1. What are the parts of the central nervous system (CNS)?

 The brain and the spinal cord which occupy the dorsal body.

2. What are the parts of the peripheral nervous system (PNS – outside the CNS)?
 The peripheral nervous system consists of:
 12 pairs of cranial nerves that arise from the base of the brain and
emerge from the cranial foramina
 31 pairs of spinal nerves that arise from the spinal cord and emerge
through intervertebral foramina. Ganglia are knots of cell bodies along
these nerves. The motor, or efferent, division of the PNS transmits
impulses from the CNS to effector organs, which are the muscles and
glands. These impulses activate muscles to contract and glands to
secrete; that is they effect (bring about) a motor response. The motor
division has 2 main parts:
 Somatic nervous system is composed of somatic motor nerve
fibers (axons) that conduct impulses from the CNS to skeletal
muscles. It is often referred to as the voluntary nervous system
because it allows us to voluntarily control our skeletal muscles. It
serves the skin too – deals with changes in the external
environment.
 Autonomic (“a law unto itself”) nervous system consists of
visceral motor nerve fibers that regulate the activity of smooth
muscles, cardiac muscles, and glands. Referred to as the
involuntary nervous system.
 See picture on page 388 to see diagram about the levels of
organization in the nervous system as described above.

3. Distinguish between neurons and neuroglial cells (“nerve glue”)? P.389

 Neurons or nerve cells are able to respond to stimuli (such as touch, sound, light,
etc.), conduct impulses, and communicate with each other. The structure of a
neuron, the conducting cell is as follows:
 Soma or perikaryon – cell body.
 Dendrites – a few to many extensions, primary site for receiving
signals from other neurons.
 Axon (nerve fiber) – arises from the axon hillock. Only one
axon/neuron. Designed for rapid transmission of signals away
from the soma to a distant point.
 o Large fibers conduct information faster than small ones,
and large, myelinated ones fastest of all.
o Conduction is faster if nodes of Ranvier are farther apart.
 Neuroglial cells support, protect, and assist neurons. There are 6 types of glial
cells:
 Schwann cells form a sheath called the neurilemma around each nerve
fiber in the PNS by wrapping around the fiber.
 Satellite cells surround PNS nerve cell bodies.
 Oligodendrocytes form sheaths around fibers in the CNS but do not form
a neurilemma.
 Astrocytes are most abundant glial cells in the CNS. Extensions called
vascular processes, or perivascular feet, wrap around blood vessels to
form a blood-brain barrier that controls what passes from the blood into
the brain’s tissue fluid and regulates its chemical content.
 Ependymal cells produce and circulate cerebrospinal fluid that fills the
ventricles (4 cavities) of the brain. Also line the ventricles and central
canal of the spinal cord.
 Microglia are small macrophages derived from monocytes, white blood
cells. They phagocytize dead nervous tissue, microorganisms, and other
debris.

4. Distinguish among: sensory, motor, and association neurons. P. 395

 Sensory, or afferent, neurons transmit impulses from sensory receptors in
the skin or internal organs toward or into the central nervous system. Except
for certain neurons found in some special sense organs, virtually all sensory
neurons are unipolar, and their cell bodies are located in sensory ganglia
outside the CNS.
 Motor, or efferent, neurons carry impulses away from the CNS to the effector
organs (muscles and glands) of the body periphery. Motor neurons are
multipolar, and except for some neurons of the autonomic nervous system,
their cell bodies are located in the CNS.
 Association neurons, or interneurons, lie between motor and sensory
neurons in neural pathways and shuttle signals through CNS pathways where
integration occurs. All located in the CNS.
5. Define: all-or-none law (impulse conduction type) as it relates to the nervous
system. P. 406
 “It either happens completely or it doesn’t happen at all.” The neuron fires at
maximum voltage (+35mV) or not at all. If the threshold is reached, the
action potential goes to completion.

6. Define synapse. P. 408

 The synapse is the point of communication between neurons or the point of
association between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite, soma, or axon
of another. There are electrical and chemical synapses. In contrast to
electrical synapses, which are specialized to allow the flow of ions between
neurons, chemical synapses are specialized for release and reception of
chemical neurotransmitters. An example would be acetylcholine. Cessation
of the signal is achieved by removing Ach from the synapse.

7. Relate speed of impulse transmission to the type of fiber over which it travels.
 The larger the fiber, the faster the transmission. A myelinated fiber allows
faster transmission than an unmyelinated one does. The farther the nodes of
the Ranvier are apart, the faster the transmission. Node of Ranvier – gaps in
the myelin sheath of nerve fibers in the PNS.

8. What is the composition of myelin?

 Cell membranes of Schwann cells (surround and form myelin sheaths around
the larger nerve fibers in the PNS), mostly phospholipid.

9. Define threshold.
 Threshold is the minimum voltage required to cause a neuron to fire. When
depolarization at the stimulation site reaches a certain critical level called
threshold (often between -55 and -50 mV), depolarization becomes self-
generating, urged on by positive feedback. That is, after being initiated by
the stimulus, depolarization is driven by the ionic currents created by Na+
influx.

10. Compare the ways the endocrine and nervous system achieve their effects.
 The nervous system is quicker; stops when the stimulus stops, very specific in
cell it affects. Nervous response is immediate.
  The endocrine system is slower and lasts longer, may take a few seconds to a
few days; has wider effect (continues to respond even when stimulus is
removed) and uses chemicals. Endocrine can be specific or more general.

11. Distinguish among alpha, beta, delta and theta waves.

 Types of brain waves (voltage changes in the cerebral cortex can be recorded
by an electroencephalogram)
 Alpha – brain is “idling”, calm, relaxed state of wakefulness, awake
and resting, eyes closed, mind wandering, absent during deep sleep.
 Beta – mentally alert, concentrating on some problem, focused,
present during mental activity, sensory perception, problem solving,
information processing.
 Delta – in awake infants and adults in deep sleep, in awake adults it
indicates serious brain damage.
 Theta – in children and sleeping adults, in awake adults it is associated
with emotional stress and brain disorders.

12. What are the characteristics of nerve cells or neurons?

 Characteristics are as follows:
 Excitability - the ability to respond to changes in the environment.
 Conductivity - the ability to convey an impulse or action potential from
one part of the cell to another. Produce traveling signals or nerve
impulses that alert other cells.
 Secretion – neurotransmitters and other chemical messengers.

13. What are the general functions of the cerebellum?

 Functions are as follows:
 Equilibrium
 Motor Coordination – modulates and coordinates voluntary
movements of the limbs, muscle tone and posture, coordinates eye
movements with body movements, aids in learning motor skill.

14. What are the parts of the brainstem?

 Parts are as follows:
  Pons – white matter that connects the cerebrum and medulla and
conducts motor information from cerebrum to cerebellum. Gray
matter has relay nuclei for signals from cerebrum to cerebellum and
those associated with sleep, posture, respiration, swallowing, and
bladder control.
 Medulla Oblongata – contains critical neuronal pools
 Cardiac Center – adjusts rate and force of heartbeat
 Vasomotor Center – adjusts blood vessel diameter to regulate
pressure and route blood through body.
 Respiratory Centers – control rate and depth of breathing.
 Midbrain – located between the diencephalon and the pons.

15. Name the meninges from deep to superficial.

 Meninges are fibrous connective membranes that cover the brain and spinal
cord. They are in order from deep to superficial as follows:
 Pia mater – means “gentle mother”, is composed of delicate
connective tissue and is richly invested with tiny blood vessels making
it very vascular. It closely follows the surface of the brain making it
the deepest meninx.
 Arachnoid – the middle meninx forms a loose brain covering, never
dipping into the sulci (shallow grooves) at the cerebral surface. It is
separated from the dura mater by a narrow serous cavity. It is deep to
the dura mater.
 Dura mater - leathery, means “tough mother”, it is the strongest
meninx. Where it surrounds the brain, it is a two-layered sheet of
fibrous connective tissue. It is the most superficial.

16. Which lobe of the brain is responsible for hearing, sight, taste, and smell?
 Responsible areas for senses are as follows:
 Hearing – Temporal lobe
 Sight – Occipital lobe
 Taste – Parietal lobe
 Smell – Frontal lobe
17. What are the functions of the cerebrum?
 Judgment, planning, foresight, higher mental processes.

18. Describe the anatomy of the cerebrum.

 Two hemispheres joined by a structure called the corpus callosum and
separated by the longitudinal fissure. It is arranged in folds (to increase the
surface area) called gyri (gyrus, singular), which are divided by shallow
grooves called sulci ( sulcus, singular), and further divided by deeper grooves
called fissures.

19. How does the neural tube form? P. 431

 The neural tube forms by fusion of neural folds. The earliest phase of brain
development, starting in a 3 week old embryo, is the thickening of the
ectoderm (cell layer at the dorsal layer) along the dorsal midline axis of the
embryo to form the neural plate. The neural plate then invaginates, forming
a groove flanked by neural folds. As this neural groove deepens, the superior
edges of the neural folds fuse, forming the neural tube which soon detaches
from the surface ectoderm and sinks to a deeper position.

20. Distinguish among association, projection, and commissural fibers. P. 443

 Cerebral white mater consists largely of myelinated fibers bundled into large
tracts. These fibers and tracts are classified according to the direction in
which they run. They are as follows:
 Commissural fibers – connect corresponding gray areas of the two
hemispheres, enabling them to function as a coordinated whole.
 Association fibers – connect different parts of the same hemisphere.
 Projection fibers – tie the cerebral cortex to the rest of the nervous
system and to the body’s receptors and effectors. They enter the
cerebral hemispheres from lower brain or cord centers, and those that
leave the cortex to travel to lower areas.

21. Describe the anatomy of the cerebellum.

  Parts of the cerebellum are as follows:
 Two hemispheres.
 A highly branched area of white matter in the center (arbor vitae)
surrounded by gray matter.
 Many grooves (sulci)
 Folds (gyri) on the surface

22. What are the functions of CSF (cerebrospinal fluid)?

 Functions are as follows:
 Provides buoyancy to suspend the brain, allowing it to attain
considerable size without damaging itself by its own weight.
 Protection from physical trauma by cushioning the brain from striking
the cranium when jolted.
 Removal of metabolic waste.
 Stability of chemical environment necessary for proper function.

23. Where is CSF produced and circulated?

 CSF is continuously produced by the choroid plexus, a network of blood
capillaries in the wall of each lateral ventricle.

24. Distinguish between Broca’s speech area and Wernicke’s area?

 Recognition of spoken and written language:
 Broca’s area – left hemisphere, initiates the program for muscle
contractions necessary for speech.
 Wernicke’s area – left hemisphere, formulates phrases according to
learned rules of grammar for transmission to Broca’s area, for
sounding out unfamiliar words.

25. Locate the central sulcus.

 The central sulcus is found between the frontal and parietal lobes.

26. What is an EEG (electroencephalogram)?

  It is an instrument for recording brain waves.

27. Define dermatome.

 Dermatome is a specific skin area that is innervated by a specific spinal nerve
and sends sensory input to that nerve. Spinal nerve damage is assessed by
testing the dermatomes with pinpricks to determine in which areas there is
no sensation.

28. Contrast a ganglion and a nucleus. P. 533

 Nucleus – knot of neuron bodies in the CNS; “preganglionic neuron”. Its axon,
the preganglionic axon, synapses with the second motor neuron, the
ganglionic neuron, in an autonomic ganglion outside the CNS.
 Ganglion – knot of neuron bodies in the PNS; the axon of the ganglionic
neuron, called the postganglionic axon, extends to the effector organ.

29. Distinguish between somatic and autonomic nervous division. (answered in question
2 – see as reference to understand; added further explanation below)
 Somatic nervous system is composed of somatic motor nerve fibers (axons)
that conduct impulses from the CNS to skeletal muscles. It is often referred
to as the voluntary nervous system because it allows us to voluntarily control
our skeletal muscles. It serves the skin too – deals with changes in the
external environment.
 Autonomic (“a law unto itself”) nervous system consists of visceral motor
nerve fibers that regulate the activity of smooth muscles in wall of viscera,
cardiac muscles, and glands. Referred to as the involuntary nervous system
because it requires no conscious effort and is difficult to voluntarily inhibit.
Receptors for autonomic reflex arcs are nerve endings that detect stretch,
pain and blood chemistry. An example of this would be baroreceptors in the
carotid arteries and aorta detect high blood pressure and send signals to
initiate mechanisms to bring pressure down.

 Autonomic nervous system acts on:

  Glands
 cardiac muscle
 smooth muscle to regulate heart rate
 blood pressure
 body temperature
 digestion
 waste elimination to maintain homeostasis

30. What is the significance of the vagus nerve?

 The vagus nerve is a cranial nerve with most of the motor and sensory fibers
(carries 90%) of the parasympathetic nervous system. It is the only nerve that
extends beyond the cranium and innervates structures in the thorax and
abdomen.

31. What is a nerve?

 A nerve is an organ composed of many bundled nerve fibers (the axon of a
single neuron) wrapped in a connective tissue.

32. What are the characteristics of reflexes?

 Reflexes are reactions of peripheral effectors to stimulation. Their
characteristics are as follows:
 Require stimulation
 Quick because of no or few interneurons and synaptic delay. Route:
receptor to sensory nerve, interneuron, spinal cord, motor nerve,
effector. (monosynaptic reflex lacks the interneuron)
 Involuntary
 Stereotyped – occur the same every time, very predictable
 Include glandular secretion
 Contractions of all 3 kinds of muscle
33. Contrast sympathetic and parasympathetic effects.
 Sympathetic prepares the body for action (“fight or flight”) by:
 Increasing rate and force of heart beat
 Respiratory rate and volume
 Blood glucose level
 Blood flow to skeletal and cardiac muscles
 Decreases digestive system activities
 Diverts blood away from skin
 Parasympathetic is (“resting and digesting”) energy conserving, restorative,
normal body maintenance relative to:
 Promotes digestive function/activity
 Defecation
 Urination
 Bladder muscles contract
 Pupils and bronchioles are constricted
 Heart rate decreases

34. What is the function of dopamine? P. 415

 Dopamine inhibits neurons that secrete acetylcholine. It is referred to as the
“feel good” neurotransmitter. In Parkinson’s disease, a disorder in which
there is progressive loss of motor function due to degeneration of dopamine-
releasing neurons in the brain, leading to hyperactivity in the motor centers
of the brain. The person experiences involuntary muscle contractions that
cause tremors of the hands, rigidity of facial muscles, reduced range of
motion and slurred speech.

35. To what stimuli are free nerve endings sensitive?

 Free nerve endings include:
 Warm receptors for rising (hot) temperatures
 Cold receptors for falling (cold) temperatures
 Nociceptors for pain
36. How is frequency related to pitch? How is loudness related to amplitude?
 Frequency related to pitch – pitch is determined by frequency; the higher the
frequency, the higher the pitch. The human ear can hear frequencies from
20-20,000 Hz.
 Loudness related to amplitude - the greater the amplitude, the greater the
sound; loudness is perception of sound energy, intensity, or amplitude of
vibration.

37. Define referred pain.

 Referred pain is pain from an internal organ that is perceived on the skin. An
example would be someone having a heart attack more produce a sensation
of pain that radiates to the superior thoracic wall and along the medial aspect
of the left arm.

38. What is the fovea centralis? P. 563

 The fovea centralis is the site on the retina that produces the most finely
detailed image in photopic (light) vision.

39. What are the 4 generally recognized tastes?

 The anatomy of taste (gestation) are made up of taste buds associated with
bumps called lingual papillae that have greater concentrations on the tip,
sides and rear of the tongue. The 4 tastes are:
 Salty
 Sweet
 Sour
 Bitter

40. Name the bones of the middle ear, or auditory ossicles, and describe how vibrations
are transmitted across them.
 Middle ear begins with the tympanum. Located in the tympanic cavity of the
temporal bone and filled with air that enters through the Eustachian
(auditory) tube from the nasopharynx. This equalizes pressure on both sides
 of the tympanic membrane, but also provides an avenue for infection from
the nasopharynx to the middle ear.

 The bones of the middle ear are:

 Malleus (hammer) touches the inner surface of the tympanum
 Incus (anvil)
 Stapes (stirrup) is held in place in the oval window where the inner ear
begins.
 Vibrations are transmitted from:
 From tympanum
 to malleus
 to incus
 to stapes
 to oval window
 to inner ear

41. What are lingual papillae?

 Lingual papillae are bumps on the tongue around which are located taste
buds.

42. Define gustatory and olfactory senses.

 Gustatory senses – taste
 Olfactory senses - smell