.5 °C just below roof
level. The temperature at the lowest point on the façade not obstructed by adjacent buildings
measured 23.4 °C at approximately 115m. This represents a vertical gradient of -0.8 °C with each
100m for the upper levels of the subject façade which is slightly lower than the adiabatic lapse
rate.
The lower levels of the building are obscured and so no measurements were taken however
adjacent south facing low rise buildings demonstrate temperatures of up to 26.0 °C at ground
level. On this basis the lapse rate would be -1.54 °C per 100m for lower levels.
Other interesting observations include the differences in the temperatures of the south-west
facing façade (still exposed to setting sun) and the south east facing façade (not exposed to sun
since early morning). Figure 30 and Error! Reference source not found. show the temperature

differences at the roof level to be 24.5 °C and 21.0 °C. The variation in radiant temperature from
the street canyon to the roof level façade of the MLC Centre is up to 12 °C and the coolest
façade surfaces are at the corners and roof parapet being 21 - 22 °C.
4.3.5 North elevation podium
26.0 °C
Sp3
Sp1 25
24
23
Sp2 Li3 22.6

Li1 Li2
Figure 32 – Digital and IR image of MLC Centre podium north elevation

View from north (Martin Place) at 8.30pm

Figure 33 shows a variation in radiant temperature on the north facing subject façade from
approximately 25.25 °C at 10m above the podium level to 23.2 °C at 75m above the podium at a
spandrel panel. This represents a vertical gradient of -3.15 °C with each 100m for the lowest 75m
of the MLC Centre which represents the highest lapse rate of all images.
Differences can also be seen in the temperatures of the north-west, north and north east facing
façades. The vertical temperature differences increase from the north-east to the north to the
north-west façade as seen in Figure 32 and Error! Reference source not found.. The highest
temperatures are to the north facing podium stairs at 28.7 °C. Sections of the subject building
spandrel panels are partly recessed and therefore shaded at times of the day showing temperature
reductions of 0.5 – 1.0 °C.
4.4 Summary of variations and gradients of radiant temperature changes in
field study
The following conclusions are drawn for this chapter against the study objectives:

1. Field measurements of the MLC Centre showed up to a 6.5 °C difference in radiant
temperature between the ground level façade and roof level facade. The vertical ranges
in temperature varied with façade orientation suggesting that temperature ranges and
gradients vary diurnally and annually as is the case in the natural environment.
2. Temperature gradients up to 3.5 °C/100m were measured in the lower sections between
0 – 75m. This gradient is greater than that in the natural environment. The zone
correlates approximately with the height of the surrounding urban canopy. Temperature
gradients up to 1.5 °C/100m were measured in the higher sections between 100m –
228m correlating approximately with the urban boundary layer above the urban canopy.
This gradient correlates approximately with the lapse rate in the natural environment.
3. The influence of the ground and urban environment on micro-climate appears to be
greater in this case study than in the natural environment.
4. The results of this field study show a high level of consistency with the principles and
trends shown by Geiger and Oke suggesting that existing micro-climatology and urban
climatology research and data may have applications to further research and models for
the vertical micro-climate of tall buildings.

5 ANALYSIS OF VERTICAL MICRO-CLIMATE DATA FROM THE
LITERATURE REVIEW & FIELD STUDY
Chapter 5 analyses the micro-climatic data described in the literature and field study of radiant
temperature to consider if systematic principles may exist that can be applied to the bio-climatic
design of tall buildings. Comparisons are made between the micro-climatic data and the field
measurements to identify any similarities or differences. The micro-climatic data is organised
against possible benefits to energy use and thermal comfort in tall buildings and classified into
vertical zones to simplify its potential application to tall building design. The application of the
air temperature lapse rate to HVAC energy reductions in the Freedom Tower in New York is
also considered.
5.1 Analysis of vertical climate data and principles from the literature review
Chapter 3 demonstrates there are clear and systematic principles related to the vertical climate in
the natural environment. This leads to a ‘vertical micro-climate’ characterised by variations in
temperature, air pressure, wind speed and humidity with height. The gradient of these
characteristics increases near the surface of the ground and reduces with increased height (Geiger
1973, p83). Micro-climatic conditions are shown to vary more vertically than horizontally over a
given distance. There is also a greater variation in conditions closer to the ground over the course
of a day and reduced variation in conditions with increased height above the ground.
The micro-climatic data related to rural areas is extensive and demonstrates clear systematic
patterns of vertical climate. These consist of verifiable ranges and gradients of temperature,
humidity and wind speed that reduce with increasing distance from the ground. The literature
related to urban areas is extensive however until recently has not distinguished between different
climate zones with the city being limited to simple distinctions between rural and urban
environments in respect to the UHI. The literature describes the vertical climate of cities in
general terms only in respect to the extent of upward influence the city has on the UHI although
Table 1 shows the key climatic trends to be the same as in rural areas however with a large degree
of variation. Little data exists to demonstrate the ranges and gradients of these conditions except
in the case of wind speeds.
This information can however be combined with the results of the field measurements of radiant
temperatures to show that whilst the trends remain the same, temperature ranges can be much
greater within the urban canopy.
The following table summarises the key characteristics of the vertical climate data referenced in
Chapter 3 and identifies the potential influences and benefits of these characteristics to building
energy consumption and thermal comfort.
Table 1 – Analysis of vertical micro-climate characteristics in rural and urban locations from the literature
review & field measurements
Analysis of vertical climate & building height characteristics against bio-climatic
design objectives
Solar radiation Air temperature
Key characteristics – Rural areas
Solar radiation increases with increasing Air temperature decreases with increasing
altitude approx. 4-5% per 300m. height.
Solar radiation increases in the urban boundary Standard adiabatic lapse rate of -1.0 °C per
layer due to greater exposure & reflection from 100m.
lower level surrounding roofs. Temperature lapse rates can reach 3 °C
/100m up to 50m height & range from
0.66 degrees to 1.0 °C for each 100m
above.
Air temperature gradient greatest on clear,
still summer days.
Air temperature gradient least (uniform) on
overcast days up to 100m.

Air temperature inversion at night time.
Greater air temperature variation over 24hr
period at lower levels below 16m (up to 20
degrees).
Less temperature variation over 24hr
period at higher levels up to 60m (up to 3
°C).
Key characteristics – Urban locations
Solar radiation levels increase with increasing Air temperature decreases with increasing
altitude. height.
Solar radiation exposure increases above the Similar temperature lapse rates shown in
urban canopy due to reduced building density field measurements of 228m tall building
& reflections. Decreases in the urban canopy above urban canopy.
layer due to increased shade from adjacent Higher lapse rates shown in city below
buildings & vegetation. urban canopy and in street canyons
Solar heat loads may increase with increased Temperatures can increase in the urban
height where building tapers/steps increasing canopy due to UHI including thermal mass
surface to floor area ratio. & reduced sky view factor limiting night
cooling. Some offset due to reduced solar
radiation in dense building clusters.
Influences on energy consumption &
physical comfort
Increased cooling loads from solar gains with Decreased cooling loads with increased
increased height. building height in hot climates (Leung &
Reduced scope for external sun shading with Weismantle).
increased height. Reduced temperature range at higher levels
Day lighting potential greater than in low-rise may promote natural ventilation & usable
deep plan buildings. outdoor space.
Reduced daylight access to lower levels. Increased temperature range at lower levels
Reduced ratio of roof to wall in tall buildings may reduce opportunities for natural
reduces solar exposure & potential for ventilation & increase dependency on a/c.
renewable energy generation with increasing
height (Haase & Amato, 2006)
Wind velocity & direction Air pressure
Wind speed increases with increasing height. Air pressure decreases externally with
increasing height.
Wind speed generally increases with increasing Air pressure decreases externally with
height although can accelerate 3-4 times increasing height.
normal speed in street canyons (Beedle, Ali & Air pressure difference across exterior wall
Armstrong 2007, p218). increases with increased temperature
Wind turbulence decreases with additional difference & height above the neutral
height and above the urban canopy. pressure plane @ mid -point. Can cause
Wind flow separates into streams as it comes problems in opening windows and doors
over the edge of a roof or around a corner (Etheridge & Ford 2008).
producing multiple streams rather than a Higher wind speeds with height increase
laminar wind that is required for wind facade air pressure difference between top
turbines(http://www.buildinggreen.com/auth/ and bottom leading to higher vertical wind
article.cfm?fileName=180501a.xml) speeds.
Higher wind speeds with height will cool the Decreasing air density with height results in
building envelope. lower energy demand for ventilation
Vertical wind speeds to facades increase with systems at higher levels
increased building height. (http://www.sustainablebuilding.info/post-
Wind causes varying levels of façade crash/files/tallbuildings-UIA-paper-

infiltration 010608-rovers.pdf)
with increased height.
physical comfort
Increased opportunity for natural ventilation Increasing air pressure with height causes
during light winds heat from lower floors to rise causing
Increased infiltration/exfiltration increases additional cooling loads with increased
cooling & heating loads (Roaf 2005, p253). height.
Higher convection rates with height will reduce Increasing exfiltration through façade with
cooling loads in summer & increase heating increasing height causes loss of
loads in winter heated/cooled air to exterior.
(http://www.sustainablebuilding.info/post- Increasing infiltration through façade with
crash/files/tallbuildings-UIA-paper-010608- increasing height causes loss of
rovers.pdf) heated/cooled air to shafts & corridors.
Opportunities for w ind energy generation Pressure driven thermal buoyancy in atria
adversely effected by varying wind speeds and can assist natural ventilation & reduce
turbulence energy consumption for cooling.
Natural ventilation of offices is harder to
achieve due to increased wind speeds & noise
associated with openable windows at height.
Ground level turbulence and dis-comfort to
pedestrians increases with increased building
height.
Increased wind loadings with height reduce
opportunity for external sun-shading
Humidity Rainfall
Humidity reduces with increased height during Rainfall constant with height
the day.
Humidity increases with increased height at
night.
Humidity more variable at ground level.
Effect of city on humidity is a reduction of 4- Wind driven rain to facades increases with
8%. increased height & wind speed.
Humidity gradient may be affected by shading Moisture transfer may increase with height
& wind downdrafts. influencing heat transfer and
cooling/heating loads (Blocken et al 2006).
physical comfort
Increased outdoor comfort with increasing Increasing wind driven rain may reduce
height. thermal properties of envelope requiring
Increased opportunity for natural & mixed additional energy use for heating/cooling.
mode ventilation with increasing height. Increasing wind driven rain may accelerate
material deterioration & increase
maintenance & material replacement.
Increased potential for water harvesting
with increased building height.
Noise Air Pollution

Not investigated Not investigated
Increased wind induced noise with increased Decreased traffic generated air pollution
wind/height. with increased height Street canyon effect

Decreased traffic noise with increased height. can increase traffic pollution levels closer to
Increased noise/vibrations from wind turbines ground.
.
physical comfort
Greater acoustic insulation may be required at Increased air quality with increased height.
higher levels requiring more energy intensive More opportunities for outdoor recreation
materials. spaces.
Increased outdoor comfort with increasing
height.
Other characteristics that may change with increasing height include reduced dust and
mosquitoes however these are not investigated in this study.
5.1.1 Classification of vertical climate zones

A comparison of the literature shows there are a number of broad vertical climate zones in urban
environments that may be significant to the bio-climatic design of tall buildings:
 roughness layer at a 0 – 2 m (Oke 1978, p4,5)
 turbulent surface layer at 0 - 50m (reducing to a few metres at night time) (Oke 1974,
p52, 1978, p5)
 the urban canopy layer (from ground level to the average height of buildings) (Oke 1978,
p274, 275).
 the micro-climate layer most influenced by the ground at 0 – 100m (Figure 7 and Geiger
1973, p73)
 the urban boundary layer extending from the average height of buildings to between 200
and 500m (Oke 1974, p51, 1978, p4,5)
These zones may be applicable to the bio-climatic design of tall buildings that consider height by
applying vertical changes in for example façade design, natural ventilation and HVAC systems to
correspond to varying vertical climate zones. The identification of broad vertical zones may be
useful where the economics of building construction typically requires the number of plan and
façade types to be minimised.
5.2 Analysis of thermal imaging of the MLC Centre
The field study measured thermal radiation which is the heat that radiates from a warm object.
Whilst air temperature is the most commonly used indicator of thermal comfort radiant
temperature actually has a greater influence on how humans lose or gain heat to the environment
and is therefore a useful indicator (http://www.hse.gov.uk/temperature/thermal/factors.htm).
The measurements showed the highest temperatures to be on the façades of adjacent low rise
buildings at street level. This was despite the greater levels of shading benefit these walls were
afforded over the course of the day due to orientation and increased shading. For example Figure
28 showed south facing and north facing facades within 3-4 levels of the street to be 3-4 °C
warmer than the lower north facing façade of the MLC Centre (Figure 32) which had been
exposed to solar radiation for a greater period of the day and is positioned to the south of Martin
Place a large pedestrian zone. This suggests the anthropogenic heat loads such as traffic and the
reduced sky view factor may have a greater effect on the micro-climate between buildings than
the period of solar exposure. Figure 28 also shows that the temperatures to some other tall
buildings actually increase with increased height in the case of the NRMA Building oriented
towards the south-west and setting sun and least exposed to the prevailing winds of the
afternoon from the NE.
The measurements to the lower levels of the MLC Centre showed the lapse rate from 0-75m was
the highest of all gradients measured at 3.15 °C and 6.47 °C per 100m to the northern façade.

This is 3-4 times the measurements by Geiger which show a lapse rate in air temperature of
between 1.5 and 2 °C with each 100m up to 61m as shown in Figure 6. This zone correlates
approximately with the average height of adjacent buildings.
The measurements to the higher levels of the MLC Centre were reduced and were shown to vary
with orientation. The gradients from approximately 75m to 220m range from -0.8 °C per 100m
to - 1.7 °C per 100m representing an average lapse rate of -1.29 °C. The greatest lapse rate was
on the western façade (-1.7 °C /100m) followed by the northern façade (-1.66 °C /100m),
eastern façade (-1.0 °C /100m) and the southern façade at -0.8 °C /100m). These values are
higher than the adiabatic lapse rate of 1.0 °C per 100m. The trend is consistent with Geiger
where the gradient of air temperatures are shown to reduce with increasing distance from the
ground. This higher level zone correlates approximately with the urban boundary layer above the
adjacent buildings.
Table 2 – Summary of thermal imaging data for the MLC Centre considering only the subject building
facades
Temperature ranges measured between 7.15pm and 8.30pm in summer on partly cloudy
day
Façade orientation & Radiant temperature range Vertical gradient
height
Western façade (75 – 220m 27.3 - 25 °C 1.7 °C /100m
Northern façade (120 – 220m) 23.2 - 21.4 °C 1.66 °C /100m
Eastern façade (90 -228m) 23.3 - 21.9 °C 1.0 °C /100m
Southern façade (115 – 220m) 23.4 - 22.5 °C 0.8 °C /100m.
Northern façade (10-75m) 25.25 - 23.2°C 3.15 °C/100m
Table 3 – Summary of thermal imaging data for the MLC Centre considering the subject building facades &
adjacent low rise building facades
Temperature ranges measured between 7.15pm and 8.30pm in summer on partly cloudy
day
Façade orientations & Radiant temperature range Vertical gradient
height
Western façade (15 – 220m) 29 – 25 °C 1.95 °C /100m
Northern facade 25.5 - 21.4 °C 1.8 °C /100m
Eastern façade (90-228m) 25.5 - 21.9 °C 1.58 °C /100m
Southern façade (5 – 220m) 26.2 - 22.5 °C 1.72 °C /100m.
Northern façade/stair (-10 - 28.7 – 23.2 °C 6.47 °C/100m
75m)
The data suggests that the vertical gradients of temperature measured in the natural environment
are modified by adjacent buildings and other UHI factors as would be expected leading to an
increased range and gradient of temperatures with height and a cooler micro-climate above the
local urban canopy. The general trend however of reduced temperature with increased height and
increased gradients closer to the ground remain the same in the building studied as in the rural
environment. Influences other than building height may include climate zone, season and
weather at the time of the measurements.
The effects of orientation are to create a number of differing temperature gradients to differently
oriented facades. This suggests that the gradient is influenced by solar exposure with reduced
gradients being seen to the shaded eastern facade and progressively increasing temperatures and
gradients to the north and then western façade which was exposed to sunlight at the time of the
measurements. This shows the importance of considering height together with the more usually

considered orientation in the measurement, design and harnessing of micro-climates in tall
buildings.
In summary the data showed temperatures to vary up to 7.6 °C from the street level façades of
adjacent buildings to the roof level façade of the MLC Centre. Adjacent low rise buildings within
street canyons showed no reductions in temperature vertically. Further studies could be
completed to examine the gradients at different times of the day and year to consider the effects
of night time cooling to the sky and varying weather effects such as high winds and reduced
cloud cover.
5.3 Diagrammatic analysis of the effects of building height on micro-climate
& building characteristics
The vertical climate data was studied in diagram form to illustrate the key principles that could be
considered in the bio-climatic design of tall buildings based on building height. Work completed
by Chris McCarthy on the Nara Tower is adapted and developed further to include additional
detail and climatic elements from the literature review and field measurements.

Figure 34 – Analysis of effects of building height on vertical micro-climate
(adapted & expanded by author from C. McCarthy in Richards, 2001 p.73)
5.4 Case study of the application of temperature lapse rate to HVAC design in
the Freedom Tower
Figure 35 illustrates the design for the Freedom Tower in New York by SOM which provides
one of few case studies that apply changes in vertical climate to the reduction of energy usage.
The study examined the annual energy required for each floor level based upon the changing
external climate conditions with height. This contrasts with the standard approach based upon
regional climate data which assumes standard temperatures at all floor levels.
The study was completed by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory in the USA modelling
the effect of changes in air temperature and wind with altitude and the energy saving benefits of
these and concluded that “environmental factors that vary with altitude have a significant effect
on the annual total building and cooling energy”.

Modelling permitted an adjusted thermal load model and optimised HVAC system leading to
reductions of annual cooling and heating energy of approximately 13% (Leung & Weismantle
2008, p3). The maximum differences in cooling and heating energy requirements between an
upper and lower level floor was 45%. A baseline building that did not consider the changing
external climate conditions demonstrated a maximum difference between two separate floors of
only 4% (Ellis & Torcellini, 2005, p283, 284). This suggests there to be significant differences in
thermal loads with height which are not typically considered in either bio-climatic nor HVAC
design.
Figure 35 – Freedom Tower by SOM

(http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/74/Freedom_Tower_New.jpg)
The study also showed that lower external air temperatures and higher wind speeds at higher
levels reduced cooling loads with air temperature exceeding the effect of wind at a height of
approximately 250m (Ellis & Torcellini 2005, p283). The same study showed that shading by
other buildings had the single largest contribution to reduced cooling loads. This benefit is
greatest at lower heights where more shade is available and reduces with increased height above
the urban canopy. The benefits of shading exceeded the radiation loads reflected from adjacent
buildings.
5.5 Summary of analysis for tall buildings in urban locations
Oke describes the general influences of the urban environment to extend up to between 200 and
500m. The investigation has shown that graduated differences exist in radiant temperature
between the ground level and roof in a tall building in the Sydney CBD. These variations are
however dependent upon building clustering and orientation of facades where some buildings are
shown to have no reduction in radiant temperature with increased height as shown in Figure 28.
Whilst solar radiation increases slightly with altitude the predominant effect in urban areas is
shading and reflection from adjacent buildings suggesting the amount of solar radiation exposure
will typically increase above the urban canopy.
The range of wind speed conditions is shown by Aynsley to increase fourfold from the ground to
between 100 and 200m in a typical urban environment as shown in Figure 12. Tall buildings

clustered with buildings of similar heights are shown to experience greater changes in wind
direction and greater turbulence than tall buildings that rise above the urban canopy (Smith 2008,
p109, 110).
Correlations were demonstrated between façade radiant temperatures and gradients and the
urban canopy and urban boundary layer described by Oke. This suggests the urban environment
to have a greater effect on the vertical climate of tall buildings at lower levels than at the higher
levels. This is similar to the way in which the ground has a greater effect on lower levels of the
atmosphere in rural areas.
Variations in micro-climate are shown to be greater over vertical distances than horizontal
distances on the ground indicating opportunities to harness these changes to reduce energy
consumption and improve indoor environment quality in tall buildings.

6 DISCUSSION & POSSIBLE APPLICATIONS OF BUILDING HEIGHT TO
THE BIO-CLIMATIC DESIGN OF TALL BUILDINGS
Section 6 discusses the value and potential applications of building height and the “vertical
micro-climate” concept to the bio-climatic design of tall buildings. The increasing importance of
building and opening orientation with increased building height due to increased wind speeds and
the reduced protection from terrain has been identified for almost 50 years (Olgyay 1963, p94).
This investigation has shown that individual micro-climate characteristics have varying ranges,
gradients and speeds of change with increasing height above the ground. The discussion argues
there are sufficient variations in the vertical climate of tall buildings predominantly located in
urban or suburban areas to support further investigation. This could include the development of
tools such as vertical meteorology and thermal imaging to better understand the more variable
urban climate environment as well as energy modelling and building design studies of possible
bio-climatic design strategies.
Case studies and a series of conceptual bio-climatic design tactics are provided for further
research and development that may lead to a design primer for architects and engineers.
6.1 Discussion of vertical micro-climate characteristics & atmospheric
processes
6.1.1 Patterns of micro-climate in urban areas – the case for the use of building
height in bio-climatic design
The consistent changes in vertical climate shown in rural areas are influenced in the urban
environment by the more far more complex terrain. However the literature shows variations in
urban air temperature, air pressure and humidity with increased height are consistent with or
greater than those in the natural environment however more varied.
The potential applications of the vertical micro-climate to bio-climatic design would be greatest
where the range of conditions varies the most from the ground level to the roof level and these
conditions are measurable and systematic.
Radiant temperatures were shown to reduce systematically with increased height to individual
facades in the field measurements ranging from 21.4 °C at roof level to 29 °C at ground level. Air
temperature ranges of this same magnitude allow passive strategies such as natural ventilation
cooling, fan-forced ventilation cooling and high thermal mass to be effective in achieving indoor
thermal comfort in Sydney (Climate Consultant Version 4.0). However the temperatures to
differently oriented facades varied indicating the need to consider both building height and
orientation. Temperature ranges and gradients also varied significantly to other near by buildings
appearing to be related to building density, orientation, sky-view factor and proximity to street
canyons. This indicates the need to consider the influence of urban design on individual tall
building sites.
Wind speeds are shown to increase with increased height causing greater air pressure differences
to opposing facades. This can provide greater opportunities for natural ventilation in deep plan
buildings where higher indoor air speeds are acceptable or can be managed with for example
double skin facades. Wind turbulence reduces above the urban canopy which may permit more
static façade elements as opposed to more dynamic and responsive facades at lower levels.
Humidity reduces with increased height proving further opportunities for natural ventilation,
mixed-mode systems and evaporative coolers that function more efficiently with reduce
humidity.
Solar radiation levels increase marginally with increased height although of more relevance to the
design of a tall building is the level of solar exposure relative to shading. Increased exposure is
provided above the urban canopy allowing passive solar design in suitable climates and
suggesting increased wall insulation levels, materials with lower U-values and additional sun-
shading than below the urban canopy. Facade integrated photo -voltaics may provide renewable
energy at higher levels where building shading is minimised.

Thermal buoyancy is less effected by fluctuations in external micro-climate although is influenced
by the temperature differences across facades. This provides a reliable passive technique for the
passive ventilation of tall buildings that increases in force with increased building height and
indoor vertical pressure differences. This can include the use of atria and façade stacks in double
skin facades. This is most effective in colder climates where the temperature differences are
greatest and is applied in building such as the Commerzbank in Frankfurt.
Vertical micro-climates are related to local climate variations in cities which until recently were
not defined. The development of a new classification system for urban climate zones by Stewart
and Oke (2009) allows different tall building locations to be defined based on properties that
control surface micro-climate as shown in Figure 36. This may allow sites to be differentiated
more systematically and provide a more accurate basis for the application of bio-climatic tactics.
Figure 36 – Urban climate zones by Stewart and Oke

http://www.urban-climate.org/IAUC034.pdf
Bio-climatic design requires accurate climatic data. The use of the vertical micro-climate in bio-
climatic design would require meteorological data for vertical surfaces and the atmosphere in
cities of which there is little available. Zeiler provides a GIS 3-D object oriented data model for
simulation of the urban canopy layer climate which is to be coupled with vertical surface
information (Wu 2000). This may have applications to the measurement of the vertical climate
and the assessment of any benefits that bio-climatic tactics may provide.
6.1.2 Variability of micro-climate in urban areas - the case against the use of building
height
The vertical climate of cities is not measured in the literature sourced beyond general trends and
the vertical influence of the UHI on the atmosphere. This lack of information causes difficulties
in assessing the feasibility of bio-climatic tactics based on building height.
The potential applications would be least where conditions from the ground level to the roof
level are flattened out. The thermal imaging demonstrated that in some case tall buildings show a
uniform radiant temperature from the street to roof level as demonstrated in Figure 28.
Radiant temperatures in the field study demonstrated high levels of variability in climate in the
urban environment between different streets, outdoor spaces and facades. These complex
conditions were most apparent within the urban canopy which may limit the use of passive
strategies and support the use of air-conditioned environments sealed to the outside.
Larger scale weather systems may cause stronger winds that mix the atmosphere and remove
small scale differences or micro-climatic effects flattening out the vertical variations that result
from the influence of the ground (Oke 1978, p5).
Higher wind speeds can be difficult to manage in naturally ventilated solutions and indoor air
speeds may be unacceptably high necessitating the use of double skin facades or fan forced
mechanical ventilation in lieu of openable windows.

Variations in air pressure with increased height and wind speed can cause difficulties in the
opening of windows and doors. The effects of wind turbulence reduce the effectiveness of roof
mounted wind-turbines limiting the potential for renewable energies that benefit from building
height (http://www.buildinggreen.com/auth/article.cfm?fileName=180501a.xml).
Bio-climatic responses to increased solar radiation levels above the urban canopy may include
reduced window to wall ratio which may not be acceptable in a commercial building where access
to views contributes to the leasing values. Additional sun shading at higher levels may be
hazardous due to wind speeds and façade maintenance requirements as seen in section 3.7.
The high internal air pressure differences that lead to thermal buoyancy can lead to unacceptably
high vertical air speeds in atria necessitating the vertical compartmentalisation of voids.
Other tactics such as the variation of façade types and environmental control systems with height
may lead to reduced uniformity in construction systems and materials which may result in
increased complexity and transport costs.
Bio-climatic design is also dependent on measurable and systematic climate conditions. Whilst
this investigation has not determined the speed of change in the upper atmosphere, rapid
changes may limit the applications of vertical climate changes. Geiger shows the ground surface
provides a level of thermal inertia thereby moderating sudden changes in climate (Geiger 1973 &
Yeang 1996).
The UHI models show that the atmosphere can be contained with an ‘urban dome’ assuming
calm air, which may reduce the gradient of temperatures in the areas of greatest building density
(Oke 1991).
6.2 Possible applications of building height & the “vertical micro-climate” to
Bio-Climatic Design
Applications of building height & vertical micro-climate to the bio-climatic design of tall
buildings could include energy conservation and climate mitigation, improvement in building
durability, savings in operational and embodied energy and on-site energy generation. Figure 37
illustrates conventional approaches to the bio-climatic design of tall building design as developed
by architects such as Ken Yeang. The second diagram illustrates an enhanced approach to bio-
climatic design based in the use of building height and the vertical micro-climate.
Figure 37 – Approaches to bio-climatic design & enhanced bio-climatic design

(author)
6.2.1 Building operational energy performance

The following applications may contribute to energy conservation, climate mitigation and
adaptation through the retro-fitting of existing tall buildings and improved indoor environment
quality:

 Vertical master planning of building usages to match building heat loads which vary with
the external micro-climate. For example commercial uses that generate higher occupant
and technical heat loads may suit the cooler higher levels of tall buildings in hot climates.
 Optimising of building envelope design by for example varying façade materials and
window to wall ratio vertically to match external micro-climate zones that vary with
height leading to reductions of heating and cooling loads.
 Optimised placement and design of solar shading to match varying vertical conditions
affected by the urban context and building clustering.
 Optimised design of façade openings and vents to suit wind speeds and air pressure rates
that vary with height.
 Optimising of façade elements with height and design of compartment openings to
reduce heat infiltration and exfiltration causing loss of cool and heated air and poor air
quality in residential apartments quality
(http://epb.lbl.gov/homepages/Rick_Diamond/LBNL43642-roomvent_98.pdf
 Application of atria spaces and stacks that benefit from variations in air pressure and
temperature difference with height to provide natural ventilation.
 Application of different environmental control systems to vertical zones to benefit from
the temperature lapse rate and reduced humidity, noise and air pollution with increased
height. Systems may include air-conditioning, mixed mode and natural ventilation.
 Optimising of HVAC fan and duct sizes based on vertical compartment modelling that
considers varying external conditions such as changes in air temperature, humidity and
air pressure with height.
6.2.2 Building performance and durability
The following applications of vertical changes in micro-climate may contribute to energy
conservation and reduced operational and embodied energy usage. Façade elements can often
deteriorate where most exposed to wind driven rain or dust and where solar radiation is not
available:
 Optimising of building material performance and wall assembly details to match varying
external conditions. This is a common consideration by building climatologists (Page
1976). The application of detailed micro-climatic measurements may allow more detailed
assessment of building exposure to climate in tall buildings which experience greater
exposure than low-rise buildings.
 Application of external climatic data and environmental loads such as temperature and
humidity and wind and rain exposure to the choice and detailing of building envelope
materials to improve durability and reduce maintenance requirements. This is
recommended in cold climates such as Canada by the Homeowners Protection
(http://www.hpo.bc.ca/PDF/Research/Reports/SHREPsummary.pdf).
 Long life cycle materials may be used to facades to assist in reducing the energy costs of
replacing materials or the increased operational energy costs resulting from reduced
thermal performance.
6.2.3 Building energy generation
Increasing building height may contribute to the generation of renewable energy due to greater
exposure to increased wind speed and solar radiation above the urban canopy. Roaf states that up
to 50-60% of energy requirements can be generated on site (Roaf 2005, p245):
 Wind turbines may have fewer applications than suggested in previous studies. Tall
buildings can provide greater exposure to wind however this is complicated by building
clustering, wind shading and turbulence. Guthrie cautions against high expectations
stating that wind can provide no more than 5% of electrical needs in a tall building. The

generation of wind energy is limited by the tendency for wind at roof levels to separate
into wind streams reducing the effectiveness of wind turbines (Guthrie 2008). Current
projects that propose to generate their own power include the 640m tall DMC Tower in
Korea by SOM Architects (Figure 38) which will apply the natural physics of tall
buildings such as the stack effect and wind turbines to generate up to 3% of the
building’s energy consumption
(http://www.som.com/content.cfm/113009_pr_groundbreaking_digital_media_city_la
ndmark_tower).
Figure 38 - DMC Tower

(http://www.tallest-building-in-the-world.com/)
 Roof mounted photo-voltaics are limited due to the relatively small roof area in tall
buildings. Façade integrated photo-voltaics can generate between 10-15% of energy
requirements (Guthrie 2008) however requires wind and solar generation to be
integrated into the façade whilst maintaining other amenities such as day lighting and
external views. The capacity of solar generated energy is influenced by building density,
orientation, overshadowing and height. The Pearl River Tower shown in Figure 39
receives less than 10% of its energy needs from the wind turbines and BIPV
(http://chinagreenbuildings.blogspot.com/2008_11_01_archive.html).

Figure 39- The Pearl River Tower
(http://www.buildinggreen.com/auth/article.cfm?fileName=180501a.xml)
Figure 40 illustrates that tall buildings can provide less electricity generating potential per square
metre of floor area due to the decreased availability of solar radiation on vertical facades when
compared to horizontal roofs due to their high dependency on orientation (Haase & Amato
2006). Other contributing factors are the reduced ratio of building envelope to floor area with
increasing height as seen in Cho’s study (Cho 2005, p1007) and the likelihood of shading from
adjacent buildings
Figure 40 – Electricity potential for increasing floor numbers and locations

http://www.unige.ch/cuepe/html/plea2006/Vol1/PLEA2006_PAPER509.pdf
The opportunities to generate significant levels of energy with increasing building height appears
to be less than suggested by current tall building designs. However greater opportunities may
exist in taller buildings that extend above the urban canopy and those situated in suburban areas
with lower building densities. These types of buildings may be less impacted by over-shadowing
and wind turbulence.

6.2.4 Building types and locations
The vertical changes in climate shown by this investigation suggest that certain buildings and
locations may provide greater opportunities for the application of building height to bio-climatic
design. Field measurements highlighted the greater influence of the ground and urban canopy on
radiant façade temperatures. Whilst the average height of the urban canopy varies they
commonly lie at 50-100m in CBD areas such as New York (Holt & Pullen 2006, p1907) and so
buildings that extend above this height may provide greater opportunities.
 Super tall buildings where more constant atmospheric processes such as air pressure and
the adiabatic lapse rate play a larger part and may benefit HVAC designs. These types of
buildings will typically include mixed uses such as residential commercial and hotels.
 Sections of tall buildings situated above the urban canopy where the micro-climate is
cooler and less humid and less variable.
 Multi-use buildings that incorporate varying occupant requirements at differing building
heights such as residential commercial and hotel uses which may suit the design of
different strata’s to suit differing micro-climate zones.
 Tall buildings in CBD locations situated within lower building clusters such shown in the
MLC Centre case study. These will commonly include commercial buildings up to 250m
and residential buildings up to 150m (http://skyscraperpage.com/diagrams/).
 Tall buildings situated adjacent to green spaces and open spaces with greater sky view
factor. These may include residential buildings, hotels, commercial and institutional
buildings.
 Tall building design in developing countries where energy access and economic
constraints limit energy usage for cooling and ventilation.
6.3 Bio-climatic design tactics for tall buildings based upon building height
The studies of vertical micro-climate suggest there are three forms of climate related benefits that
result from building height that could be investigated further:
 Harvesting the external micro-climate – benefiting from the vertical micro-climate
conditions such as cooler, cleaner and less humid air at higher levels to provide increased
natural ventilation or factor in reduced air-conditioning loads to reduce energy usage.
Providing solar and w ind generation through plant and façade integrated technologies.
 Modifying the external micro-climate through building and urban design – developing
outdoor spaces such as sky gardens and winter gardens and filters such as screens and
sunshades. Reducing the cooling and heating loads driven by the sun and wind
characteristics that vary from the ground to roof through buffers, shading and material
selections. Reducing energy usage and providing outdoor amenity for building occupants
to improve occupant health and comfort.
 Stack effect/thermal buoyancy– benefiting from the stack effect which accelerates with
increased building height. Providing atria, ventilation shafts, double-skin facades and
solar chimneys that assist with natural ventilation and heat exhaust and reduce energy
usage.
The following table proposes some building design tactics classified according to building
elements and systems similar to that used by Hyde (2000 pp29-32). The role of the façade is
significant due to the large ratio of wall to roof that increases with increasing building height. The
façade is also the building element that experiences the greatest variation in climate exposure and
conditions vertically as well as with orientation. Providing variable and responsive façade designs
based upon vertical zoning could provide opportunities for greater variation in tall building
façade design that responds to both environmental and urban design drivers.

Table 4- Conceptual bio-climatic tactics for tall building elements, form and fabric
Conceptual bio-climatic design tactics that respond to building height & vertical micro-
climate
Facade
1. Vary façade & opening types vertically to match varying vertical micro-climate &
building use (if mixed use).
2. Vary façade & opening types vertically to match varying vertical micro-climate & varied
external day lighting availability with height & urban context.
3. Vary vents & monsoon windows vertically to moderate wind speeds and ensure suitable
internal conditions with natural ventilation solutions.
4. Vary environmental control systems vertically to match varying vertical micro-climate &
building use (if mixed use). For example natural ventilation, mixed-mode & air-
conditioning.
5. Vary window to wall ratios (WWR) vertically to match varying micro-climate, urban
context & building use if mixed use & reduce solar radiation and increased convective
heat loss with height.
6. Reduce window to wall ratio (WWR) with increased height in hot climates to reduce
solar heat loads where they increase vertically due to reduce building shading and
increased reflectivity. Increase WWR (using double glazing) with increased height in cold
climates to benefit from passive solar design
7. Profile the building form and façade to minimise downdrafts & pedestrian dis-comfort
& reduce convective heat losses from winds in cold climates
8. Provide double-skin shaft facades to create vertical air movement and exhaust, act as a
solar chimney (Haase 2005 p.768) & diffuser to allow operable windows whilst
controlling wind loads and wind noise (Driskill).
9. Vary level of façade/opening responsiveness to match the varying speed of vertical
micro-climate change. Maximise responsiveness at higher levels where micro-climate
changes more rapidly.
10. Optimise position of façade integrated photovoltaics (PV) to match vertical micro-
climate & increased solar access with height.
11. Vary façade insulation & U-value vertically to match varying vertical micro-climate.
12. Optimise position and screening of outdoor spaces to match vertical micro-climate &
increased wind speeds with height & urban context.
13. Vary glazing shading co-efficients to match varying vertical micro-climate & increased
solar exposure typical with height.
14. Minimise horizontal ledges @ lower levels to minimise dust collection & maintenance.
15. Vary façade insulation & design vertically to match external noise levels that vary with
height.
Floor planning, shape & orientation
1. Vary floor plan configuration & depth to match varying vertical micro-climate, building
use & environmental control systems. For example use a narrower floor pate or
introduce atria to higher building levels if naturally ventilated.
2. Vary floor plan orientation to match varying vertical micro-climate & urban context &
reduce heating & cooling loads.
3. Provide mixed-use tall buildings with the programme divided into multi-level strata’s that
benefit from the varying vertical micro-climate & urban context
4. Reduce increasing wind loads that occur with greater height with aero-dynamic forms
(Driskill)
Perimeter Space
1. Vary enclosure & screening of perimeter spaces such as winter gardens & balconies to
match varying vertical micro-climate & urban context. Maximise enclosure of open areas
at higher levels
2. Optimise shade, thermal buffering & wind protection to match varying vertical micro-
climate & urban context.
Atria and Voids

climate
1. Venture Effect ventilation can assist with higher heat loads higher in the building
resulting from the stack effect.
2. Provide vertical buffer zones (Roaf 2005 p 59)
3. Utilise sky courts to reduce wind loadings higher in building
4. Use an atrium space/ventilation stack to introduce controlled vertical natural ventilation
flow and cooling from increased air pressure differential with building height (Aynsley
2007, p7). Most effective in cold or temperate climates where the temperature
differences between the exterior and interior is greatest.
5. Provide protected atria space to higher sections of building where wind speed are higher
6. Provide perimeter sky gardens to lower section of building where wind speeds lower.
7. Increase height of ventilation stacks to induce greater
Roof
1. Provide wind turbines & solar collectors
2. Provide roof vents & form negative pressure zones to draw air through stacks, double
skin facades & atria situated below
3. Provide wind towers that benefit from higher wind speeds & cleaner air at increased
height.
Section
1. Consider multi-use building with differing uses and configurations to suit micro-climate
of different vertical zones/strata’s.
2. Provide cooling dominated uses to higher sections of building to benefit from lower
temperatures.
3. Provide heating dominated uses to lower sections of building to benefit from relatively
higher temperatures.
4. Provide high occupancy spaces to higher sections of building in hot climates where
reduced temperature, air density and humidity reduce the requirement for energy usage
for cooling
5. Provide segmentation of section to reduce internal buoyancy pressure (Etheridge & Ford
2008).
Materials
1. Select façade and roof materials with shading co-efficients and U-values to match
varying vertical micro-climate
2. Offset high embodied energy content of superstructure that varies vertically by avoiding
high embodied energy façade materials such as aluminium and varying façade materials
vertically
Landscape
1. Introduce planting to develop local micro-climates, increase evapo-transpiration and
shield outdoor spaces and façade from solar radiation and convective cooling of the
building fabric from winds
2. Provide vertical landscaping to provide shading & regulate solar heat gains and
convective losses that vary with height
3. Introduce planting to urban canopy zone to filter higher dust and pollution content and
provide shade to offset higher temperatures and over heating potential
4. Select plant species to suit temperatures and sun exposure that vary with building height
Active Systems
1. Provide HVAC air intakes at higher level in hot climates where air temperature, air
density and humidity are lower and at lower level in cold climates where air temperatures
are higher to be closer to the desired indoor temperature, minimising cooling and
heating energy usage of HVAC system. Optimise draw of air into HVAC intakes
reducing fan energy by positioning according to wind speeds that vary with height and
orientation.

climate
2. Provide HVAC exhausts to cooler outdoor locations higher in the building to minimise
impact on surrounding environment and UHI. Position according to wind speeds that
vary with height and orientation ensure optimum dispersion whilst not drawing foul air
back into the fresh air system.
3. Apply atmospheric temperature lapse rate and vertical variation in humidity to minimise
cooling and heating energy usage of HVAC system
4. Consider differential air pressure and infiltration across façade that varies with height to
minimise cooling and heating energy usage of HVAC system
5. Consider stack effect that leads to increased warm air higher in building to minimise
cooling and heating energy usage of HVAC system
6. Consider varying extent of building shading and reflection with building height to
minimise cooling and heating energy usage of HVAC system
7. Consider operational energy benefits of tall buildings in hot climates where proportion
of building located in cooler zone increases with increasing building height reducing
cooling energy usage
8. Provide several HVAC systems and compartments such as fan coil units, mixed mode
and natural ventilation to suit heating and cooling loads that vary with height and
orientation.
9. Provide building mounted weather stations at height intervals to measure wind speed, air
temperature and pressure, humidity and solar radiation levels.
10. Provide enhanced BMS systems to provide façade and HVAC operability that responds
to micro-climate conditions that vary with height based on actual climate conditions or
programmed conditions based upon measured seasonal and daily fluctuations
Passive Environmental Systems
1. Provide vertical axis wind turbines to roof level where wind speeds are highest and
consider wind generation to facades at higher levels (Roaf, Chrichton & Nicol 2005,
p250). Wind turbine efficiency and output increases with additional height (Yeang 1996,
p135).
2. Provide solar arrays to roof level benefiting from higher solar radiation with building
height and reduced airborne pollutants allowing better solar gain
3. Provide building integrated solar photovoltaic’s to sun and shading patterns to facades
that vary with height and orientation
4. Provide zoned mixed -mode systems that vary with height to match varying micro-
climate and building use with height. For example reduced humidity at higher levels may
increase number of days per annum situated within the comfort band allowing reduced
usage of air-conditioning.
5. Provided passive solar heating and thermal mass to match varying sun and shading
patterns that vary with height and orientation. Maximise solar gains for heating at cooler
higher levels.
6. Provide wind scoops and towers to supply and extract cleaner and cooler air from higher
elevations (Battle McCarthy, pp38,39)
7. Provide natural ventilation cooling, fan forced ventilation cooling and night purging to
match temperature, humidity and air quality that varies with height. Increased wind
speeds with height increases the opportunity for natural ventilation at higher levels
(improved air quality, cooling of structural mass and thermal comfort).
8. Provide evaporative cooling to higher sections of building in hot climates where
humidity is reduced
9. Harvest water in dry climates with collection to roof and upper windward elevation

6.4 Relationship of building height & vertical micro-climate to other aspects
of sustainable development
The application of bio-climatic principles related to building height & vertical micro-climate
could coincide with other objectives of sustainable development such as:
 Modifying the external micro-climate of tall buildings to reduce thermal loads and
indoor heating and cooling requirements may also provide improved thermal comfort
and amenity for pedestrians
 Reducing dependencies upon energy for HVAC promotes stronger relationships
between occupants and the outdoor environment which represents a key weakness of
tall buildings (Gifford 2008).
 The use of passive systems in tall buildings has the additional advantage of providing
greater occupant control which can provide less thermal stress and a wider range of
acceptable conditions (Roaf 2005, p118, 119).
6.5 Summary of potential applications to bio-climatic design
The following conclusions are drawn from this investigation in respect to the study objectives:
1. Bio-climatic design is largely focused on low- rise buildings that are subject to differing
micro-climate conditions than tall buildings. The vertical micro-climate may provide
opportunities for vertically differentiated environmental control systems and the concept
of ‘strata’s’ or compartments that respond to differing outside conditions and urban
contexts with height.
2. Strategies that use building height to reduce energy consumption can be described in
three categories:
 Harvesting of vertical changes in micro-climate through passive strategies and renewable
energy sources.
 Modifying the micro-climate to reduce heat losses and gains
 Applying ventilation principles related to stack effect and air pressure differentiation that
accelerate with increased building height
3. Whilst temperature gradients were shown to be highest within the urban canopy this also
corresponded to the zone of greatest variability and is most commonly more affected by
noise and air pollution. Therefore the types of buildings that may benefit most from the
application of changes in climate with building height are those situated above or away
from the influences of the urban canopy.
4. The benefits of vertical bio-climatic strategies to tall buildings may be greater in hot
climates dominated by cooling as increased height provides cooling benefits through air
temperature reductions and passive ventilation strategies. The reverse may be the case in
cold climates where increased height and wind speeds and reduced air temperatures may
increase heating loads due to increased convection and infiltration.
5. Some aspects of changes in the climate with height have already been applied in for
example the Freedom Tower in New York active systems have benefited from accurate
meteorological predictions based upon temperature lapse rates to achieve 13%
reductions in energy use through HVAC design. There is less evidence of the application
of architectural strategies which may be promoted by the use of predictive software or
accurate on site meteorological data.
6. The application of vertical changes in micro-climate is dependent on the range and
gradient of climatic changes with height and so any rapid changes may limit the
applications of vertical changes. This variation of climate from street to street and level
to level demonstrates the importance of urban meteorological data at a micro-climate
scale.

7 CONCLUSION
7.1 Implications
The following conclusions are drawn:
1. Low-rise buildings are subject to a horizontal micro-climate consisting of local changes
in solar radiation exposure, wind speed, temperature and humidity conditions. Bio-
climatic design commonly applies these variations in hot climates where shading and
natural ventilation strategies are used to limit heat gains.
2. Tall buildings are subject to a vertical micro-climate consisting of similar types of local
changes with the addition of atmospheric processes such as air pressure that reduces
with increased height. The range of conditions is also greater over vertical distances than
over horizontal distances on the ground providing a greater opportunity to harness the
micro-climate than in low-rise buildings.
3. Micro-climates extend vertically from just below the ground to several hundred metres
above the ground during the night and to approximately one kilometre above the ground
during the day.
4. Vertical climatic conditions in the natural environment vary significantly with height with
the widest ranges being closer to the ground which influences conditions up to
approximately 100m. Changes include reduced air temperature, air pressure and
humidity and increased wind speeds with increased height.
5. Vertical climatic conditions in the urban environment are shown to be more complex
due to UHI factors such as varying building densities and anthropogenic energy outputs
which can influence conditions up to 200 – 500m. Similar trends apply as in the natural
environment including reduced air temperature, air pressure, wind turbulence and
humidity and increased wind speeds with increased height. However the range and
vertical gradients of conditions are more variable and field measurements show thermal
radiant temperatures can be flattened out to provide no distinction between ground and
roof level conditions in the case of a south west facing façade within a zone of higher
building density.
6. Access to cooler and cleaner air for natural and mechanical ventilation and sunlight for
PV generation increases with increased building height and clearance from the urban
canopy. Whilst wind speeds increase with height this does not necessarily provide
suitable laminar flow for roof mounted wind turbines and may not increase effective
wind power generation.
7. Operational energy per unit of floor area increased with building height in one study of
6-48 storey commercial buildings in Hong Kong. Electricity usage decreased with
building height in one study of a 12 storey residential building in a cold climate. Heating
and cooling loads can vary at each level of a tall building and with overall building
height. This results from increased levels of engineering services, solar heat loads and
convective forces from wind with increasing height. The building surface area relative to
the floor area reduces with increased height in buildings reducing heat losses and gains
through the envelope. The stack effect contributes further by moving hot air up through
a building and by façade infiltration and exfiltration.
8. Measurements of thermal rad iant temperature in a 228m tall building showed similar
trends than for air temperatures in rural areas with temperatures and temperature
gradients reducing with increased height above the ground. Temperatures cooled by up
to 6.5 ° C from the ground to roof level representing an overall gradient of -2.85 ° C per
100m. Gradients from the ground to 75m were considerably higher than in rural areas
ranging up to 3.15 ° C per 100m and 6.47 ° C per 100m where the temperature of the
ground plane is considered.

9. Higher and more variable temperature gradients were evident in the field study to the
lower levels of the building coinciding approximately with the height of the surrounding
urban canopy. Lower and more consistent temperature gradients were evident to the
upper levels of the building coinciding approximately with the urban boundary layer
above adjacent building roofs. This suggests differing tactics such as natural ventilation
to the upper levels of tall buildings and insulation and more responsive facades to the
lower levels.
10. Bio-climatic design requires the application of systematic climate patterns and site data.
Urban locations consist of multiple horizontal and vertical micro-climates making the
application of micro-climatology complex and dependent on local site data not
commonly available. This study demonstrates that applications such as thermal imaging
can provide detailed data in urban environments. This could be combined with multiple
compartment energy modelling used in Freedom Tower, new GIS data models such as
Zeilers and a new urban climate zone classification system by Stewart and Oke. This may
lead to a more accurate 3-D understanding of urban micro-climates and allow the
application of the vertical micro-climate to bio-climatic design to be investigated further.
11. The benefits of vertical bio-climatic strategies to tall buildings may be greater in hot
climates where principle energy usage is for cooling, as increased height provides cooling
benefits through air temperature reductions and passive ventilation strategies. Strategies
in cold climates may include increasing wall insulation with height to correspond to
cooler temperatures and higher wind speeds.
12. Super tall buildings, buildings in lower density clusters, levels of tall buildings above the
average urban canopy height of 50-100m and mixed use buildings may be most suited to
the use of bio-climatic design based on building height and vertical climate.
13. This investigation provides conceptual tactics for further development that may lead to a
design primer for architects and enhanced bio-climatic design strategies. Tactics are
classified according to building elements and include varying window to wall ratio, sun
shading and u-value selections to match climate conditions that vary with height. These
are focused on reducing cooling loads in hot climates and heating loads in cold climates.
Other more commonly applied tactics include pressure driven thermal buoyancy in atria
to assist with natural ventilation and reduce energy consumption for cooling.
14. Other tactics consider varying façade and opening types and HVAC systems to match
climate conditions that vary with height. This would include the use of climate
responsive facades and be focused on the greater use of passive cooling in hot climates.
These tactics would lead to a building design that varies vertically to match the micro-
climate which changes with height. This would be conceptually similar to the varying of
facades with orientation to match sun movement which is a condition of meso-climate.
15. The vertical micro-climate has been applied to existing tall building designs such as
Freedom Tower in New York although this case study is limited to a super tall building
and the use of temperature lapse rate in mechanical engineering design. This project was
studied by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory in the USA who concluded that
“environmental factors that vary with altitude have a significant effect on the annual
total building and cooling energy”.
16. This may contribute to climate mitigation by off-setting increases in construction costs
and embodied energy that occur with increased height. It may contribute to climate
adaptation by optimising envelope and environmental systems in the retro-fitting of
existing tall buildings.
17. Previous studies have examined the relationship of building height and sustainable
design however these studies are primarily focused on the optimisation of HVAC design.
This study identifies the opportunity for further research, verification and development
of the proposed conceptual tactics which may contribute to a bio-climatic design based
on building height.

7.2 Future research
Further research is required to examine the opportunities that the vertical micro-climate and
other features of building height provide to climate mitigation and improved indoor environment
quality. This includes:
1. Modelling and meteorological measurements of vertical micro-climate conditions
including solar radiation, relative humidity or dewpoint, air and radiant temperature, air
pressure and wind speed at vertical intervals to existing tall building facades. A range of
climate zones and urban climate sites could be selected based on Stewart and Oke's
classification system. This could employ thermal imaging and GIS as well as
methodologies developed by micro-meteorologists and building climatologists.
2. Development of a ‘vertical mapping’ methodology to record and analyse vertical micro-
climates to tall building envelopes. Methodologies used to record and analyse ground
level micro-climate could be combined with 3-D GIS to suit vertical applications. This
may also contribute to a vertical urban design (Yeang 1996, p75).
3. Investigate the effectiveness of the conceptual bio-climatic design tactics proposed in
Table 4 to the reduction of heating and cooling loads through the use of multiple vertical
compartment modelling. Determine if the greater use of vertical micro-climate data
could contribute to mathematical models used to predict the climate conditions and
envelope controls within different urban climate sites and at different heights.
4. Investigate the life cycle performance of tall buildings to compare the operational energy
and indoor environment quality benefits relative to embodied and maintenance energy
increases that may result from multiple façade types and environmental control systems.

8 APPENDIX
8.1 Additional field measurement data
8.1.1 Eastern Elevation
Image Time Image Max. Image Min. Image Date
Temperature Temperature
9:28:55 AM 34.1 °C 1.3 °C 11/19/2009
Sp1 Temperature Sp2 Temperature Sp3 Temperature

24.5 °C 24.4 °C 22.8 °C
Figure 41 – Thermal imaging data summary (east elevation)
8.1.2 Northern elevation

9:46:27 AM 62.0 °C 3.6 °C 11/19/2009

26.9 °C 24.0 °C 24.6 °C
Figure 42 – Thermal imaging data summary (north elevation)
8.1.3 West elevation

8:56:33 AM 44.4 °C -8.3 °C 11/19/2009

29.1 °C 26.8 °C 26.2 °C
Figure 43 – Thermal imaging data summary (west elevation)
8.1.4 South elevation

9:15:34 AM 43.2 °C -13.8 °C 11/19/2009

24.4 °C 28.4 °C 24.4 °C
Figure 44 – Thermal imaging data summary (south elevation)

8.1.5 North elevation podium
10:09:30 AM 32.9 °C -2.1 °C 11/19/2009

25.8 °C 28.7 °C 23.9 °C
Figure 45 – Thermal imaging data summary (north elevation podium)

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Yeang, K. 1999, The Green Skyscraper – The basis for designing sustainable intensive buildings, Prestel
Verlag, Munich.

Internet Sources
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http://www.seidler.net.au/projects/012.html (viewed 21st February 2010).
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http://skyscraperpage.com/diagrams/ (viewed 21st February 2010).
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(viewed 21st February 2010).
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2010).
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The Climate of Tall Buildings

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The Climate of Tall Buildings

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7KH&OLPDWHRI

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Figure 3 – Urban canopy layer and urban boundary layer

3.4 Variations in solar radiation with increasing height

Figure 4 - The affect of solar radiation on tall buildings

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Figure 6 - Diurnal variation of temperature lapse rate in a rural environment

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Figure 8 – Decreasing temperature fluctuation with height above the ground

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Figure 10 - Water vapour stratification in the lowest 100m on clear days

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Figure 11 - Diurnal variation of wind speed at different heights

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Figure 13 – Effects of building type and height on wind turbines

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Figure 14 - Wind flow around a tall building

3.9 Variations in air pressure with increasing height

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Figure 16 - Stack effect for idealized building

3.10 Variations in rainfall with increasing height

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3.11 Variations in building energy usage with increasing height

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Figure 21 – Relationship of building height and weight

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4.2 Time and weather conditions

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Figure 24 – Digital and IR image of MLC Centre east elevation

Figure 25 – Vertical radiant temperatures

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4.3.2 Northern elevation

Sp1 Li2 20.0

Figure 26 – Digital and IR image of MLC Centre north elevation

Figure 27 – Vertical radiant temperatures

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Figure 28 – Digital and IR image of MLC Centre west elevation

Figure 29 – Vertical radiant temperatures

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Figure 30 – Digital and IR image of MLC Centre south elevation

Figure 31 – Vertical radiant temperatures

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Sp2 Li3 22.6

Figure 32 – Digital and IR image of MLC Centre podium north elevation

Figure 33 – Vertical radiant temperatures

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Noise Air Pollution