Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Russell Bloomer1
University of Virginia
Note: There is no guarantee that these are correct, and they should not be copied
1
email: rbloomer@virginia.edu
Contents
i
5.6 Problem 6: Shankar 18.4.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
B Special Harmonics 49
B.1 Legendre Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
B.2 Associated Legendre Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
B.3 Spherical Harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
ii
Chapter 1
751: Problem Set 1
1.1 Problem 1
a
What is the rate an electron orbits a hydrogen atom in its circular Bohr orbit with n = 30?
In Bohr’s Model the electron has angular momentum of L = n~, where n is the first quantum number. The ki-
netic energy of an orbiting electron is
1 1 e2
mv 2 = (1.1)
2 8πεo r
The combination of the two equations and solve for r
2
1 e2
1 1 n~
mv 2 = m =
2 2 mr 8πεo r
4πεo ~2 2
rn = n
me2
Lets define
4πεo ~2
ao =
me2
Look back to the definition of angular momentum, the orbital frequency can be found by dividing by mr2 . Then
v n~ ~
f= = →
r mr2 ma2o n3
Entering the correct values for the constants
1
f = 1.53 × 1012 X
s
b
What is the frequency of a photon emitted from the transition from n = 30 to n = 29?
me4 1
En = − (1.2)
32π 2 ε2o ~2 n2
The transition is then is ∆E, so the frequency is
me4
∆E 1 1
ν= → − 2
h 64π 3 ε2o ~3 n229 n30
1
Inserting the proper constants
(9.109x10−31 )(1.602x10−19 )4
1 1
ν= −
64π 3 (8.85x10−12 )2 (1.0546x10−34 )3 (29)2 (30)2
= 2.56x1011 HzX
c
Comment on the answers from (a) and (b).
The two values are different. The value for part b classically should be the difference the rate at which the electron
orbits the nucleus between n = 30 and n = 29. The difference is do to the electron does not actually orbit the nucleus.
X
1.2 Problem 2
Does the inverse-square repulsion hold true if the α’s hit the gold nucleus? Find an approximate size of the nucleus
and the minimum energy to show deviation.
No, it would not hold true. The amount of energy to hit the nucleus by the inverse-square repulsion is infinite.
1.3 Problem 3
a
For a nucleus of charge Ze, what is the the n = 1 µ orbit compared to the electron orbit.
2
b
What is the frequency of a photon emitted for the muon transition from n = 2 to n = 1
∆E = E2 − E1 = 2π~ν
µZ 2 e4 1
En = −
3π 2 2ε2o ~2 n2
where µ is the reduced mass. For the transition
µZ 2 e4
E2 − E1 1 1
ν= 3 2 3
= −
64π εo ~ 64π 3 ε2o ~3 12 22
2 4 2 4
3Z e 3Z e 207mM
= µ = X
256π 3 ε2o ~3 256π 3 ε2o ~3 207m + M
c
What is the frequency of the photon in the transition n = 2 to n = 1 for a gold atom?
3Z 2 e4
207mM
ν= = 3.19 × 1021 HzX
256π 3 ε2o ~3 207m + M
1.4 Problem 4
What is the uncertainty in the measurement of the height of a helium atom at rest above the table?
The helium atom is at rest on the table. If the atom is at rest the momentum is at 0. This means that the
uncertainty in the momentum measurement is 0. The Uncertainty Principle states that
~
∆x∆p ≥ (1.6)
2π
From this, the uncertainty in the measurement in the position is infinite. If the helium is not known to be at rest,
then the position measurement can be more certain. X
1.5 Problem 5
How long would the Bohr atom last if it obeyed classical physics?
where K is the kinetic energy. For the electron in the Bohr orbit, the kinetic energy is
1 e2
K=
8πεo r
The distance an object travels in a circular orbit is
d = 2πr
3
The Bohr atom has allowed orbits of
4πεo ~2 2
rn = n
me2
The classical period would be
1 32π 3 ε2o ~3 n3
=
νn me4
In the time of one period, the electron will decay out of orbit, so the time for the n = 1 orbit is
3 3
1 4 8.85 × 10−12 6.626 × 10−34 1
= = 4.52 × 10−16 sX
ν (9.109 × 10−31 ) (1.602 × 10−19 )2
4
Chapter 2
751: Problem Set 2
2.1 Problem 1
a
Define the derivative of the delta function by
d 1 2 2
δ 0 (x) = lim ∆ → 0 e−x /4∆ (2.1)
dx (4π∆2 )1/2
Sketch this function for small ∆. See Attached Sheet What is the value of < δ 0 (x − a)|ψ(x) >
= −ψ 0 (a)X
b
What function has the delta function for its derivative? Explain
The step function, which steps up, has the delta function as its derivative. The step function has the property
that every where but one value has slope of 0. The one value is discontinuous at that point the derivative value there
is then infinite. X
2.2 Problem 2
On the interval (-1,1) the polynomials 1, x, x2 , x3 , . . . construct the first four orthonormal basis of these polynomials.
Z 1
< f (x)|g(x) >= f (x)g(x)dx (2.2)
−1
For this problem (and next) the following convention will be used: ui is the ith basis, ψi is the ith orthogonal basis,
and ϕi is the ith orthonormal basis.
5
In Gram-Schmidt u1 ≡ ψ1 , ψ1 = u1 = 1. Now to normalize this base
Z 1
< ψ1 |ψ1 >= dx = x|1−1 = 2 = a1
−1
Then u2 = ψ2 . Normalizing
1
x3 1
Z
2
< ψ2 |ψ2 >= x2 dx = |−1 = = a1
−1 3 3
Then
r
ψ2 x 3
ϕ2 = p = p = x
2/3 2/3 2
6
So
x3 − 3 x
r
ψ4 71
ϕ4 = √ = q 5 = 5x3 − 3x
a1 8 22
175
2.3 Problem 3
Again u1 ≡ ψ1 . Normalizing
Z ∞ 2
e−x dx =
p
< ψ1 |ψ1 >= pi = a1
−∞
Then
ψ1 1
ϕ1 = √ = 1/4
π π
The second base is u2 = x. Forming linear independent base
Z ∞
x −x2
< u2 |ψ1 >= 1/4
e dx = 0
−∞ π
So the orthogonal base is psi2 = u2 = x. Normalizing
Z ∞ √
2 pi
< ψ2 |ψ2 >= x2 e−x dx = = a1
−∞ 2
Then
√
ψ2 2 2x
ϕ2 = √ = 1/4 x = √
a1 π 2π 1/4
The third base is u3 = x2 . Forming a linear independent base
Z ∞
x2 −x2 π 1/4
< u3 |ψ1 > = 1/4
e dx = = b1
−∞ π 2
Z ∞
2x3 2
< u3 |ψ2 > = √ e−x dx = 0
2π 1/4
−∞
7
Then
x2 1
ψ3 2 1
ϕ3 = √ = q √2 = √ x2 −
a1 2 π π 1/4 2 2
4
1
√ 4x2 − 2
=
π 1/4 8
Then
ψ4 x3 − 3 x 1
ϕ4 = √ = q √2 = √ 2x3 − 3x
a1 3 pi π 1/4 3
4
1
2x3 − 3x
= √
π 1/4 12
The four basis are
1
ϕ1 = (2.8)
π 1/4
√
2 2x
ϕ2 = 1/4 x = √ (2.9)
π π 1/4 2
1 2
ϕ3 = √ 4x − 2 (2.10)
π 1/4 8
1
2x3 − 3x X
ϕ4 = √ (2.11)
π 1/4 12
2.4 Problem 4
Solve the time-independent Schrödinger equation in one dimension for an attractive potential V (x) = λδ(x) for a
bound state. Can there be more than one bound state? Explain.
The time-independent Schrödinger equation is
~2 d2 ψ
− − λδ(x)ψ = Eψ (2.12)
2m dx2
For a state to be bound E < 0. First consider the region for x < 0. By the definition of the delta function V (x) = 0.
The Schrödinger equation reduces to
d2 ψ 2mE
=− 2 ψ
dx2 ~
√
−2mE
This can be simplified by κ ≡ ~2
. The solution is then
8
The wave equation must behave properly, so A = 0, because at x = −∞ blows up. Now when x > 0 needs to be
considered. Again, V (x) = 0. The Schrödinger equation is again
d2 ψ 2mE
=− 2 ψ
dx2 ~
So the wave equations is then
For the wave equation to behave properly, D = 0, because at x = ∞ it blows up. The wave equation must be
continuous, but because of the potential is infinite, the first derivative will be discontinuous at that point. To be
continuous B = C. Now integrate Schrödinger equation a small distance, , from 0
Z 2 2 Z Z
~ d ψ
− 2
dx − λδ(x)ψ(x)dx = Eψ(x)dx
− 2m dx − −
The term on the right integrates to 0, when → 0 and the first term is just the derivative of the wave function about
0. In the middle term, apply the limit to find.
dψ 2mλ
∆ = − 2 ψ(0)
dx ~
Because the derivative is discontinuous, it must be approached from both sides. On the left, dψ dx
= Bκ and from the
right dψ
dx
= −Bκ. Now as the limit approaches 0, the left is subtracted from the right to yield
dψ 2mλ
∆ = −Bκ = − 2 B
dx ~
~ 2 κ2 mλ2
E=− →− 2
2m 2~
Lastly, normalizing the wave function.
Z ∞ ∞
|B|2
Z
|ψ(x)|2 dx = 1 → 2|B|2 = =1
−∞ 0 κ
mλ2
E=− (2.14)
2~2
No, there is only one bound state. There is nothing that can be changed that does not changed the problem,
such as the quantum number n. X
2.5 Problem 5
How would the result change if the limits were finite? Can you write an equation for this case?
9
So taking the derivative inside the integral
Z ∞ Z ∞
d ∂
|Ψ(x, t)|2 dx = |Ψ(x, t)|2 dx
dt −∞ −∞ ∂t
∂Ψ∗
∂ ∂ i~ ∂Ψ
|Ψ|2 = Ψ∗ −
∂t ∂x 2m ∂x ∂x
Then
∞
∂Ψ∗ ∞
Z
d i~ ∂Ψ
|Ψ(x, t)|2 dx = Ψ∗ − |−∞
dt −∞ 2m ∂x ∂x
Because the functions must vanish at infinity to behave properly the integral is 0.
Z ∞
d
|Ψ(x, t)|2 dx = 0
dt −∞
The value would not be 0, but some finite value, because the particle could leave the space between a and b. The
equation would look like
∂Ψ∗ b
Z b
d 2 i~ ∗ ∂Ψ
|Ψ(x, t)| dx = Ψ − |a X
dt a 2m ∂x ∂x
b
<p>
If < x >= x|Ψ|2 dx, show that d
R
dt
< x >= 2m
The term on the left is
Z
d ∂
<x>= x |Ψ|2 dx
dt ∂x
∂Ψ∗
Z
i~ ∂ ∂Ψ
= x Ψ∗ − Ψ dx
2m ∂x ∂x ∂x
∗
Z
i~ ∂ ∂Ψ ∂Ψ
=− Ψ∗ − Ψ dx
2m ∂x ∂x ∂x
∗
∂Ψ ∂Ψ
− x Ψ∗ − Ψ |∞∞
∂x ∂x
∂Ψ∗
Z
d i~ ∂ ∂Ψ
<x>=− Ψ∗ − Ψ dx
dt 2m ∂x ∂x ∂x
Z
i~ ∂Ψ
=− Ψ∗ dx
m ∂x
<p>
This is just < v >, which is < v >= m
, ie
Z
d i~ ∂Ψ <p>
< x >= − Ψ∗ dx = X
dt m ∂x m
c
Prove
d dV
< p >= − (2.16)
dt dx
d
Start by writing out dt
<p>
∂Ψ∗ ∂Ψ
Z
d ∂ ∂Ψ
< p >= −i~ + Ψ∗ dx
dt ∂t ∂x ∂x ∂t
10
Integrating by parts
Z 2 ∗
~2 2
d ∂ Ψ ∂Ψ ∗ ∂ ∂Ψ
<p>=− − Ψ
dt 2m ∂x2 ∂x ∂x2 ∂x
Z
∂Ψ ∂(V Ψ)
+ V Ψ∗ − Ψ∗ dx
∂x ∂x
The first term vanishes because the function vanishes at 0. This reduces to
Z
d ∂V
< p >= − Ψ∗ Ψdx
dt ∂x
Finally
d dV
< p >= − X
dt dx
11
12
Chapter 3
751: Problem Set 6
Equation 7.3.8
ψ 00 + (2ε − y 2 )ψ = 0 (3.1)
13
3.2 7.3.2 Principles of Quantum Mechanics
Verify that H3 (y) and H4 (y) obey the relation, Eq. (7.3.15)
(2n + 1 − 2ε)
Cn+2 = Cn (3.2)
(n + 2)(n + 1)
The coefficient C1 is the lowest, because there in no negative powers of y. So the recursion relationship becomes
2
u(y) = C1 y + C3 y 3 + C5 y 5 + . . . = C1 y − y 3 + 0
3
Now the case of H4 (y). Again using equations 7.3.15 and 7.3.18 to find
9 − 2ε
C6 = C4 =0
(6)(5)
u(y) = C0 + C2 y 2 + C4 y 4 + C6 y 6 + . . .
4
= C0 1 − 4y 2 + y 4 + 0
3
14
3.4 7.3.4 Principles of Quantum Mechanics
2 2 2
2
X = (∆X) and P = (∆P ) in these states. Show that 1X 1 = 3~/2mω and 1P 2 1 = 3mω~/2. Show
2
R
From exercise 7.3.3, odd powers of x lead to = 0. For nP n , again, the coefficients are set to 1.
Z
d
ψn∗ (x)
nP n = (ψ(x)) dx
dx
Z
2 d n −x2 /2
= xn e−x /2 x e dx
dx
Z
2 2 2
= xn e−x /2 nxn−1 e−x /2 − xn+1 e−x /2 dx
Z
2 2
= nx2n−1 e−x − x2n+1 e−x dx
2
From exercise 7.3.3, odd powers of x are 0, so = 0. So the (∆O)2 is defined as (∆O)2 = O2 − O . Now for
R
(∆X)2
1/2 Z 2
mω mω 1/2 2
= 2 x2
H n x e−mωx /~
2n
π~2 (n!) ~
and
(∆P )2
1/2 Z 2
2
mω 2 d mω 1/2 2
= 2 ~ 2
H n x e−mωx /~
2n
π~2 (n!) dx ~
For 1X 2 1 ,
1/2 Z 2
mω mω 1/2 2
e−mωx /~
2 2
1X 1 = x 2 x
π~22 (1!)2 ~
mω 1/2 mω Z 2
= 4 x4 e−mωx /~
4π~ ~
mω 1/2 mω 3π 1/2 ~ 5/4
= 4
4π~ ~ 4 mω
3~
=
2mω
15
Now for 1P 2 1
1/2
2 mω mω
1P 1 = ~2 4 ×
π~22 (1!)2 ~
d2
Z
2
x xe−mωx /~ dx
dx2
1/2
mω mω
= ~2 2 4 ×
2
π~2 (1!) ~
Z 2 !
~ ~ 2 2
x4 − 3 x e−mωx /~ dx
mω mω
3
= mω~
2
Finally for ψ0 (x). First 0X 2 0
Z
2 mω 1/2 2
0X 0 = x2 e−mωx /~ dx
π~
mω 1/2 ~ π~ 1/2 ~
= =
π~ 2mω mω 2mω
Next 0P 2 0
mω 1/2 Z 2 d2 2
e−mωx /2~ 2 e−mωx /2~ dx
2
0P 0 = ~2
π~ dx
1/2 Z mω 2
2 mω mω
2
=~ 2
x − e−mωx /~ dx
π~ ~ ~
mω~
=
2
Finally ∆X · ∆P
~ mω~ ~2
(∆X)2 · (∆P )2 = =
2mω 2 4
p
Then (∆X)2 · (∆P )2 = ~
2
= ∆X · ∆P X
The matrix elements of X and P can be found from the raising and lowering matrices. These matrices can be
constructed from equations 7.4.26 and 7.4.27. Combining with equation 7.4.28 and 7.4.29, to find the matrix elements.
From 7.4.26
0
n an = n1/2 δn,n−1 (3.4)
0 11/2 0 0 ...
1/2
0 0 2 0
a=
0 0 0 31/2
.. ..
. .
16
Now for the raising operator
0 0 0 ...
1/2
1 0 0
21/2
a = 0
† 0
0
0 31/2
.. ..
. .
1/2
Equation 7.4.28 defines X = ~
2mω
(a + a† ), then as a matrix
0 11/2 0 0 ...
1/2 21/2
1/2 1 0 0
~ 0 21/2 0 3 1/2
X=
2mω 0
31/2 0
.. ..
. .
mω~ 1/2
(a† − a), then as a matrix
From 7.4.29, P = i 2
0 −11/2 0 0 ...
1/2 −21/2
1/2 1 0 0
mω~ 0
21/2 0 −31/2
P =i
2 0
31/2 0
.. ..
. .
So n0 X n is then
1/2
~
n0 . . .
... ·
2mω
0 11/2 0 0 ...
11/2 0 21/2 0
..
.
0 21/2 0 31/2
n
1/2
0 3 0
..
.. ..
.
. .
1/2 h i
~
= (n + 1)1/2 δn0 ,n+1 + n1/2 δn0 ,n−1
2mω
Lastly for n0 P n
1/2
mω~
n0 . . .
... ·
2
0 −11/2 0 0 ...
11/2 0 −21/2 0
..
.
0 21/2 0 −31/2
n
1/2
0 3 0
..
.. ..
.
. .
1/2 h
mω~ i
=i (n + 1)1/2 δn0 ,n+1 − n1/2 δn0 ,n−1
2
17
3.8 7.4.2 Principles of Quantum Mechanics
2
2
Find X , P , X , P , and ∆X · ∆P in the state n
By orthogonality of the n ,
1/2
~
n1/2 δn,n−1 +
nX n =
2mω
(n + 1)1/2 δn,n+1 = 0
By orthogonality of the n ,
1/2
~
(n + 1)1/2 δn,n+1 + n1/2 δn,n−1 = 0
nP n = i
2mω
Next, the square of the position operator
~
2
n| a + a† n
2
nX n =
2mω
~
2
= n| a2 + aa† + a† a + a† n
2mω
~
= n1/2 (n − 1)1/2 δn+1,n−1 + (n + 1)δn+1,n+1 +
2mω
1/2 1/2
nδn−1,n−1 + n (n − 1) δn−1,n+1
~ ~
= (0 + n + 1 + n + 0) = (n + 1/2)
2mω mω
18
Next, the square of the momentum operator
2 mω~
† 2
nP n = − n| a − a n
2
mω~
2
=− n| a2 − aa† − a† a + a† n
2
mω~
=− n1/2 (n − 1)1/2 δn+1,n−1 −
2
(n+1)δn+1,n+1 − nδn−1,n−1 + n1/2 (n − 1)1/2 δn−1,n+1
mω~
=− (0 − n − 1 − n + 0) = mω~ (n + 1/2)
2
In classical mechanics, the viral theorem states that the average kinetic and potential energy, which is V (r) = ark in
an orbit is related by
T̄ = c(k)V̄ (3.5)
where c(k) depends only on k. Show that c(k) = k/2. Using the previous exercise to show that for the oscillator
T = U (3.6)
To show the viral theorem is true, there is no frictional force. The other important detail is this is in a circular
orbit. In this case,
1
T̄ = F·r
2
1
= ∇V · r
2
1
= ∇r V r
2
19
3.10 7.4.4 Principles of Quantum Mechanics
Show that
2
4 ~
nX n = [3 + 6n(n + 1)] (3.7)
2mω
4/2
~
X4 = ×
2mω
a4 + a3 a† + a2 a† a + a2 a† a† + aa† a2 + aa† aa† +
aa† a† a + aa† a† a† + a† a3 + a† aaa† + a† aa† a+
a† aa† a† + a† a† aa + a† a† aa† + a† a† a† a + a† a† a† a†
From the orthogonality, if there are not equal raising and lower operators, the expectation value would be 0. Then
2
4 ~
nX n =
×
2mω
n aaa† a† + aa† aa† + aa† a† a + a† aaa† +
a† aa† a + a† a† aa n
Which reduces to
2
4 ~
nX n = (n + 1)(n + 2) + (n + 1)2 +
2mω
n(n + 1) + n(n + 1) + n2 + n(n − 1)
2
~
= [3 + 6n(n + 1)] X
2mω
(1)
Find ψ(t)
The time dependent part of the harmonic oscillator is e−iEn t/~ . For n = 0, E0 = ~ω/2, and for n = 1, E1 = 3~ω/2
so
1 −iE0 t/~
0 + e−E1 t/~ 1
ψ(t) = e
21/2
1
= 1/2 e−iωt/2 0 + e−3ωt/2 1 X
2
(2)
Find X(0) = ψ(0)X ψ(0) , P (0) , X(t) , P (t)
20
For X(0)
X(0) = ψ(0)X ψ(0)
1/2
1 ~ 1
(a + a† ) 1/2 0 + 1
= 0 + 1
21/2 2mω 2
1/2
~
= 0 + 1 a + a† 0 + 1
8mω
1/2
~
†
= 0a0 + 0a 0 + 0a1 +
8mω
†
†
†
0a 1 + 1a0 + 1a 0 + 1a1 + 1a 1
1/2
~
= (0 + 0 + 1 + 0 + 0 + 1 + 0 + 0)
8mω
1/2
~
=
2mω
Likewise for P (0)
P (0) = ψ(0)P ψ(0)
1/2
1 mω~ 1
(a† − a) 1/2 0 + 1
= 0 + 1 i
21/2 8 2
1/2
mω~
†
=i 0 + 1 a − a 0 + 1
8
1/2
mω~
− 0a0 + 0a† 0 − 0a1 +
=i
8
†
†
†
0a 1 − 1a0 + 1a 0 − 1a1 + 1a 1
1/2
mω~
=i (0 + 0 + 1 + 0 + 0 − 1 + 0 + 0) = 0
8
Next for X(t)
X(t) = ψ(t)X ψ(t)
1/2
1
~
= 1/2 eiωt 0 + e3iωt/2 1
×
2 2mω
1
(a + a† ) 1/2 0 e−iωt + e−3iωt/2 1
2
1/2
~
†
= 0a0 + 0a 0 +
8mω
−iωt
† −iωt
iωt
0a1 e + 0a 1 e + 1a0 e +
† iωt
†
1a 0 e + 1a1 + 1a 1
1/2
~
= eiωt + e−iωt
8mω
1/2
~
= cos ωt
2mω
21
Finally for P (t)
P (t) = ψ(t)P ψ(t)
1/2
1
mω~
= 1/2 eiωt 0 + e3iωt/2 1 i
×
2 2
1
(a† − a) 1/2 0 e−iωt + e−3iωt/2 1
2
1/2
mω~
− 0a0 + 0a† 0 −
=i
8
−iωt
† −iωt
iωt
0a1 e + 0a 1 e − 1a0 e +
† iωt
†
1a 0 e − 1a1 + 1a 1
1/2
mω~
=i −eiωt + e−iωt
8
1/2
mω~
=− sin ωtX
2
(3)
Find Ẋ(t) and Ṗ (t) using Ehrenfest’s theorem and solve for X(t) and P (t) and compare to part 2
For Ẋ(t) ,
−i
Ẋ(t) = [X, H]
~
P2
−i
= X, + [X, V (x)]
~ 2m
−i
= P [X, P ] + [X, P ]P
4m2 ~
P (t)
=
m
For Ṗ (t)
−i
Ṗ (t) = [P, H]
~
P2
−i
= P, + [P, V (x)]
~ 2m
dV
= −mω 2 X(t)
= −i~
dx
For this to be true, the time dependent X(t) has to contain the momentum term. With that some initial value
needs to be chosen. In this case, t = 0. So
P (t = 0)
X(t) = X(t = 0) cos ωt + sin ωt
m
Likewise
Show that a(t) = e−iωt a(0) and that a† (t) = eiωt a† (0)
22
First lets define how the operator a varies in time.
da
i~ = [a(t), H] = i~(a(t)H − Ha(t)) =
dt
† 1 † 1
~ω a(t)(a (t)a(t) + ) − (a (t)a(t) + )a(t) =
2 2
h i
†
~ω a(t), a (t) a(t) = ~ωa(t)
In this case, C 0 is an integration constant. So this initial condition is when a(t = 0) = a(0). Substituting that into
the previous equation to find
ψ a(t)ψ = ψ a(0)e−iωt ψ
Because the operator is changing with time, the basis are constant, so
For the raising operator, the fact that a† is the adjoint to a can be used.
†
a(t) = a(0)e−iωt → a† (t) = a† (0)eiωt
= eiωt a† (0) X
23
24
Chapter 4
752: Problem Set 6
So in leading order in ε, it is linear. As it has been shown in the text the unperturbed Hamiltonian are time invariant,
but the dipole term hα0 l0 m0 |z|αlmi = 0, so there is no time invariance for the dipole term from page 280. X
Suppose an electron has an intrinsic electric dipole moment µel , which is proportional to σ. This dipole causes a
small perturbative potential, −µel · E. Discuss qualitatively how the energy levels of a Na atom would be altered
in the absence of any external electromagnetic field. Are the energy shifts first or second order? State which states
get mixed with each other. Obtain an expression for the energy shifts of the lowest level that is affected by the
25
perturbation.
In the absence of an external electromagnetic field H = H o + V , where V = −µel · E. The electric field can be defined
q
as E = Eo r. The potential becomes −µel · E = −Eo µel · r. The electric dipole can be changed to µel = ek 4π 3
σ,
where k is some constant. Then
r r
4π 4π
−µ · E = −ekEo σ · r = −ekEo |σ||r| cos θ
3 3
q
From spherical harmonics −ekEo 4π 3
|σ||r| cos θ = −ekEo z. This is similar to the Stark effect. The correction will be
first order, because z affects the states in first order. The valence electron in Na is in the 3s state, so then the states are
|3, 0, 0i, |3, 1, 0i, |3, 2, 0i, |3, 1, ±1i, |3, 2, ±1i, and |3, 2, ±2i. When the potential acts on these state, the selection rules
are ∆m = 0 and ∆l = ±1. The states |3, 2, ±2i are unaffected. Now for the mixed states, h3, 2, ±1|z|3, 1, ±1i 6= 0, so
the states |3, 2, 1i and |3, 1, 1i are mixed together, and |3, 2, −1i and |3, 1, −1i are mixed together. Now for the state
m = 0 would be simple, but because the s-state can go to the p-state and the d-state can go down to the p-state, the
three have to be mixed together. The lowest state will be a m = 0 mixture. The matrix for m = 0 is1
h320|z|320i h320|z|310i h320|z|300i 0 h320|z|310i 0
V = ekEo h310|z|320i h310|z|310i h310|z|300i = ekEo h310|z|320i 0 h310|z|300i
h300|z|320i h300|z|310i h300|z|300i 0 h300|z|310i 0
√
0
√ −3 3ao 0
√ √ 0 1 √0
= ekEo −3 3ao 0
√ −3 6ao = −3 3ao ekEo 1 √0 2
0 −3 6ao 0 0 2 0
For hydrogen atom in its ground state is placed in an uniform electric field
0 t<0
E= (4.1)
Eo e−t/τ t>0
Find the probability for the transitions 2p (each state) and 2s.
The perturbation becomes V = −ex·E = −eEz. So looking at the transition to the 2p states with magnetic moments
of ±1.
26
from parity and Wigner-Eckart Theorem. Because of this the probability of the transitions to |2, 1, ±1i is 0. First
order time dependent theory for 2, 1, 0i state.
i t iω21 t0
Z Z t
ieEo 0 0
h2, 1, 0|V (t0 )|1, 0, 0idt0 = eiω21 t e−t /τ dt0
(1)
c210 (t) = − e h2, 1, 0|z|1, 0, 0i
~ 0 ~ 0
Now for the transition from the ground state to 2s state. This can be quick found by looking at h2, 0, 0|z|1, 0, 0i.
Under parity an even state has to go to an odd state for this potential. Therefore the probability is 0. X
~2
| + +ih− − | + | + −ih− + | + | − +ih+ − | + | − −ih+ + |
4
+ i2 (| + +ih− − | − | + −ih− + | − | − +ih+ − | + | − −ih− − |)
+ | + +ih+ + | − | + −ih+ − | − | − +ih− + | + | − −ih− − |
For λ = 1 is the symmetric state √12 (| + −i + | − +i). For λ = −3 is the anti-symmetric state √1
2
(| + −i − | − +i).
So in diagnonlized space the energy splitting becomes
∆ | + +i, | − −i, √12 (| + −i + | − +i)
−3∆ √1 (| + −i − | − +i)
2
i
Because the Hamiltonian is time-independent the time evolution operator is U (t, to ) = e− ~ H(t−to ) . Here to = 0.
Then the time evolution operator becomes U (t, 0)| + −i = √12 U (t, 0) (|3i + |4i), where |1i = | + +i, |4i = | − −i,
|3i = √12 (| + −i + | − +i), and |4i = √12 (| + −i − | − +i). Now the final state is
1 i 1 h i
|f, ti = U (t, 0)|i, 0i = √ e− ~ Ht (|3i + |4i) = √ e−i∆t/~ |3i + e3i∆t/~ |4i
2 2
1 −i∆t/~ 1
= e + e3i∆t/~ | + −i + e−i∆t/~ − e3i∆t/~ | − +i
2 2
27
To find the probability that the particle are in each of the final possible states
o 4∆
So here H = 0 and V = S
~2 1
· S2 , and the initial state is |ii = | + −i and the final state is |f i = | − +i. From the
E −E
undiagonalized matrix Vf i = 2∆, and the other two basis Vni = 0. Now ωf i = f ~ i = 0. So
i t 0
Z
(0) (1)
ci = 1 cf = − dt 2∆ = −2i∆t/~
~ 0
Then the probability for each state is
(0)
P (|ii) = |ci |2 = 1
2
(1) ∆t
P (|f i) = |cf |2 = 4
~
2∆t 2
∆t ~
This holds true for 1⇒ 1⇒ ∆ X
~ ~
t
For the two level system E1 < E2 . There is a time dependent potential that connects the two levels as follows:
2
X
i~ċk = Vkn (t)eiωkn t cn for n = 1, 2 (4.3)
n=1
The potential is
eiωt
0
V =γ
e−iωt 0
E2 −E1
and ω21 = ~
. So
Then
h i γ2
i~c̈1 = i(ω − ω21 ) γc2 ei(ω−ω21 )t + ei(ω−ω21 )t e−i(ω−ω21 )t c1
i~
γ2
c̈1 = − 2 c1 + i(ω − ω21 )ċ1 ⇒ c1 (t) = ψei(ω−ω21 )t/2
~
28
Then the differential equation becomes
(ω − ω21 )2 γ2 (ω − ω21 )2
ψ̈ − ψ + i(ω − ω21 )ψ̇ = − 2 ψ + i(ω − ω21 )ψ̇ − ψ
4 ~ 2
r r
γ2 (ω − ω21 )2
γ2 (ω − ω21 )2 γ2 (ω − ω21 )2
ψ̈ = − 2 − ψ ⇒ ψ = A sin 2
+ t + B cos 2
+ t
~ 4 ~ 4 ~ 4
r
γ2 (ω − ω21 )2
For simplicity Ω ≡ + , so
~2 4
And
(ω − ω21 )2 sin2 Ωt (ω − ω21 )2 sin2 Ωt γ 2 (ω − ω21 )2 (ω − ω21 )2
|c1 (t)|2 = cos2 Ωt + sin2
Ωt = 1 − Ω 2
− = 1 − + −
4Ω2 Ω2 4 Ω2 ~2 4 4
2
2
sin Ωt γ
=1− ⇒ |c1 (t)|2 = 1 − |c2 (t)|2 X
Ω2 ~2
(b) Now use time dependent perturbation theory for small values of γ and look at two cases (i) ω very different from
ω21 and (ii) ω very close to ω21
The lowest order term would be first order term
iγ t −i(ω−ω21 )t0 0 γ2
Z
−iγ 1 ω − ω
21
e−i(ω−ω21 )t − 1 =
(1)
c2 = − e dt = sin t
~ 0 ~ −i(ω − ω21 ) ~(ω − ω21 ) 2
So the probability is
4γ 2 ω − ω
21
|c2 (t)|2 = sin2 t
~2 (ω − ω21 )2 2
Ifγ is small and ω is very different from ω21 , the term γ 2 /~2 + (ω − ω21 )2 /4 becomes (ω − ω21 )2 /4, so the real term
becomes
r !
2 γ 2 /~2 2 γ2 (ω − ω21 )2 4γ 2 ω − ω
21
|c2 (t)| = 2 2 sin + t ≈ 2 sin2 t
γ /~ + (ω − ω21 ) /4
2 ~ 2 4 ~ (ω − ω21 )2 2
So the |c2real (t)|2 ≈ |c2pert (t)|2 . So in the case ∆ω/2 γ/~ is approximately true. In the second case of ω very close
to ω21 , perturbation theory starts to breakdown. The ratio of the two is
4γ 2
sin2 ω−ω 21
|c2pert (t)|2 ~2 (ω−ω21 )2 2
t
= q X
|c2real (t)|2 γ 2 /~2 2 γ2 (ω−ω21 )2
γ 2 /~2 +(ω−ω21 )2 /4
sin ~2
+ 4
t
29
30
Chapter 5
752: Problem Set 7
2ao 5 215/2 ao
1 2 4!
= eE √ (2π) = eE
32πa3o 3 ao 3 35
For a changing electric field, there is an induced magnetic field. This magnetic field interacts with spin of the electron
which would be Hm = −µ · B
Consider a particle in the ground state of a box of length L. Argue on semiclassical grounds that the natural time
period associated with it is T ' mL2 /~π. If the box expands symmetrically to double its size in time τ T what is
the probability of catching the particle in the ground state of the new box?
The time for a particle to move across the box can be found from the kinetic energy, E = 21 mv 2 . Then
~2 π 2 1 ~π
E= = mv 2 ⇒ v =
2mL2 2 mL
31
2
The time to cross is v = L/T → T = mL √1 πx √1 πx
. The initial state is ψ1 =
~π L
sin L
. In the new volume ψ2 = L
cos L
.
The new ground state is ψ = √12L sin πx
2L
. Then
3L/2
Z
1 πx πx 8
cf (t) = √ sin cos dx =
L 2 2L L 3π
L/2
So the probability is
2
8
P = |cf |2 = X
3π
In the β decay H 3 , the emitted electron has a kinetic energy of 16 keV. Argue that the sudden approximation may
be used to describe the response of an electron that is initially in the 1s state of H 3 . Show that the amplitude for it
to be in the ground state of (He)+ is 16(2)1/2 /27. What is the probability for it to be in the state
The time for the emitted electron,qτ is much less than one orbit time, T , of electron in the ground state. So
q 32000eV 27.2eV
τ ∼ ao m
, where T ∼ 2ao m
∴ τ T . The ground state of H
1/2
1
|100i = e−r/ao
πa3o
The amplitude is
Z∞ Zπ Z2π √
2 2 −3r/ao 2
h100|100i∗ = e r sin θdφdθdr
πa3o
0 0 0
Z∞ √ √ √
8 2 −3r/aO 2 8 2 2a3o 16 2
= e r dr = =
a3o a3o 27 27
0
Now for the state |16, 3, 0i (He)+ . The integral over spherical harmonics
Zπ Z2π √
7
−3 cos θ + 5 cos3 θ sin θdφdθ = 0
8π
0 0
Because each term is multiplied be the spherical harmonics, the amplitude is 0 ∴ P (|16, 3, 0i∗ ) = 0
An oscillator is in the ground state of H = H o + H 1 , where the time-independent perturbation H 1 is the linear
potential (−f x). If at t = 0, H 1 is abruptly turned off, show that the probability that the system is in the nth
eigenstate of H o is given by the Poisson distribution
e−λ λn f2
P (n) = , where λ = (5.3)
n! 2mω 3 ~
32
Because the perturbation is sudden, the particle is still in the initial state of H = H o + H 1 . From Eq. 17.2.10
2
|ni = e−i(f /mω ~)P
|no i (5.4)
f2
Using λ = 2mω 3 ~
√
2 λ λ(a† −a)
e−i(f /mω ~)P
|no i ⇒ e |no i
Consider a system subject to a perturbation H 1 (t) = H 1 δ(t). Show that if at t = 0− the system is in the state |io i,
the amplitude to be in a state |f o i at t = 0+ is, to first order,
−i o 1 o
df = hf |H |i i (f 6= i) (5.6)
~
From Eq. 18.2.9
Z0−
i
df = δf i − hf o |H 1 δ(t)|io ieiωf i t dt
~
−∞
i
= − hf o |0|io i = 0
~
Z0+
i
df = δf i − hf o |H 1 δ(t)|io ieiωf i t dt
~
−∞
i
= − hf o |H 1 |io i
~
33
5.6 Problem 6: Shankar 18.4.4
(2) Write down HΛ , the Hamiltonian obtained by gauge transforming the potentials.
The Lagrangian is
1 e ∂Λ e
L= mv 2 − eφ − + v · (A − ∇Λ)
2 c ∂t c
The canonical momentum is
∂L e
p= = mv + (A − ∇Λ)
∂v c
The Hamiltonian is
1 e ∂Λ
H =p·v−L= mv 2 + eφ +
2 c ∂t
e
2
p− c
(A − ∇Λ) e ∂Λ
H= + eφ + X
2m c ∂t
34
(3) Show that if ψ(r, t) is a solution to Schrödinger’s equation with the Hamiltonian H, then ψΛ (r, t) given in Eq.
(18.4.33) is the corresponding solution with H → HΛ
Let’s first look at the following relations (position, then momentum)
eieΛ/~c xe−ieΛ/~c = x
h i h i e∇Λ
eieΛ/~c pe−ieΛ/~c = eieΛ/~c p, e−ieΛ/~c + p = −eieΛ/~c i~∇ e−ieΛ/~c + p = p + (5.7)
c
Let’s look at the original Hamiltonian
" 2 #
d p − ec A
i~ |ψi = H|ψi = + eφ |ψi
dt 2m
35
36
Chapter 6
752: Problem Set 8
Using time-dependent perturbation theory, obtain an expression for the transition rate at which the electron is emitted
with momentum p. Show, in particular, how you may compute the angular distribution of the ejected electron (in
terms of θ and φ defined with respect to the z-axis). Discuss briefly the similarities and the differences between this
problem and the (more realistic) photoelectric effect. (Note: For the initial wave function see Problem 34. If you
have a normalization problem, the final wave function may be taken to be
1
ψf (x) = eip·x/~ (6.2)
L3/2
with L very large, but you should be able to show that the observable effects are independent of L.)
2π † 2
wi→n = V δ(En − Ei − ~ω)
~ ni
† 2 Vo2
hn|eikz |ii2 .
where Vni =
4
Now finding the matrix value
Z r
ikz 1 −ikf ·x ikz 1 −r/ao 3
hn|e |ii = e e e d r
L3/2 πa3o
Z
1
= √ 3/2
e−i(kf ·x−kz)−r/ao d3 r
πL3/2 ao
37
Now from the text k · x − kz = q, so the integral becomes
8π 1
hn|eikz |ii = 5/2
L3/2 ao (1/a2o + q2 )2
8π 1
= 5/2 2
L3/2 ao 1/a2o + (kf − kz)2
dn L3 p2f
n2 dΩ dpf = dpf dΩ
dpf (2π~)2
The rate is
2π † 2
wi→pf = V δ(En − Ei − ~ω)
~ ni
2π Vo2 64π 2 1 L3 p2f
= 4 dpf dΩ
~ 4 L ao 1/a2o + (kf − kz)2 (2π~)3
3 5
= kf2 + k2 − 2kkf cos θ
The rate is
There is no azimuthal dependence, but that is to be expected, because the perturbation is defined in the z direction.
This is very similar to the photoelectric effect except that there is no polarization taken into account and no dipole
approximation. X
Obtain an expression for τ (2p → 1s) for the hydrogen atom. Verify that it is equal to 1.6 × 10−9 s.
The initial state is |2lmi ⊗ |0i and the final state is |100i ⊗ |k~i. Now Fermi’s golden rule
2
2π o e o
Ri→f = hf | A · P|i i δ(E100 + ~ω − E2lm )
~ mc
~c2
Z
∗
hf o |A · P|io i = imω ψ100 ε · rψ21m d3 r
4π 2 ω
where
38
The integral becomes
1/2 Z
4π
Z
2 0 1 −1 0 0 −1 1 m
R10 rR21 r dr Y0 −ε1 Y1 + ε1 Y1 − ε1 Y1 Y1 dΩ
3
Then
15
hf |A · A|io i2 = 2 a2 ε1 2 δm,−1 + ε0 2 δm,0 + ε−1 2 δm,1
o
310 o 1 1 1
4πk2
Z
δ (E100 + ~ω − E21m ) k2 dkdΩ =
~c
E21m −E100 e2 1 3e2
where k = ~c
= 2ao ~c
1− 4
= 8ao ~c
. Then the rate is
2
2π e 2 ~2 c2 2 2 2 215 3e2
4π
Ri→f = m ω ao 11
~ mc 4π 2 ω 3 8ao ~c ~c
8 2 5 2
8
2 e mc 2 mc2
= ⇒ Ri→f = α5
3 mc ~ 3 ~
2 8
5 (.511×106 )(3×1018 )
1
= .61 × 109 s−1 . The lifetime is
The rate is Ri→f = 3 137 1973.3
1
τ = 1/R = = 1.6 × 10−9 s X
.61 × 109
(1) By going through the derivation, argue that we can take the eik·r factor into account exactly, by replacing pf
by pf − ~k in Eq. 18.5.19
Looking at Eq. 18.5.5
s
e 1 1
Z
1 −ipf ·r/~ ik·r −r/ao 3
Hf i = e e Ao · (−i~∇) e d r
2mc (2π~)3/2 πa3o
s
e 1 1
Z
−i pf −~k ·r/~ −r/ao 3
= e Ao · (−i~∇) e d r
2mc (2π~)3/2 πa3o
s
e 1 1 −ip0f ·r/~
Z
−r/ao 3
= e Ao · (−i~∇) e d r
2mc (2π~)3/2 πa3o
39
where p0f = pf − ~k. Because of the spherical symmetry of the system and all of the vectors are defined with respect
to pf (so p0f would be a rotation, which has no affect on this system) all of the following steps are the same so
Z
H 1 = N e−i(pf −~k)·r/~ A · (i~∇) e−r/ao d3 r
fi o
q
e 1 1
where N = 2mc (2π~)3/2 πa3
X
o
(2) Verify the claim made above about the electron momentum distribution.
Integrating by parts of the previous problem (remembering that p0f = pf − ~k)
Z
0
Hf1i = N Ao · p0f e−ipf ·r/~ e−r/ao d3 r
Z ∞ Z 1 Z 2π
0
0
= N Ao · pf e−ipf ·r/~ e−r/ao r2 drd(cos θ)dφ
0 −1 0
0 0
!
e−ipf ·r/~ − eipf ·r/~
Z ∞
0
= 2πN Ao · pf e−r/ao r2 dr
0 −ipf r/~
8π/ao 0
= 2 N Ao · pf
(1/ao )2 + (p0f /~)2
(1) Estimate the photoelectric cross section when the ejected electron has a kinetic energy of 10 Ry. Compare it to
the atom’s geometric cross section ' πa2o .
√
Looking at Eq. 18.5.30 and pf = 2mE 1
2
128π 1 e2 pf c 1
σ = 4
p2 c2
3 ~ω c~ m~c
f
1 +
2 2 a2
o
~ c
128π 1 √ 3/2 c 1 a3
3/2 m o
= α 8E 4
3 E + 13.6 m ~c 1 + 2mc2 Ea2 1
o ~2 c2
√ 1/2
128π 8 (136)3/2 1 .511 × 106 (.511)3
=
2(.511×106 )(136)(.511)2 4
3 149.6 137 1973.3
1+
(1973.3)2
−4 2
= 1.4 × 10 Å
This is much smaller than the geometrical cross section of the atom. X
(2) Show that if we consider photoemission from the 1s state of a charge Z atom, σ ∝ Z 5 , in the limit pf ao /Z~ 1.
~2 ao
The Bohr radius is inversely proportional to Z, then a = Zme2
= Z
. Looking at Eq. 18.5.30
128πa3 e2 p3f 1 Z5
σ= 3 6 6 6
∝ 5 = 5 ∝ Z5 X
3m~ ωcpf a /~ a ao
1 All values from Shankar p. 669
40
6.5 Problem 5: Shankar 19.3.1
Show that
gµr 2 1
o
σY ukawa = 16πro2 (6.3)
~2 1 + 4k2 ro2
where ro = 1µo is the range. Compare σ to the geometrical cross section associated with this range.
Looking at Eq. 19.3.11
4µ2 g 2 dΩ
dσ =
~4 ((1/ro )2 + 4k2 sin2 (θ/2))2
4µ2 g 2
Z π Z 2π
sin θdθdφ
σ=
~ 4
0 0 ((1/ro )2 + 4k2 sin2 (θ/2))2
8πµ2 g 2
Z 1
dx
= 2
~4 2 2
−1 ((1/ro ) + 2k − 2k x)
2
16πµ2 g 2 ro4
2
2 gµro 1
= 4
⇒ σ = 16πro
~ 1 + 4k2 ro2 ~2 1 + 4k2 ro2
In comparison with the geometrical cross section, which is roughly σ ≈ 4πro2 = 4πfm2 ,
g 2 µ2 ro2
4πro2
σY ≈ 4
~4
e4 m2 c4
= 4ro2 4 4 ~4 4πro2
~ c
2
2
−5 2 α 109
~4 4πro2
= 4 10
(2000)2
= 5 × 10−3 ~4 4πro2
So the Yukawa cross section is much smaller the the geometrical cross section. X
2
µVo ro2 (sin qro − qro cos qro )2
dσ
= 4ro2 (6.4)
dΩ ~2 (qro )6
Looking at Eq. 19.3.8
Z
µ 0 0
f (θ, φ) = − 2
e−iqr cos θ V (r0 )d(cos θ0 )dφ0 r2 dr0
2π~
2µVo ro r0 sin qr0 0
Z
= dr
~2 q
0
2µVo sin qro − qro cos qro
=
~2 q3
µVo ro2 (sin qro − qro cos qro )
= 2ro
~2 (qro )3
Finally dσ
dΩ
= |f |2
2
µVo ro2 (sin qro − qro cos qro )
dσ
= 2ro
dΩ ~2 (qro )3
2
µVo ro2 (sin qro − qro cos qro )2
= 4ro2 2
X
~ (qro )6
41
2
16πro2 µVo ro2
σ∼
= (6.5)
9 ~2
42
Appendix A
511: Problem Set 5
Find the eigenvalues for kinetic and potential energy for the harmonic oscillator. Explain why they do not add up to
the energy eigenvalues for the total energy.
The energy eigenvalues for total energy :
1
E n = ~ω n + 2
p2
K|ni = |ni
2m
Now we can apply Equation 3 and replace p.
2
q
†
i m~ω a − a
p2 2
|ni = |ni
2m 2m
~ω
=− a† − a a† − a |ni
4
~ω
=− a†2 + a2 − a† a − aa† |ni
4
~ω h i
=− a†2 + a2 |ni − a† a + aa† |ni
4
43
From Equation 10.75 in Merzbacher, we know a† a|ni = λo |ni, then :
~ω h †2 i
=− a + a2 |ni − aa† |ni − λo |ni
4
~ω h †2 i
=− a + a2 |ni − 1|ni − 2λo |ni
4
~ω †2 n 1
K|ni = − a + a2 |ni + ~ω + (A.4)
4 2 4
1
U |ni = mω 2 q 2 |ni
2
~ω †2 2
n 1
U |ni = a + a |ni + ~ω + (A.5)
4 2 4
It would appear that we can add (4) and (5) to find the total energy eigenvalues, but they are not eigenvalues for
the kinetic and potential energies so we must find those eigenvalues instead.
p2
K|pi = |pi (A.6)
2m
1
U |qi = mω 2 q 2 |qi (A.7)
2
The total energy is the kinetic energy plus the potential energy, so we think that we may add them as :
p2
2
1 p 1
K|pi + U |qi = |pi + mω 2 q 2 |qi = + mω 2 q 2 |p, qi
2m 2 2m 2
That is true, if the p and q commuted when in fact we know that they do not commute.
p2
2
1 p 1
|pi + mω 2 q 2 |qi 6= + mω 2 q 2 |p, qi
2m 2 2m 2
Therefore,
We know
44
Let us begin with hn|x|ni :
We recall from the previous problem,
r
~ †
x= a +a
2mω
We replace x with this new definition.
r r
~ † ~
hn| a + a |ni = hn| a† + a |ni
2mω 2mω
r
~
= hn|a† |ni + hn|a|ni
2mω
r
~
= (hn|n + 1i + hn|n − 1i)
2mω
Because eigenstates n, n-1 and n+1 are orthonormal
hn|n + 1i = 0
hn|n − 1i = 0
Then hn|x|ni = 0.
Now for the term hn|p|ni :
We recall from the previous problem,
r
m~ω †
p=i a −a
2
We replace p with this new definition.
r r
m~ω † m~ω
hn|i a − a |ni = i hn| a† − a |ni
2 2
r
m~ω
=i hn|a† |ni − hn|a|ni
2
r
m~ω
=i (hn|n + 1i − hn|n − 1i)
2
Because eigenstates n, n-1 and n+1 are orthonormal
hn|n + 1i = 0
hn|n − 1i = 0
Then hn|p|ni = 0.
We move to the term hn|x2 |ni :
~ 2
x2 = a + a†2 + aa† + a† a
2mω
So
~ 2
hn|x2 |ni = hn| a + a†2 + aa† + a† a |ni
2mω
~ h i
= hn|a2 |ni + hn|a†2 |ni + hn| aa† + a† a |ni
2mω
~ h i
= hn|n − 2i + hn|n + 2i + hn| 1 + 2a† a |ni
2mω
45
Because eigenstates n, n-2 and n+2 are orthonormal
~ h i
= 0 + 0 + hn| 1 + 2a† a |ni
2mω
~ 1
= hn|a† a + |ni
mω 2
~ 1
hn|x2 |ni = n+ (A.8)
mω 2
m~ω 2
p2 = − a + a†2 − aa† − a† a
2
So
m~ω 2
hn|p2 |ni = hn| − a + a†2 − aa† − a† a |ni
2
m~ω h i
=− hn|a2 |ni + hn|a†2 |ni − hn| aa† + a† a |ni
2
m~ω h i
=− hn|n − 2i + hn|n + 2i − hn| 1 + 2a† a |ni
2
Because eigenstates n, n-2 and n+2 are orthonormal
m~ω h i
=− 0 + 0hn| 1 + 2a† a |ni
2
1
= m~ω hn|a† a + |ni
2
1
hn|p2 |ni = m~ω n + (A.9)
2
Then
~ 1
(∆x)2 = hn|x2 |ni − hn|x|ni2 = n+ (A.10)
mω 2
1
(∆p)2 = hn|p2 |ni − hn|p|ni2 = m~ω n + (A.11)
2
A linear harmonic oscillator, with energy eigenstates |ni, is acted upon by a time dependent interaction between the
|0i and |1i :
a.
46
Find the coupled equations of motion for the probability amplitudes hn|Ψ (t)i
We know
d|Ψ (t)i
i~ = H|Ψ (t)i
dt
where
H = Ho + V (t)
= Ho + F (t) |1ih0| + F ∗ (t) |0ih1|
d|Ψ (t)i
hn|i~ = hn| (Ho + F (t) |1ih0| + F ∗ (t) |0ih1|) |Ψ (t)i
dt
d
i~ hn|Ψ (t)i = hn|Ho |Ψ (t)i + hn|F (t) |1ih0|Ψ (t)i + hn|F ∗ (t) |0ih0|Ψ (t)iX
dt
b.
√
Find the energy eigenvalues and stationary states for t>0, if F (t) = 2~ωη (t)
En |ni = H|ni
= Ho |ni + V |ni
Therefore
√
1
En |ni = ~ω n + |ni + 2~ω (|1iδ0n + |0iδ1n ) (A.13)
2
This means that the stable states are form when n>1.X
c.
Find hn|Ψ (t)i for t>0 with the initial condition of it in the ground state.
d|Ψ (t)i √ √
i~ = Ho |Ψ (t)i + 2~ω|1ih0| + 2~ω|0ih1| |Ψ (t)i
dt
d|Ψ (t)i √ √
i~ = Ho + 2~ω|1ih0| + 2~ω|0ih1| dt
|Ψ (t)i
Now integrate both sides
Z
d|Ψ (t)i
Z √ √
i~ = Ho + 2~ω|1ih0| + 2~ω|0ih1| dt
|Ψ (t)i
√ √
i~ln (|Ψ (t)i) = Ho + 2~ω|1ih0| + 2~ω|0ih1| t + C
i √ √
ln (|Ψ (t)i) = − Ho + 2~ω|1ih0| + 2~ω|0ih1| t + C
~
i
√ √
|Ψ (t)i = Ce− ~ (Ho + 2~ω|1ih0|+ 2~ω|0ih1|)t
47
Now we apply the condition that the function is in the ground state at t=0.
|Ψ (0)i = C = |0i
So
i
√
|Ψ (t)i = |0ie− ~ Ho e−i 2ω(|1ih0|+|0ih1|)t
(A.14)
Therefore
i
√
hn|Ψ (t)i = hn|0ie− ~ Ho e−i 2ω(|1ih0|+|0ih1|)t
(A.15)
If this is a probability the sum over hn| should be 1. We notice that coefficient will be 0 other than n = 0, where it
will equal 1. This means that the exponent must equal 1 there, too. The first term is the transpose of the unitary
matrix. We must check if the second term is a unitary matrix.
If
√
e−i 2ω(|1ih0|+|0ih1|)t
= U (t)
then
√
U † (t) = ei 2ω(|1ih0|+|0ih1|)t
and
UU† = 1
So
√ √
U U † = e−i 2ω(|1ih0|+|0ih1|)t i 2ω(|1ih0|+|0ih1|)t
e
√ √
−i 2ω(|1ih0|+|0ih1|)t+i 2ω(|1ih0|+|0ih1|)t
=e
= e0 = 1
Since this term is a unitary matrix and the other term was a transpose of a unitary matrix, the probability will
always equal 1 and equation (15) is correct.X
48
Appendix B
Special Harmonics
The spherical harmonics are developed from the associated Legendre Polynomials. Why do we care? The simple case
of electrostatic potentials:
∞
q 1 q X a n
ϕ= 1/2
= Pn (cos θ) (B.1)
4πo (r2 + a2 − 2ar cos θ) 4πo n=0 r
where Pn (cos θ) are the Legendre Polynomials. What are these polynomials, they are a set of orthogonal polynomials.1
The first nine terms are
P0 (x) = 1
P1 (x) = x
P2 (x) = 21 3x2 − 1
P3 (x) = 12 5x3 − 3x
P4 (x) = 18 35x4 − 30x2 + 3
1 5 3
P5 (x) = 8 63x − 70x + 15x
1
231x6 − 315x4 + 105x2 − 5
P6 (x) = 16
1
P7 (x) = 16 429x7 − 693x5 + 315x3 − 35x
1
6435x8 − 12012x6 + 6930x4 − 1260x2 + 35
P8 (x) = 128
Now the recurrence relation
(2n + 1) xPn (x) = (n + 1) Pn+1 (x) + nPn−1 (x) (B.2)
Some of the differential relations
0 0
(2n + 1)Pn (x) = Pn+1 (x) − Pn−1 (B.3)
0
Pn+1 (x) = (n + 1)Pn (x) + xPn0 (x) (B.4)
0
Pn−1 (x) = xPn0 (x) − nPn (x) (B.5)
1−x 2
Pn0 (x) = nPn−1 (x) − nxPn (x) (B.6)
1−x 2
Pn0 (x) = (n + 1)xPn (x) − (n + 1)Pn+1 (x) (B.7)
The parity is
Pn (−x) = (−1)n Pn (x) (B.8)
As same as before, these functions are orthogonal, so
Z 1
Pn (x)Pm (x)dx = δn,m (B.9)
−1
Z π
Pn (cos θ)Pm (cos θ) sin θdθ = δn,m (B.10)
0
1 See Arfken and Weber. Mathematical Methods for Physicists 5th ed. 2001. pg. 596. on Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization
49
B.2 Associated Legendre Polynomials
Now for the Associated Legendre Polynomials. The first ten are in the following polynomials
1/2
P11 (x) = 1 − x2 = sin θ
1/2
P21 (x) = 3x 1 − x2 = 3 cos θ sin θ
P22 (x) = 3 1 − x2 = 3 sin2 θ
1/2
P31 (x) = 23 5x2 − 1 1 − x2 = 32 5 cos2 θ − 1 sin θ
P42 (x) = 15
2
7x2 − 1 1 − x2 = 15 2
7 cos2 θ − 1 sin2 θ
3 2 3/2
= 105 cos θ sin3 θ
P4 (x) = 105x 1 − x
4 2 2
= 105 sin4 θ
P4 (x) = 105 1 − x
The recurrence relations here are
(2n + 1)xPnm = (n + m)Pn−1
m m
+ (n − m + 1)Pn+1 (B.11)
1/2 m0 1 1
1 − x2 Pn = Pnm+1 − (n + m)(n − m + 1)Pnm−1 (B.12)
2 2
1/2 m
(2n + 1) 1 − x2 m+1
Pn = Pn+1 m+1
− Pn−1 (B.13)
The parity of the associated polynomials
Pnm (−x) = (−1)n+m Pnm (x) (B.14)
The orthogonality of the functions
Z 1
n(n − m!)
Pnm (x)Pnk (x) (1 − x)−1 dx = δm,k (B.15)
(n + m)! −1
Now combining the Associated Legendre Polynomials with the azimuthal dependence to find the Spherical Harmonics.
Spherical Harmonics are defined as
s
m m 2n + 1 (n − m)! m
Yn (θ, ϕ) = (−1) Pn (cos θ)eimϕ (B.16)
4π (n + m)!
50
Index
dipole moment, 25
Stark Effect, 25
51