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1.1.1 Introduction
Help version 9 H02.
Please check on CIVA Club website, updates of this help manual could be
available and other items may be added (examples of configurations,
tutorials…).
Note that some parts are in Blue text is corresponding to CIVA 8.1 User
Manual. These parts will be replaced by new version of Help Files on Civa
Club web site.
1.1.1.1 News: Read this chapter before using CIVA version 9.0.
1.1.1.1.1 About Help
This help is called by “F1” key.
Enter the word(s) corresponding to your query in the “Find” box, all
corresponding paragraphs will be listed.
The help manual is divided in four (4) parts. The first one is a general
introduction dealing also with Civa manager window and specific tools
(Ray tracer, clipper, reference signal…). The three other ones are
dealing with each technique available, UT, ECT and XRay.
UT configurations:
• MatrixArray_AxialScanning_Tandem_SDH.xml:
Matrix phased array
Planar specimen with one flaw, immersion probe matrix array.
Sequence imitating tandem scanning.
• MatrixArray_PeripheralScanning_focusing_on_flaw.xml:
Matrix phased array
Planar specimen with one flaw, immersion probe matrix array.
Sequence turning around defect, focusing on it.
• SectorialArray_PeripheralScanning_Tandem_HBH.xml:
• TOFD_3_planar_flaws_CAD_specimen.xml:
TOFD configuration
Plane specimen with one inner planar flaw, contact probes, with all
calculation options, lateral waves, all modes, back-wall echo and
shadowing.
• TOFD_Surfacebreaking_flaw_planar_specimen.xml:
TOFD configuration
2D CAD specimen with three outer planar flaws, contact probes, with all
calculation options, lateral waves, longitudinal mode, back-wall echo
and shadowing.
• ECT configurations:
3DCyl_SectorialCoils.xml:
Sector axial coils on a cylindrical specimen of 90mm diameter and
20mm thickness Flaw: Flat-bottom hole.
Injection from sensor 1 and differential separated reception with sensors
2 and 3.
Displacement = translation along Y axis
3DPlan_1CoilTilted_-20deg-X.xml :
Simple tilted coil of -20° on X axis on a plane specimen of 1.55mm
thickness
Flaw: Parallelepiped defect situated at the surface of specimen
Common injection and reception with one coil (sensor 0)
Displacement = scanning along X and Y axis
• 3DPlan_3Sensors_2Channels-Diff.xml :
Three identical coils on Inox 304L plane specimen of 3mm thickness
Flaw :
Parallelepiped defect situated at the surface of specimen
Two channels with common injection at 100kHz frequency and
differential reception:
channel 1 = sensors 1 & 2 and channel 2 = sensors 1 & 3
Displacement = scanning along X and Y axis
3DPlan-multilayer_Sensor-FerriteE.xml:
Punctual coil with type E ferrite core on a bi-layer plane specimen with
two different conductivities
Flaw: Parallelepiped defect at the surface of specimen
Common Injection and reception with one coil (sensor 1)
Displacement = X axis translation by one line from defect centre
• X-Ray configurations:
tube_XRaysource.xml:
Elbow specimen in Aluminium, X Ray source with tungsten anode,
curved detector with lead filter, analytic calculation.
cylindrical_specimen_XR_source.xml:
Cylindrical specimen in Aluminium, X Ray source with tungsten anode,
curved detector with lead filter, flaws, analytic calculation.
CAO2-5_Co60_2flaws.xml:
2D CAD specimen in 304 Stainless steel, Gamma Ray source in Cobalt,
Kodak M100 film, flaws, analytic and Monte Carlo calculation,
combination.
cylindrical_specimen.xml:
Cylindrical specimen in copper, Gamma Ray source in Iridium, Kodak
M100 film, flaws, analytic calculation with geometric blurring.
Piquage_sec_TFP_detecteur_courbe.xml:
plane_defSphere.xml:
Plane specimen in copper, Gamma Ray source in Iridium, Kodak DR50
film with lead filter, flaws, analytic calculation with geometric blurring.
These modules are intended for use in developing and optimizing NDT
methods and probe design, enhancing qualification of NDT techniques and
interpreting complex inspection results. In this way, simulation can play a
role from the onset of component design (identification of potential defects),
during testing (qualification of methods, parameter optimization, analysis of
disturbance factors) and in subsequent component development (e.g. NDT
of component geometries or structures similar to initial designs).
Once the test configuration has been determined, simulated data are
represented in different forms (such as curves or images) using the same
representation mode as for experimental data. This ultimately enables
comparison of simulated with experimental data in a same graphical
environment, with the same signal and/or image processing tools. Imaging
and associated processing tools are described in Civa UT – Defect
Response and Civa ECT – Analysis.
1.1.1.3.1 UT SIMULATION
UT simulation tools include beam propagation and its interaction with
flaws or specimens (Backwall echo, Surface echo, corner effects and
shadowing). They allow to simulate a whole inspection process (pulse
echo, tandem or TOFD) with a wide range of probes, components, and
flaws.
1.1.1.3.1.1 PROBES
• A wide range of UT probes, standard and advanced designs can
be handled:
• Contact, Immersion, dual element probes and Tandem probes
• Rectangular or circular emitting surfaces
• Focusing shaped emitting surfaces or probes with added acoustic
lens
• Planar or spherical/bifocal/Fermat focusing surfaces
• Dual element probes, even on non-symmetrical configurations
• Single element or phased-array probes (see Phased Arrays
section).
• Encircled or Encircling curved arrays for tube inspection
• Flexible phased-array probe (in contact with parametric or CAD
specimen, linear or matrix pattern).
Figure 2: Transducers
1.1.1.3.1.2 COMPONENTS
Parametric geometries:
The graphic interface allows to define parametric geometries
• Planar, cylindrical, conical, spherical
• 3D parametric elbows, nozzles or bores
CAD files:
Computations can be performed on components described by CAD
files imported in CIVA.
• 2D CAD files containing a profile and generation of the 3D
geometry either by translation or rotation of the profile :
• 2D CAD files import in DXF or IGES format
• User-defined profile using a CAD tool inside CIVA
1.1.1.3.1.3 MATERIALS
1.1.1.3.1.5 FLAWS
An arbitrary number of flaws may be inserted into the component;
these defects can be:
• Calibration defects: spherical pores, side-drilled holes, flat-bottom
and hemispherical holes
• Planar defects, of arbitrary size and orientation, rectangular or
semi elliptical
• Multifaceted defects and 2D contour CAD defects
• Solid inclusions (cylindrical, spherical or elliptical shapes): flaws
constituted of a solid material
1.1.1.3.1.6 RESULTS
Beam Calculation
A first module allows to simulate the ultrasonic beam in the specimen
and if desired in the coupling material.
The beam can be displayed in the specimen as an amplitude color
coded image or as an iso-amplitude surface. Local orientation of the
beam and wave fronts can be displayed (and saved as animated
files, AVI format).
Defect Response
This module simulates the beam-defect interaction and. predicts the
amplitude and the time of flight of various echoes : direct echo,
corner effect… It allows to calculate echoes caused by the geometry,
surface echoes and takes into account mode conversions.
For TOFD configuration, direct tip echoes generated by the edge of
the defects are simulated as well as the lateral wave and the
shadowing effect on the back-wall echo.
Analysis Tools
The software offers a wide range of signal processing methods,
some are classical (filters, deconvolutions…) other are more
sophisticated (wavelets, Double Bernouilli Gaussian
deconvolution…). A Segmentation tool allows 3D grouping of signals,
managing of this groups and report export.
Reconstruction tools are integrated, in particular the synthetic
focusing one.
This processing applied to an acquisition file or a phased-array
simulation, allows to reconstruct an image displaying for each pixel
the amplitude obtained by combining signals to have the best
focusing on this particular point.
A ray tracer is also available among these tools (it takes into account
mode conversion, reflections, displays time of flight…).
Synthetic focusing after
acquisition under a disrupted
surface
1.1.1.3.2.1 Probes
This module can deal with:
• axial, encircling or encircled even sectorial (in pipes) coils;
• surface ridding coil (in cylinder, in stratified plate or 2D and 3D
CAD specimen).
A ferrite core can be added to each coil of the EC probe. The ferrite
core may be a cylinder or a cup-core with a C or E shape.
1.1.1.3.2.2 Specimen
Parametric geometries:
The graphic interface allows to define parametric geometries: planar,
cylindrical, bore
CAD files:
Computations can be carried out on components described by CAD
files imported in CIVA.
• 2D CAD files containing a profile and generation of the 3D
geometry either by translation or rotation of the profile :
• 2D CAD files import in DXF or IGES format
• User-defined profile using a CAD tool inside CIVA
• 3D CAD files (IGES or STEP format)
1.1.1.3.2.3 Flaw
A single defect can be introduced in specimen. Different kinds of
defects are available:
• 3D parallelepipedic flaw in a conductive plate or in a 2D or 3D
CAD specimen or in a cylinder, for this last case, the flaw extension
follows the cylindrical geometry,
• a flat-bottom hole,
• a semi-elliptical flaw in the case of planar specimen
1.1.1.3.2.4 RESULTS
Eddy Current and impedance computation for free-flaw 2D
configurations
This code provides a fast analytical computation for free-flaw 2D
configurations in homogeneous materials (conductivity and
permeability are constant through the component). For cylindrical
geometry the EC sensor (without ferrite core) can be an encircling or
encircled coil. For planar geometry the sensor can be a surface
ridding coil (with or without ferrite core).
Several quantities can be visualized: Eddy Current density, electric
field and potential vector.
For planar geometry, it is possible to calculate and plot a normalized
impedance diagram for a set of chosen frequencies.
1.1.1.3.3.1 Source
• X-ray source or Gamma-ray source are available. Anode and
spectrum must be specified for X-ray sources, energy rays
repartition must be defined for Gamma-ray sources (Co60, Ir192
and Se75 are pre defined).
• Geometry of the source is cylindrical or conical, focal spot can be
punctual or not.
1.1.1.3.3.2 Specimen
Specimens available in this module are:
• Classical geometries (planar, cylindrical, conical, elbow or nozzle),
• 2D CAD files with planar or cylindrical extrusion
• 3D CAD files (STEP or IGES format).
1.1.1.3.3.3 Defects
Defects can be inserted into the specimen. Their geometry can be
planar, spherical, ellipsoid or trapezoid (planar or curved). Side-
drilled holes, flat-bottom and hemispherical holes can be selected,
and finally, 3D CAD defects can be designed. They can also be
made of alloys.
1.1.1.3.3.4 Detectors
1.1.1.3.3.5 Results
Calculation can be analytical (Beer-Lambert) or done using a Monte
Carlo method. A combination of the two is possible. Unsharpness
can also be taken into account.
Results are presented as images (Direct, Scattered, horizontal or
vertical cut of energy on detector…). Displacement of the cursors in
the images is linked to the 3D configuration; a ray tracer shows
photon ray and traversed materials.
Images can be exported into Tiff format.
This chapter gives a brief description of the different modules and associated
functionalities provided by Civa 9 for UT, ECT and X Ray simulation and
analysis. These modules are described in greater details in the various
chapters of the user manual (UM).
1.1.2.2.1 UT modeling
Selection of UT modeling in the Civa main window actuates a dropdown
menu with the following options:
The first two options are applications common to the same graphical
environment (ECT modeling window). They correspond to the following
functions respectively:
The fourth menu in the main window gives access to the radiographic
simulation modules CIVA X-Ray and a spectrum builder.
Figure 14: Example of (simulated or experimental) data files in the main Civa window file stack
Each icon corresponds to a set of results that is displayed directly when the
file is opened. When the result windows are closed, right clicking the icon
gives the user access to a submenu for again displaying the results. A
same file may be associated with one or more icons corresponding to more
than one set of results for a same set of parameters (e.g. multiple beam
data obtained by post-processing a single computation).
The previous figure also shows the modules associated with each type of
data.
Figure 15: Image associated with the UT imaging module, and its submenus
The tools and processing operations related to the imaging module are
described in detail under Civa UT Analysis – Imaging. The following is
a brief discussion of its key functions:
• "Images" submenu: This option gives access to the images
associated with whatever the data loaded by the user. The submenu
therefore contains a list of possible images based on the acquisition
mode of interest (displacement along scanning and/or increment
axis, electronic commutation, multiple phased array settings, etc.).
This list includes a segmented scan (when source is a BScan and
not for TOFD configurations) that can be used to modify
segmentation parameters. The Images submenu provides data info
and a close command (also accessible via standard window
buttons).
• "Processing" submenu: This option applies limits to an image (to limit
its time range, scanning or increment steps, shots or sequences,
depending on the case) and loads a set of signal processing
parameters (Note: signal processing parameters can be adjusted
from an Ascan, then applied via a processing submenu to the
various images associated with the file). It also allows loading
These functions are accessed from the main menu top bar (some of
them, like Interpolation and Lissajous curve extraction, can be obtained
by right clicking the relevant C-scan).
• "Main" menu:
This menu contains all the features associated with main menus – Load,
Save, Exit application, Print, Log and data Export (in text or image
format).
• "Channels" menu:
• "Processing" menu:
• "Function" menu:
• "Setting" menu:
The figure below shows the start window interface. The test configurations or
experimental files opened in Civa are displayed in a stack arrangement in the
empty frame shown below:
Files are opened directly via the File menu or generated by the UT modeling,
ECT modeling or XRay Modeling process.
The “?” menu gives access to the “About CIVA” information and to the present
Help.
The files shown in the stack may themselves contain one or more files, for
instance a modeling configuration associated with a computation result.
The active configuration is in yellow (last one below), a “*” before the name
indicates that the configuration has been modified since it has been saved.
The dropdown file menu in the main window contains the following options:
• Recent files: displays a list of the last ten files opened by Civa
• Close all : close all the files opened in the Civa manager
• Exit: This function must be used to exit Civa.
1.2.2.2 Open
Each file opened appears in the main window. Each type of file is
associated with a specific tree structure.
• Close: closes the file and deletes the associated temporary images and
files. If changes have been made to the file, a message asks the user
whether he wants to save them.
• Edit: opens and displays the test configuration in the display panel for
the relevant simulation module (UT, ECT, X Ray, beam computation,
defect response).
• Save: saves the file under the same name, while overwriting its original
version.
• Save as: saves the file under another name, but also keeps its original
version.
• Add Scenario : This option offers the possibility to build a scenario
usable in batch mode.
• Properties: opens an information window for the simulation file.
• Close: closes the file and deletes the associated temporary images and
files. If changes have been made to the file, a message asks the user
whether he wants to save them.
Right clicking the "UT image" entity of a simulation result file opens a
dropdown menu that allows the following actions:
• Display: displays the highest level image of the result obtained with the
imaging tools (whether a simulation or an experimental result).
• Properties: opens a window that enables choice of the parameters to be
used in reconstructing the images ("Propagation mode" includes either L
or T, if both exist; "Reflection" repositions points in the reconstructed
Right clicking Results under an ECT result file opens a dropdown menu
with the single option: Display. This option in turn opens a graphic analysis
tool for ECT results.
1.2.2.4 Exit
The Exit function asks the user whether he wishes to save changes
(computed results or modified configurations) to the files that are opened,
before exiting the application.
1.2.3 UT Modeling
The second menu in the main window gives access to the ultrasonic simulation
modules “UT Civa”, which allow to predict the UT field radiated by a probe
(“Beam Computation”) or the echoes from the flaws or the specimen (“Defect
Response”).
The first two options are applications common to the same graphical
environment (ECT modeling window). They correspond to the following
functions respectively:
These two modules are fully described in section CIVA EC Setup and CIVA
EC Theory. Images obtained following an ECT Field computation or Defect
response simulation are displayed in the "Analab" ECT analysis tool that is part
of Civa.
The fourth menu in the main window gives access to the radiographic
simulation modules CIVA X-Ray and a spectrum builder.
Radiographic test simulation is possible using two types of sources that are
available from the source menu actuated by clicking CIVA X-Ray. It is possible
to simulate either an X-Ray source or a radioactive Gamma-Ray source.
Spectrum Builder :
This menu contains tools that are common to various Civa applications (Reference
signals, Refresh menu, Calibration validation, Batch Manager, Scenario and Batch
Manager, Preferences)
Figure 27: Tools menu modules accessible from the Civa start window
The Reference Signals window appears then with parmeters panels and
two specific graphs displaying the "F-scan reference signal" and the "A-
scan reference signal".
This module can also be called up from “UT modeling” menu for defining
the waveforms used for transmission, via the "Probe network” interface (see
CIVA UT setup – Transducer – Signal).
Gain :
This parameter modifies the signal amplitude (signal + noise) and is
expressed as a percentage. When it is 100% , the signal is normalized,
i.e. between -100 and +100. The signal gain is changed by displacing the
Gain cursor.
Noise :
This parameter represents the percentage of noise added to the signal. It
is applicable to all the signal samples and is proportional to the signal
gain. This percentage can be changed by displacing the Noise cursor.
Delay :
This parameter is the time in µs allowed for shifting the signal origin. It is
set by a numeric value in microseconds in the textfield.
As soon as one of these three last parmeters has been changed, the
button “Set defaults values” appears to reset the parameters. A dialog
box will ask user for confirmation before reseting the parameters.
This is the bandwidth at -6 dB, i.e. the value in percentage of the ratio
ΔF/Fc. It can be changed by simply displacing the cursor. Its default
value is 50.
Phase:
This is the phase added to the signal, expressed in degrees. It can be
added either in the "Phase" field or by using the "Phase" cursor. The
phase value ranges from 0 to 360 degrees.
To adjust more easily the parameters, this last panel can be hide by
clicking on the down arrow on the top left corner of the panel (see figure
below). It will appear again by another clicking on the upper arrow.
The ‘calibration validation’ tool has been developed to check the response of a
phased array before performing a control, to make sure that it operates as in a
previous configuration considered as the reference. This tool is only compatible
with M2K acquisition systems.
It is accessed from the Civa main window, in the dropdown menu ‘Tools’.
The selection of ‘calibration validation’ opens the following window. The files to be
compared are selected by clicking on the button and browsing in the
convenient directory: reference file and test file (let be ‘ref.m2k’ and ‘test.m2k’)
The selection of ‘View comparison’ in the dropdown menu starts the comparison of
the files –settings and results–, creates two files (ref.Etal, and test.Etal) in the
same directory as the acquisition files, and displays the following report.
It reads:
• the items that are compared,
• the corresponding values, obtained in the reference file and in the test file,
• the difference between the values
• a warning, if differences are significant compared to predefined thresholds: if
there is no warning, the phased array is in working order as in the reference
configuration.
In particular, for each sequence, Ascans of the reference and the test files are
compared in both amplitude and time of flight.
The warning and error thresholds can be modified selecting ‘Options’ in the
dropdown menu.
Batch computation is then initiated by actuating the [Run] button that becomes
active on completion of the previous step.
Figure 41 - Batch Editor window whose fields are filled in after Batch file loading
The entry field ("File") contains the name of the Batch file. A Batch file is
validated and the Batch operation ready for initiation when at least one
configuration file is loaded and the name of the Batch (*.CivaBatch) has
been entered into the corresponding field.
Note that by acting on any one of these submenus (except the one labeled
"About") once a Batch file is validated, calls up a dialog box (Figure below)
that requires the file to be saved before the desired action can take place.
Figure 42 - Dialog box called up by actuating a "Files" submenu if a Batch file is displayed.
1.2.6.4.4.1.1 New
This submenu creates a new Batch file. The next operation consists of
adding one or more configuration files which then appear at the bottom
of the window (see §Add file).
1.2.6.4.4.1.2 Load
This submenu loads an existing Batch file. The characteristics of the
configuration files contained in the Batch file (order, name and directory)
are displayed at the bottom of the box.
1.2.6.4.4.1.3 Merge
This submenu allows association of the configuration files of two or more
Batch files. It is then necessary to save (and, where appropriate,
rename) the resulting new Batch.
1.2.6.4.4.1.4 Save
This submenu saves the complete Batch file with the name and path
displayed in the "File" field. If this file has not yet been named, the
"Save" command becomes "Save as".
1.2.6.4.4.1.5 Save as
This command saves the Batch file with a new name. An intermediate
box opens to specify the directory and name of the saved file.
1.2.6.4.4.1.7 About
Displays a box containing information on the version of Batch Editor
being used (Figure below).
1.2.6.4.4.1.8 Exit
This command allows the user to exit the application by closing the
Batch Editor window.
When [Enter] is pressed, a new box replaces the Batch Editor window
(Figure below). This box shows the progress of computation for each Batch
file.
When all these operations have been completed, the [Cancel] button
appears not available and the [Quit] button becomes active. The completed
operations are validated by pressing the [Quit] button.
Result files can then be read via the Civa Graphic User Interface.
Note that each result file is stored in the same directory as its corresponding
configuration file.
The computation status bar shows the progress of the various steps in a
computation (this display covers all calculations and may switch, for
example, from "90% of computation" to "12% of post-processing" as these
operations take place).
Another possibility is to use “F11” key if you wish to make a scenario dealing
with parametric variation.
1.2.6.5.3 Definitions
A scenario is a list of calculations to make and a list of results to extract.
As an example, from flaw panel, put the mouse cursor on ligament value of the
flaw and press “F11” Key, you will obtain the following windows:
• the creation of a scenario linked to the configuration if it does not exist (with
the same name than the configuration),
• the display of this scenario in the Civa manager,
• the initialization of this scenario with parameters chosen.
WARNING: the configuration file must be saved before creating the scenario.
Otherwise, scenario will not be available.
If, from another numerical value, a new variation is asked (“F11”), the new
variation will be added in the current scenario.
You can add more than two variations; this will run all the computation made by
all possibilities…
Once the scenario is created, next chapter explains how to deal with it.
• right clicking on the name of the scenario in the Civa manager and choose
“Edit”,
• right clicking on the name of the scenario in the Scenario and Batch
Manager and choose “Edit scenario”.
In the first part (1), variations are displayed. The one selected is displayed
in detail in the part (2) and can be modified.
• for combination, all couples of parameters are taken into account (for
two parameters and three values for each, nine calculations are made),
• for linkage, all possible couple are proposed but, by changing the
number of values in the variation editor, you can select couples of
parameters used for calculation.
Example:
For ligament, you have 3 values 10, 15 and 20.
For X position you have two values: 100 and 150.
Then you don’t calculate other couples if you’re not interested in.
By developing the tree in (1), the sub model type can be chosen (specimen,
probe, defect…).
By right clicking on the chosen one, a sub menu allows adding a pre
processing, the following window is the displayed:
By clicking on (2), the file containing the sub model can be selected and
added to the scenario.
Note that CIVA will not check compatibility with sub model. If the
configuration created with the sub model is wrong, the calculation may not
work.
1.2.6.5.5.3 Extractions
Once variation or pre processing is defined, automatic extractions can be
selected if needed.
These extractions will be made from the results of calculation and will be
reported in a HTML page.
For image extraction (True Bscan, Ascan…), a “Jpeg” image is added in the
HTML report and in the directory where the result is stored.
• Lissajous curves *;
• Lissajous curves with gain * (values of gain in X and Y can be added).
Finally, for all techniques, free image or comment can be added in order to
“personalize” edition of reports.
To run the scenario, right click on its name in the Civa manager and select
“Compute” in the sub menu.
Note that another CIVA will be launched by this action, the free memory has
to be sufficient.
When calculation will end, a report will be created with asked extractions
and results will be stored in a horodated directory. In the Civa manager, a
line is added below the scenario name containing date and hour of the
calculation.
Viewing the report will display the HTML report generated from calculations,
viewing the variation will display a tool displaying curves made with
numerical extractions defined in the scenario.
If a scenario is run several times, the list of the results is displayed in the right
part of the above window.
Note that if several scenarios are in the same batch, only checked scenarios
(Exec column) will be run.
1.2.6.6 Preferences
This menu contains certain preferences that the user may wish to activate
or deactivate, depending on the application. These preferences are listed
with their corresponding checkboxes. The first three activate a link between
a configuration (.xml file) and the associated results in the 3D scene. They
are described under below. The last option "Delay law complement for
reception" is concerned with a particular display of delay laws for reception.
This option is discussed after.
The options associated with the Preferences menu are described below:
image form. The corresponding .xml file therefore has a blue symbol in
the file stack. If "Enable automatic edition" is checked, however, the 3D
display corresponding to the .xml file is automatically updated. A yellow
cylinder then appears next to this file in the .xml file stack.
This last option affects the display of delay laws applied to a phased
array on reception. Phased array-based systems apply delay law
"complementarity" when receiving. This compensates for the fact that
ultrasonic wave propagation requires application to receiver elements of
a time shift that is complementary to the delay applied when
transmitting. In Civa 9, it is possible to display or not display the
complementary laws applied to the array on reception, by
checking/unchecking the option.
If the file opened in either of these ways contains computation results, the
corresponding image panels open at the same time.
The display panel serves to view the test scenes and enables real time
integration of configuration parameters for the various simulation
modules.
The top bar of the window containing this panel shows the name of the
module being used and provides conventional window minimize,
maximize and close buttons.
This toolbar contains a set of buttons that allow choice of the displays
available in the window.
• The "One display" option shows the 3D scene only.
• The "Two displays" option includes a view of the 3D scene and a
view of the 2D scene (profile along the first scan line).
• "Three displays" provides views of the 3D and 2D scenes, together
with a 3D view of the probe (or slowness curves in some cases).
• The "Four displays" option shows four 3D views of the test scene: a
side view, a 3D perspective, a top view and a front view.
• The “Custom view” display provides a custom view as describes in
dedicated chapter.
A display is activated if the user clicks in that display and a red bar
appears at the top of it.
Note that pressing the “space” bar within a window makes it occupying
the whole space (of all windows).
The following buttons in the toolbar are provided for centring the active
test scene display as follows (the same operations can be performed via
mouse clicks in the active display – see Test scene content and
operating mode.
The following four buttons are used to rotate the scene in a 3D display,
around a horizontal, vertical axis or perpendicularly to the screen in both
directions (the same operations can be performed via mouse clicks in
the active display – see Test scene content and operating mode.
The last two buttons serve to display the piece in a 3D view, with
transparent or opaque surfaces.
These are the buttons available for the UT module that simulates beam
computation. The tabs corresponding to "Specimen" (piece), "Probe",
"Inspection" and "Array settings" are described in the chapter entitled
CIVA UT setup. The "Computation parameters", "Run" and "Post-
processing" buttons are described in the chapter entitled CIVA UT
beam computation.
These are the buttons available for the UT module simulating defect
response. Like those provided for beam computation, the tabs
corresponding to "Specimen", "Probe", "Inspection" and "Array settings"
for defect/response simulation are described under CIVA UT setup. The
"Computation parameters" and "Run" buttons are described under CIVA
UT defect response simulation.
These are the buttons available for the ECT module simulating field
computation. The tabs corresponding to "Specimen", "Sensor" and
"Inspection" are described in the chapter entitled CIVA ECT setup. The
"Acquisition", "Computation" and "Normalized Z" buttons are described
under CIVA ECT field computation.
These are the buttons available for the ECT module simulating defect
response. The tabs corresponding to "Specimen", "Sensor" and
"Inspection" buttons are described in the chapter entitled CIVA ECT
setup. The "Acquisition" and "Computation" buttons are described
under CIVA ECT defect response simulation.
These are the buttons available for the X Ray module. The tabs
corresponding to "Specimen", "Source", "Detector”, “Inspection” and
"Flaws" buttons are described in the chapter entitled CIVA X Ray setup.
The "Run" and "Options" buttons are described under CIVA X Ray
Computation.
The test scene is displaced in the window by depressing and holding the
left mouse button.
The test scene image is reduced by depressing and holding the right
mouse button, then dragging the mouse from bottom to top; it is
enlarged by dragging the mouse from top to bottom, while holding the
same button.
A rectangular zoom area is defined by pressing the Ctrl key and also
holding the right mouse button (starting from either the upper or lower,
right hand or left hand corner of the image, depending on which way the
mouse is moved).
Right clicking any object in the test scene (or the scene itself) displays a
"Parameter" menu in the GUI (General User Interface) window. The
options contained in this menu are described in the adequate chapters
below.
Note that the probe may be replaced by slowness curves while defining
anisotropic materials.
1.2.7.3.4 Menus displayed by right clicking in the test scene
A right click in the test scene displayed in a 2D or 3D window calls a
"Parameter" menu.
This menu differs depending on whether the user clicks for example an
object – probe, component or flaw (for UT modeling/Defect response), a
computation zone (for UT modeling/beam computation) – or a point
It has three submenus: Scene, Layer and Clipper (as explained below,
the latter is accessible only for 3D displays) and four functions: Hide
ruler, Scene shot, Raypath and Export scene to custom view.
Scene enables the user to remove the piece reference frame from the
display and to change the color of the test scene background.
The Hide ruler function removes all dimensional indicators from the
display window.
The Ray Path and custom view functions are described in the next
chapters.
Scene, Layer, Hide ruler and Scene shot functions are identical to those
of the menu described earlier. The menu corresponding to the selected
object (in this case "Probe 0" or "Component") includes options for:
• changing object color ("Color" function),
• changing the transparency level of the object image ("Opacity"
function),
• centering the scene image with respect to the center of the selected
object ("Center" function),
The last sub menu option is for exporting the object in the custom view,
as described in the chapter dealing with custom view.
This tool has been made to ease a correct positioning of the probe in
complex cases.
The Ray path function opens a window that remains always on top, in
which the paths of ultrasonic rays emitted by the probe can be depicted
for the purpose of qualitative analysis.
These paths are plotted by the system starting from the probe surface
along a line, then through the test piece, allowing for refraction in the
coupling medium/piece and for various piece transmission/reflection
modes, which depend on the options selected under the Ray path
function.
The figure below shows the dialog box of the RayPath function.
Modes section
• "L mode," "T mode", and "Mode conversion" which determine the
types of rays depicted.
• “Number of reflection(s) off the specimen” is the number of piece
reflections which are credited in the plot. Reflections are allowed on
backwall, sides and front interfaces.
The following figures shows the rays displayed for different set of
“Modes” parameters:
Raypath section
Figure 69: A beam of 20 rays along X axis L and T modes, plus conversion.
• When incident rays at interface are near critical angles, critical rays
parallel to the interface can be computed and displayed, in purple, if
“Show critical rays” option is activated. Critical rays can be created
after a reflection or refraction, with or without mode conversion, on
front, sides and backwall interfaces. They can be also created for
reflections on defect. Up to two critical rays can be created parallel to
the interface, each one of them being slightly inside or outside the
incident volume (see next figure).
Volume1
Incident ray
Critical rays
Volume2
Interface
Next figure shows the impact of enabling or not the “Show critical rays”
options on a weld depicted as a heterogeneous and anisotropic
structure.
Notes:
• Unlike the other graphic functions, which are common to the UT and
ECT modules, the Ray path module is only accessible for UT
modules.
• The dialog box remains on top, and the function remains active after
the menu is closed. To deactivate Ray path, clear the "Activate"
option.
The "Display" function deletes from the image the part of the scene
located on the side of the plane associated with the arrow.
It applies only to plane or cylindrical specimen for all the US files, but does not
apply to results of simulation.
1.2.8.2 Description
1.2.8.2.1 Access to the functionality
It is accessible in the contextual menu, associated with an entry in the main
window of Civa, for a US file. Choose the function “Parameters”.
This choice does not depend to the type of model selected for the
reconstruction.
Then, for each shot located by its number of shot and sequence, the
following parameters can be modified:
These parameters can be different from one shot to another, and are
applied to the computation of the ultrasonic raypath for the shot
considered.
Then, for each shot located by its number of shot and sequence, the
following parameters can be modified:
These parameters can be different from one shot to another, and are
applied to the computation of the ultrasonic raypath for the shot
considered.
If “Ok” is clicked, the options and parameters are used for the raypath
computation and the “Reconstruction parameters” interface is closed.
If “Apply” is clicked, the behaviour is the same one but the interface is not
closed.
1.2.8.3 Example
This in an example of a reconstruction obtained with a simple model:
It comprises two sub modules: one for reading CAD files and another for
editing, correcting and saving CAD pieces. The 2D CAD module is activated
from the Specimen panel, under the Geometry tab. This panel is accessed by
selecting "2D CAD geometry":
The button is used to read an already created CAO file, the button to edit
it or create a new file in a dedicated interface.
• Neutral dxf AutoCAD format (R14 or over with the version CIVA 8.1)
• Neutral IGES format (V4)
• Neutral STEP format (AP 204 – AP 205).
When importing into CIVA a 2D CAD profile defined in external software, the
CAD file must include in addition to the CAD profile a horizontal line for
characterization of the 3D nature of the designed specimen. This additional line
has to be drawn anywhere in the file; its position is not taken into account but
its length and color will characterize the 3D extension. Thus, if the 3D extension
has to be linear, the line must be drawn in magenta color and the length of this
line will correspond to the linear extension in the perpendicular plane regarding
the CAD profile. On another hand if the extension is cylindrical, the line must be
drawn in cyan color and its length will correspond to the radius of the
specimen.
If the above precautions are not taken, the only means for subsequently
correcting the CAD profile is to follow the procedure described under 1.4.
below. Any “.dxf” files not meeting the criteria given above are simply not read
and may cause the application to crash.
A filter function (1) is provided to limit the list of files in the selected directory to
those with STEP or IGES formats. By simply clicking the name of the desired
CAD file (2), it is possible to activate the various layer images contained in that
file. These images usually correspond to part of a CAD drawing that may or
may not be relevant to UT simulation. Many CAD files contain title blocks that
are irrelevant to the simulation process. These title blocks generally appear in a
separate layer image. By not selecting this image, the user immediately
eliminates a large number of superfluous entities. The numbered buttons
shown in zone (3) allow one by one display of the layers and their different
views. The user can select part of the layer image and assign it a color by
clicking in zone (4): true color mode uses the existing file colors; by clicking a
second time, an entire entity is colored red to define its surface shape; a third
click designates the layer as a commentary, which then stays visible but is not
used in simulation.
After selection of the desired layer(s) and assignment of colors, the user clicks
the Open button (5) to switch either to the 3D display window, if the drawing
meets the criteria stated under 1.3 above or, where this is not the case, to the
CAD module for the purpose of correcting it.
Color Property
Red Surface
Blue Side
Green Backwall
Yellow Interface
NB: two additional colors (magenta and cyan) exist for characterization of a
CAD specimen, specifying the 3D extension type that has to be applied to
the 2D profile. These colors are not available in the CAD user interface of
CIVA but must exist in a CAD file defined in external software to allow
reading of this file into CIVA. See 1.3 above for more details
1 2 3 4 5 6
Figure 87: CAD capture buttons
The desired profile is captured in the 2D CAD display zone (top toolbar of
the capture interface). There are three tools for capturing profile elements.
These elements are captured by positioning the points that define them in
the 2D CAD display zone.
• Two possibilities are offered to the user to capture a circle arc. The
procedure required for these two solutions is described hereafter.
This entails defining a first segment (with two points A and B), then using
(B) as a starting point for the second segment. A single other point (C) then
suffices to define this second segment.
In the example below, the first segment, in red, is defined by two points.
Definition of the second segment, in blue, then requires positioning of only
point C, since its first end is defined by point B. The same is true of the
green segment.
B
C
A
D
This method can be used to change the type of captured element, so that
lines follow arcs or vice versa, by simply clicking the icons , , or
during capture.
B
C
A
D
To deactivate the contiguous element capture mode, press the Esc button,
so that the next element is captured separately from the previous one. This
means defining the initial point of the new element in the same way as for
any first element of a profile.
This button (4) is used to select a color for the next entity captured.
Multiple selections are also possible. There are several ways to select more
than one element at a time. They include:
One by one selection of all the desired entities in the CAD interface table,
by pressing and holding the "ctrl" button.
Selection of a group of successive entities in the same table, by pressing
and holding the "shift" button.
using the mouse interface of tool 5 for one by one selection of entities in the
2D profile display while holding “ctrl” button (Left mouse button).
Drawing boxes (rectangular selection) around the ends of the entities to be
selected, using the left mouse button while holding the “ctrl” key.
To cancel a selection, left click any zone that does not contain an entity.
1.3.1.5.6 Transformations
The delete button deletes the selected element, or the list of selected
elements in case of multiple selections.
The second zone of the panel serves to modify element attributes. The
following can be changed for any element:
Name
Color
Type (arc or segment)
Coordinates of its points.
Angle (formed by the vector (Point 1, Point2) and axis (Ox) in degrees)
Length.
When the user opts to change segment length, the interface asks which
point (1, 2 or both) is to be moved.
1.3.1.6.3 Arcs
Radius length (this length must always be greater than half the distance
from point1 to point 2).
Position of center: for two end points, with a given direction and radius,
there are two possible centers. Click the "Center" button to switch from
one to the other.
The third part of the CAD profile panel allows definition of parameters for 3D
extrapolation of the captured profile.
The tool for extension by rotation is slightly more complex. The rotation axis
is always oriented along the X axis of the CAD editor. The piece must
therefore be constructed accordingly. The piece rotation radius is defined
relative to the highest point on the far left side of the CAD profile (in the
following order: smallest coordinate value along the X-axis, and largest
coordinate value along the Y-axis).
The CAD profile button commands display of the CAD profile panel.
The Validate button validates the captured profile and imports it into the
model of whatever the application underway (beam computation, echo
computation, etc.). If the CAD profile is invalid, a warning message
proposes to change or cancel it. After cancellation, the specimen is
displayed in its initial form.
The default size of the image is that of the piece. The size and the position
of the image can be modified by activating "Move". The default position of
the image corresponds to its initial position and size. Horizontal (and
Vertical) mirror menus are used to symmetrise the image relative to the
horizontal (or vertical) axis.
NB: XML files saved from the CAD profile panel can only be read in this panel
using the appropriate “open” button.
Any reference frame for the piece in the CAD file is acceptable. To simplify
transducer positioning with respect to the piece, the operator can modify the
piece origin and axis orientations by acting on the appropriate parameters in
the "New reference frame" zone of the "Geometry" window.
For pieces with a rotation axis, positioning should be such that the rotation axis
coincides with the Y axis of the CIVA reference frame.
Figure 112 : Opening and changing reference frames for 3DCAD pieces
Formats interpretable with the UT modelling module are IGES (versions 4 and
5) and STEP AP 203 and 214. These are neutral formats that can be originated
from any CAD platform. To choose a predefined 3DCAD piece in the UT
modelling module, click File to reach the directory in which the relevant file was
saved.
"New reference frame" parameters modify the origin (X, Y and Z) and
orientation (X, Y and Z rotation) of the CAD piece in the CIVA reference frame.
Its purpose is to subsequently facilitate positioning of other test configuration
elements. For cylindrical-type piece positioning, the CAD piece is oriented so
that the Y axis of the CIVA reference frame coincides with the piece rotation
axis.
Once a piece is entered for modeling, it is meshed. Its mesh construction is
based on the geometric constraints defined by four operator-entered
parameters: deflection (in mm), maximum and minimum lengths (in mm)
and ratio. Deflection takes priority over the other three parameters.
It is advisable to define these parameters before opening the 3DCAD file.
Excessive constraints may result in too many mesh units and radical slowing of
software operation.
Figure 113 : Opening and changing of reference frames for 3DCAD pieces
Definition of meshing parameters and suggested default values:
ratio : L / l
l
2 CIVA UT
2.1 CIVA UT Module - Setup
2.1.1 Specimen
The "Specimen" window opened by clicking the "Specimen…" button provides
separate tabs for definition of piece Geometry, Material and Mesh (the latter for
3D CAD pieces only. From the dropdown File menu, it is possible to Load or Save
a piece description file in XML format. The menu also permits loading of a
parameter file from a Recent Files list corresponding to the latest files of this type
opened in the Specimen window. The Close button closes the window.
to the piece entry surface (plane z = 0), which has only positive x and y
coordinates. Points located inside the volume have a positive z coordinate.
2.1.1.1.5 Elbow
An elbow is defined by its inner radius, thickness, main radius and the
two lengths (length1 and length2) of cylindrical segments extending the
elbow torus, all of which are expressed in mm. Its angular sector (in °),
which by default is 90°, can be modified as shown in the following figure.
2.1.1.1.6 Nozzle
The "Validation" button changes color at the same time as the drawing in
the 3D panel, whenever a parameter is changed. The user clicks this button
to credit new parameters in 2D and 3D drawings.
Nozzle configuration
As shown above, the user determines whether or not the nozzle has an
inner cone, outer cone, inner connection or outer connection by checking
the corresponding options on the list of associated parameters.
The cylinder simplification box is checked to tell Civa that only two cylinders
are involved. This option has no impact on the graphic display of the piece,
but is useful if the user wishes to simulate tests on the main or secondary
cylinder without crediting a connection between them.
Principal cylinder
Secondary cylinder
Fillet
Secondary cone
The outer dimensions of the secondary cone (if "outer cone" is selected for
the nozzle configuration) are defined by the outer cone angle and length
and its inner dimensions (if "inner cone" is selected for the nozzle
configuration) by the inner cone angle and length.
Connection
2.1.1.1.7 Bore
A new bore piece has been added in Civa 9 for UT simulation.
Note : As this is a new specimen, all indications about its use are given in
this particular chapter, such as insertion of flaxs or calculation options that
are available.
This piece allows to insert a rivet in a multi layer piece and to add
rectangular defects around its body.
Defect Response module allows then to compute echoes obtained after
several bounces between the backwall, the rivet’s body and the defect.
Géometrical echoes directly from the backwall and the rivet, or after two
bounces (i.e. corner echoes between the backwall and the rivet) can also
be computed following certain conditions.
The rivet has got a head which thickness and diameter parameters can be
adjusted. Orientation of the head is the same as the body. But if the body is
disoriented (with Beta angle), the head is truncated, the part above the bore
being discarded as can be seen on next figure
At the opposite of the body is a nut as can seen on next figure. This nut is
not taken into account during the simulation. It is drawn only for
aesthetic purpose.
Finally the rivet has got a body which diameter,height and orientation can
be adjusted. Orientation is adjusted through the Beta angle parameter
which maximum value is fixed to 10 degres.
Piece description:
The piece is a plane piece with adjustable length and width. In addition, the
backwall can have a slope which value is adjusted by Alpha angle.
The piece can contain several layers of materials. Alpha angle is restricted
to a value such that the last layer has got a nul thickness on one of its
sides.
An array, below the Piece panel, allows to add new layers to the piece. By
default the piece has got two layers.
This shows the geometry tab with the list of adjustable parameters.
In the material tab the user can define a material.for each layer and for the
rivet.
Next figure shows this tab in the case of a bi-layer bore piece.
In addition to the layers of the piece, a material can be defined for the rivet.
On the contrary, if the box is not checked, then the material rivet is ignored,
and the rivet shall considered as filled in with air.
Flaw insertion
Next figure shows the flaw list panel as it is when a rectangular defect is
inserted.
In geometry tab, length and width parameters can be adjusted in mm. Width
is perpendicular to the body, while length is parallel.
Defect positioning can be edited in the positioning tab of the flaw list panel.
Theta angle defines the orientation of the defect around the rivet. A theta
angle, with value 0, corresponds to an orientation along X axis.
Next figure shows in 3D the orientation of the defect with a theta angle
equal to 45 degrees.
Z value corresponds to the depth of the defect. This is the depth of the
center of the defect, measured in mm, starting from the surface of the first
layer.
The tilt angle allows to rotate the defect as shown on next figure (top view)
The skew angle allows to rotate the defect as shown on next figure (side
view)
Modelisation:
The bore piece allows the computation of ultrasonic fields and defect
responses. For defect responses, in addition to rectangular defects echoes,
backwall echoes can be computed in case of non perfect contact of the
rivet.
All the echoes coming back from the rectangular defect can be taken into
account, including those with interactions with the rivet and the planar
backwall (of the last layer). For instance:
Transducer -> planar backwall -> rivet -> rectangular defect -> rivet ->
transducer
By clicking the icon next to Name of file, the user accesses a browse
window in which he opens a 2D CAD file in .dxf format.
The Edit button serves to open the integrated CAD tool and its display
panel.
By clicking the icon next to Name of file, the user accesses a browse
window in which he opens a 3D CAD file.
Once a piece has been entered for modeling, it undergoes meshing. Each
time a meshing parameter is modified, the mesh itself changes. To display
the modified version, click the Mesh button again.
Display mesh button is not active in CIVA 8. Mesh parameters and advices
to adjust these paratmeters are given in next paragraph.
Any reference frame for the piece in the CAD file is acceptable. To simplify
transducer positioning with respect to the piece, the operator can modify the
piece origin and axis orientations by acting on the appropriate parameters in
the New reference frame zone of the Geometry box. Parameters X,Y and
Z allow choice of reference frame translation along these three axes in mm.
Parameters Rotation/X, Rotation/Y and Rotation/Z allow choice of reference
frame rotation around the X,Y and Z axes in °.
Remarks:
• Roughness can be defined for all the piece geometries.
• Roughness is accounted for the entry surface of the piece only defined by
the testing configuration (parametric pieces) or through CAD files (CAD
pieces).
• The single parameter Ra is expressed in µm (micrometer). Its physical
meaning and an explanation on the physical model of roughness are given in
the chapter Theory.
If the multilayer option is selected, the Geometry box enables insertion of a new
layer either above the one highlighted or at the end of the list, using a set of
blue-colored buttons located to the left of the list. These buttons also serve to
displace the highlighted layer to a lower or higher position and to define layer
thicknesses by changing the values in the list. It is also possible to remove the
highlighted layer.
When a multilayer material is defined for a 2D CAD piece, only the latter's
surface entities are preserved; the rest of the piece already includes several
plane or cylindrical layers for such pieces.
Note: When the test piece is heterogeneous, the type of structure indicated in
the “type” parameter field (see previous figure) is automatically set to
“heterogeneous”. The choice “homogeneous” or “multilayer” described above is
not yet available, except by changing the type of piece, and then the type of
structure is going back to homogeneous.
This section describes the options available to the user for defining the material
associated with a given volume (homogeneous medium). Pieces comprising
more than one volume are discussed at the end of this chapter.
For a homogeneous piece, the specimen window material menu takes different
forms, depending on the type of material selected. The user has several
options (see figure below). Simple (for defining an isotropic or anisotropic
material), Single ply composite, Homogeneous multiple ply composite and
Granular composite.
Note: The Multiple ply composite appearing in the above interface is not used
in modeling. For this reason, it must not be selected in Civa 9.
• by clicking the Load button located to the right of the material name.
This button gives access to a list of predefined materials saved in XML
format.
• or by directly keying in the desired material properties (density, L and T
wave speeds, noise and attenuation where appropriate) via the GUI.
Once a material has been defined, it can be saved (by clicking the
button placed to the right of the material name) as an XML file,
which can subsequently be reloaded by clicking the load button (see first
definition mode).
Again, there are two ways of defining the material (same as for the isotropic
scenario):
• by clicking the Load button located to the right of the material name.
This button gives access to a list of predefined materials saved in XML
format.
For an anisotropic material, the user first keys in a density (in g/cm3), then
selects the desired type of crystal symmetry.
Notes:
2) In practice, the most widely used crystal symmetries are cubic (material
with three equivalent directions), hexagonal, also called transversely
isotropic (material exhibiting a plane of isotropy), orthorhombic (material
characterized by three axes of symmetry), monoclinic (material with a single
axis of symmetry) and triclinic (material having no symmetry).
p =1
Note: A noise generator simulates noise for the purpose of predicting SNR
for a given medium. Realistic description of scattered noise in terms of the
two parameters density and amplitude, requires use of experimental
calibration. Such calibration consists of comparing an experimental image
acquired in a "noisy" medium against an image simulated with a given
density/amplitude pair, for example using segmentation tools. Statistical
analysis can also identify optimum parameters for modeling the scattering
medium. Once these parameters are known, they can be used for
simulation with all types of transducers.
For further details on structural noise modeling in Civa, the user is referred
to the following article:
This article can be obtained directly from the public Civa website at the
following address:
http://www-
civa.cea.fr/home/liblocal/docs/TableauPubli/PublisEnLigne14.htm
To define this type of composite, in the same way as for a simple material
(see above), the user can load an XML file corresponding to a previously
saved single ply composite material. This is done by simply clicking the load
button located to the right of the material name. He may also opt to define
The first parameters input for a single ply composite are the mechanical
properties of each of its constituent materials, i.e. fiber and matrix. The user
simply selects the lines Fiber and Matrix in the top part of the material panel
and enters the desired parameters for these two media (see figure below).
Various assumptions are made about the two media, for example that the
matrix is a homogeneous, isotropic, viscoelastic medium. It is therefore
possible, as is the case for most fiber-reinforced materials, to also credit
wave attenuation. It is also assumed that fiber crystal symmetry is the
perfectly elastic, transversely isotropic type. No fiber-specific attenuation
can therefore be taken into consideration. For further details on defining
these two simple-type media, the user is referred to Simple material.
Note: The numerical values given for fiber and matrix in the figure are
"realistic" values for carbon and epoxy resin. They can thus be seen as
typical reference values for computing single ply composite data.
After defining the composite materials, the user selects the line "Sublayer
no. 0: single ply composite" at the top of the material panel and enters the
percentage of fiber in the composite, the diameter of an individual fiber (in
mm) and the "minimum" and "maximum" frequencies. These frequency
values serve to define the range over which the medium is to be
homogenized (see further details under "Homogenization method" below).
Once all the parameters have been defined, the homogenization process
can be initiated by clicking the "homogenization" button. A new,
"homogenized" tab containing the parameters of the homogenized material
is then displayed (see next figure).
Homogenization method:
As stated earlier, the homogenization procedure used in Civa enables
computation of the mechanical properties of a medium equivalent to the
two-phase composition of a single ply material. This provides not only the
elastic coefficients of the equivalent medium but also its attenuation law (i.e.
attenuation behavior as a function of frequency), based on the
viscoelasticity of the matrix and the multiple scattering capability afforded by
the set of fibers. The homogenized medium is thus an anisotropic one with
a hexagonal symmetry (five independent elasticity constants) whose
attenuation is given by a polynomial law. The properties of this
homogenized medium are displayed under the "homogenized" tab (see next
figure). For further details on the homogenization method, see: “Modeling
of ultrasonic attenuation in unidirectional fiber reinforced composites
combining multiple-scattering and viscoelastic losses”, S. Lonné, A.
Lhémery, P. Calmon, S. Biwa and F. Thévenot, Review of Progress in
QNDE 23, ed. by D. O. Thompson and D. E. Chimenti (AIP Conference
Proceedings 700, Melville, 2004), pp. 875-882.
This article can be obtained directly from the public Civa website at the
following address:
http://www-
civa.cea.fr/home/liblocal/docs/TableauPubli/PublisEnLigne14.htm
The scope of validity for this method depends on the center frequency of
the transducer being simulated and the characteristic fiber diameter, which
must ensure compliance with the criterion ka<<1 (where k is the wave
number and a the fiber diameter). For example, the transducers commonly
used to test carbon/epoxy-type composites have a center frequency in the
vicinity of 5 MHz. In such cases, we suggest that a "min. frequency" of 1
MHz (or 20% of transducer center frequency) and a "max. frequency" of 10
MHz (or twice that center frequency) be used. These values afford
successful homogenization of a medium over the desired frequency range
and, therefore, the validity of the attenuation law predicted for the equivalent
medium. Outside this range, the frequency dependency of attenuation can
no longer be ensured.
the piece reference frame. The user can define as many sublayers and
apply whatever disorientation angles between them as he wishes.
To fully define the homogeneous multiple ply medium, the user must also
enter a "Thickness" value (in mm) for each sublayer in the relevant column
of the table displayed on the panel. This value does not necessarily reflect
real sublayer thicknesses, but instead the proportion of overall thickness
represented by each. By default, each sublayer is assigned a thickness
value of 1, meaning that all sublayers have the same thickness.
This article can be obtained directly from the public Civa website at the
following address:
http://www-
civa.cea.fr/home/liblocal/docs/TableauPubli/PublisEnLigne14.htm
For correct definition of a Granular composite, the user must first specify the
mechanical properties of the materials it contains. In Civa, these materials
are considered to be isotropic and purely elastic, i.e. nonattenuating (no
allowance is made for attenuation by one or more of them). For definition of
an isotropic material, see § 1.3.1 a).
Following definition of the basic materials used the granular composite, the
user indicates the percentage and size (diameter in mm) of the aggregate it
contains. This aggregate may include grains of different sizes. The user is
thus able to define several typical diameters. In the figure shown above, the
In short, the homogenization method applied here serves not only to define
the elastic properties of the equivalent medium (L and T wave speeds and
density), but also to automatically compute an attenuation law for the
frequency illustrative of the defined granular composite. This law, which is
computed for the user-selected frequency domain (min and max
frequencies entered in the GUI), reflects multiple scattering between the
different inclusions.
2.1.2 Transducer
The "Probe" window opened by clicking the display panel Probe button from the
UT beam computation and defect response simulation modules enables definition
of the ultrasonic transducer in terms of the properties described below.
Figure 169: Modification of the inspection mode setting in the Inspection panel to define one or two probes
• The characteristics of both probes are therefore reported in the Probe Panel.
One may switch the operating mode (Transmitter or Receiver) of both probes by
selecting them in the probe’s list table. As those probes are, by default,
considered as identical, any modification of one probe will be set to the other
one.
• It is also possible to use two probes with different characteristics (for instance,
different refraction angles at Transmission and Reception). To do so, it is
necessary to modify the default option concerning the TOFD or Tandem
configuration settings in the Inspection Settings panel, tab Positioning, which is
set to “symmetric”. The “symmetric” term stands for identical probes
characteristics, which corresponds to the most usual applications.
Figure 171: Modification of the inspection settings configuration to allow the definition of two distinct probes
Figure 175: Additional choice of contour for a Dual Element probe: Half circular pattern
For Flexible type probes, one can only select a Linear phased array or a
Matrix phased array pattern (see next paragraph for description of these
patterns).
For Surrounding array and Surrounded array type probes, one can only
select a single element or Linear phased array shape (see hereafter,
paragraph : Surrounding and Surrounded arrays)
For an Elliptical phased array, and Bi-Elliptical phased array, the same
parameters have to be defined, except that:
• For an Elliptical array, one has to define the radii in the incidence plane
and in the orthogonal plane,
• For a Bi-Elliptical array, one has to define two radii in the incidence
plane, and one radius in the orthogonal plane.
Figure 179: Elliptical and Bi-Elliptical phased array definition and display
Figure 180: Parameters settings for a Surrounding array and display of a typical configuration
A “Surrounding array” is assumed to be lying outside of the specimen
(mainly, outside of the tube), while a “Surrounded array” is assumed to be
located inside a tube. Meanwhile, the definition and display of these probes
are identical.
The default conventions according to the different patterns are the following:
• Linear phased array elements are numbered from left to right, the axis
of the probe (drawn as an arrow in the main visualization window).
Figure 183: Default numbering convention for an annular, elliptical or bi-elliptical phased array
Figure 184: Numbering assistant for modification of the default phased array numbering convention
• “Manual numbering”: the user has to click on each element of the array
he wants to number or to modify. This option also allows to regroup
elements in the same channel.
• “Numbering by law”: an automatic numbering is set according to
dedicated parameters.
2.1.2.2 Focusing
The user selects the type of Focusing (surface) by clicking the corresponding
button. This option is available for immersion, contact or dual T/R transducers.
For immersion transducers without lenses and for contact or dual T/R
transducers (in a dual T/R transducer, the same focusing is applied
symmetrically to both elements), the focusing surface is the surface of the
active transducer (piezoelectric element). For immersion transducers with
lenses, the focusing surface is the lens surface in contact with the immersion
medium. If there is a lens, its medium must also be characterized. The model
considers the lens as an acoustical delay line. The wave speed of the lens
medium is expressed in m/s and its density in g/cm3. Attenuation parameters
can also be credited (to see how this is done in detail, see under CIVA UT
Setup – Test piece - Material).
Figure 187: Parameters settings for a focused probe using a shaped crystal or with a lens
• Spherical focusing surface: only one radius of curvature is used. NB: this
radius may be positive (focusing probe) or negative (diverging probe).
Besides, a test is achieved to check that the curvature radius is larger than
the smallest dimension of the crystal contour.
• Bifocal focusing surface: the radii of curvature in the incidence plane and
perpendicular to the incidence plane are required to define this surface.
The (toroidal) surface is defined by the radii of curvature of the torus at
transducer center. A compatibility check is likewise performed for the
entered radius values.
• Trifocal focusing surface: the two incidence Radii in the incidence plane
(bottom and top) and the Radius perpendicular to the incidence plane
are required. The (bitoroidal) surface is made up of portions of the two
different tori. The radius perpendicular to the incidence plane is common to
both toroidal surfaces. Here again, entered values are checked for
compatibility.
Once the test configuration (piece, relative transducer position and propagation
media) and the transducer shape have been specified, it is necessary to
compute the Fermat surface. In the Probe panel, one has to click on
“Compute” to set the Fermat surface parameters: Wave mode, Transducer step
and Focusing depth.
Figure 192: Probe panel display for Fermat probe definition before computation of the Fermat surface and dialog
box for Fermat surface computation
Once the computation has been completed, the Fermat surface is drawn inside
the Probe Panel (as a bitmap in colormap amplitude display). One may validate
the Fermat surface computation and close the dialog box by clicking on
“Validate”, modify the parameters and launch a new computation by clicking on
“Compute”, or quit the dialog box without account of the computed Fermat
surface by clicking on “Cancel”.
Figure 193: Probe panel display for Fermat probe definition after computation of the Fermat surface and display
of the Fermat focused probe in the main visualization window
Types of probes:
A Fermat surface computation can only take place if the selected transducer
type is immersion. It is, however, possible to define such a surface for a
contact transducer, by defining the equivalent test configuration for an
immersion transducer, selecting "Other" as a coupling medium and using the
elastic properties of plexiglass. Once the Fermat surface has been computed, it
can be used with a contact transducer by then selecting this type of transducer.
Specimen geometry:
Material:
A Fermat surface computation can only take place where the material making
up the piece is homogeneous and isotropic. A Fermat transducer computed for
an isotropic, homogeneous piece can nevertheless be used for a
heterogeneous anisotropic piece.
Figure 194: Probe panel display for Contact (or Dual element) probes
The first tab “Geometry” allows defining all the geometrical parameters of the
wedge.
Wedge dimensions: Height, Width and Front and Back Lengths, which
define the overall geometry of the wedge, are included in the computation. Only
energy paths traversing the wedge bottom contribute to the field (there’s no
account of potential reflections on the lateral walls of the wedge).
Two Other angles may also be defined for a Contact transducer. They are
squint angle (angle of rotation of the element around X, i.e. the symmetry axis
of the probe) and disorientation angle (its angle of rotation around the axis
normal to its surface or "acoustic angle").
Figure 196: Definition of contact transducer wedge geometry, dimensions and crystal orientation
Additional parameters are used to define the wedge of Dual element probes,
which are related to the symmetric arrangement of both probes. The
characteristics of parameters related to Dual element wedge are illustrated on
figure below.
Figure 197: Definition of Dual element transducer wedge geometry, dimensions and crystal orientation
NB: The depth of the point of acoustic axis convergence indicated in the
interface is calculated by considering the material and the geometry of the test
piece in contact with the transducer. Note that this point may differ from the
point shown in the 3D display interface, particularly for a flat wedge transducer
positioned on a cylinder parallel to its axis.
Figure 198: Parameters defining the convergence point inside the material
Two other angles allows rotation of the two elements around their own axis:
Figure 199: Additional angles for defining the orientation of the crystals in the Dual element wedge
Finally, the tab “Material” allows defining all the geometrical parameters of the
wedge.
Under this heading are specified the elastic properties of the wedge Material.
By default, the wedge material is Plexiglass. Other materials can be defined by
the user.
If the same wedge is used on a piece surface that is not plane or cylindrical in
some places (irregular surface, CAD-defined piece, parametrically-defined
piece of cylindrical geometry with a radius different from that of the wedge), the
wedge bottom surface no longer make "perfect" contact. A space – generally
filled with a coupling liquid used for this type of test – is then created between
the two surfaces.
With the "matched" option selected (by checking Matched contact under the
Inspection panel, Configuration tab), this space is considered to contain the
same material as the wedge.
If, however, the "unmatched" transducer option was selected (by clearing the
Matched contact option under the Inspection panel, Configuration tab), this
space is considered for computation purposes to be made of the coupling
defined under the Inspection panel, Coupling tab (See CIVA UT setup –
Testing – Configuration Tab).
2.1.2.5 Signal
The user selects the transducer excitation signal by opening the Signal tab.
This menu enables loading, saving a waveform in an editable text file, or editing
a synthetic waveform in a dedicated window. These choices are selected using
the following icons:
Figure 201: Display of the Probe panel, Signal tab and Icons dedicated to load, to save or to edit the signal
waveform of the probe
By clicking the icon , the user can open an (.ascan-type) signal file whose
name appears in the File name bar. The shape of the signal loaded into the
model is then depicted in the display panel and the signal Center Frequency is
shown in MHz at the bottom of this panel.
Clicking on the icon allows saving the signal in text file format.
Figure 203: Display of Linear and Matrix flexible phased arrays probes
NB: the distance between the rigid elements is maintained when the probe is
located over complex specimen profile, however there’s no test to check that
the elements may be in contact one to each other due to the height of the
elements. Besides, each element is located and disoriented towards the profile,
and then one considers the surface of each element does perfectly fit the
surface (which is usually a relevant approximation, due to the size of one
element compared to smooth variations of the profiles).
2.1.3 Inspection
2.1.3.1 Description of the Inspection window
The Inspection properties window is used to define the relative positions of the
piece and the transducer for which preliminary definitions were entered via the
first two (Piece and Transducer) windows. The Inspection Properties window
also serves to define the different propagation media present in the transducer
and piece environment and determine transducer displacement based on initial
transducer position and type of piece, for a UT simulation with the Defect
Response module.
The Inspection window gives access to five options: Configuration, Positioning,
Coupling medium, Bottom medium and Displacement (the latter is dimmed in
the Beam computation module).
The zone located above the option tabs tells the user which Inspection mode
has been selected. Those possibilities are detailed in later paragraphs.
2.1.3.2 Definitions
2.1.3.2.1 Reference frames and conventions
To position the transducer on the piece, the Inspection window uses a
coordinate system specifically suited to piece symmetry (e.g. cylindrical
coordinates for a specimen extended by revolution). A reference frame
subsequently referred to as the Specimen reference frame is thus
determined for all pieces except the Nozzle. The latter is assigned two
reference frames, one for each of the two (primary or secondary) cylinders
making up the piece. The following paragraphs describe the Piece
reference frames for each type of piece geometry. The coordinate labels for
each of these frames are given in the Inspection window.
• Plane:
The Specimen reference frame is Cartesian. Its origin O is located on the
piece surface, which is the plane (O, X, Y), and its Z axis is directed toward
the inside of the piece (Figure below).
• Cylinder :
The coordinate system is cylindrical. Origin Ο of the piece reference frame
(O, R, θ, Y) is located on the axis of revolution, which is the Y axis: and
angle θ is defined by the conventions shown in next Figure. X and Z axes of
the associated Cartesian coordinate system are defined as shown in Figure
below.
• Cone:
A cylindrical coordinate system is adopted. Origin Ο of the piece reference
frame (O, R, θ, Y) is located on the revolution axis, which is the Y axis; and
angle θ is defined by the conventions shown in Figure below. X and Z axes
of the associated Cartesian coordinate system are defined as shown in
Figure below.
• Elbow :
As indicated earlier, an elbow defined in the Specimen window, is made up
of two cylindrical segments and a toroidal segment. Its origin lies on the
revolution axis of the cylinder numbered 1 in the Specimen window, which
coincides with the Y axis.
The curve formed by joining the all centers of elbow segments (i.e. the
revolution axes of the two cylinders and the equator circle of the torus) is
called the "Generatrix curve"). The Specimen reference frame (O, R, θ, U)
used to position the transducer includes a curvilinear coordinate U along the
generatrix curve. Figure below shows the conventions used to define an
elbow.
simulation is the DXF file X axis, but the Z axis used in UT simulation
corresponds to the DXF file -Y axis.
The following figure shows the conventions used to define a CAD profile
extended by translation.
Important: The frame (known as "DXF frame") in which the profile CAD is
captured differs from the one used for simulation. The X axis for UT
simulation is the DXF file X axis, but the Z axis used in UT simulation
corresponds to the DXF file -Y axis.
The following figure shows the conventions used to define a CAD profile
extended by revolution.
• 3D CAD piece:
• Nozzle:
As indicated earlier, a nozzle defined in the Specimen window is made up
of two figures of revolution (two cylinders or a cylinder + a cone), a so-called
Main (or "Principal") figure to which a Secondary figure is connected. Two
Specimen reference frames are defined: (Oprinc, Rprinc, θprinc, Yprinc) for the
Main cylinder; and (Osec, Rsec, θsec, Ysec), for the Secondary cylinder. The
conventions applicable to these two frames are similar to those for a
cylindrical piece.
• Sphere :
The piece reference frame (O, R, θ, φ) is a spherical coordinate system
centering on the center of the sphere.
Figure 212: Definition of the transducer incidence plane and reference frame
A further, local reference frame (L, Xlocal, Ylocal, Zlocal) is available for
definition of beam computation zones (see Civa UT – Beam computation
– Computation definition). The center of this frame is the impact point L,
which is the point at which transducer axis Zc intersects with the piece. The
Ylocal axis is perpendicular to the inspection plane and the Zlocal axis is
oriented either normally inward at L, or along the Z axis of the piece
reference frame (or radially, for a piece extended by revolution).
If a distinction is necessary between these two options, the user makes his
choice using the Area tab of the Computation parameters panel (see Civa
UT Beam computation – Computation definition). The local reference
frame (L, Xlocal, Ylocal, Zlocal) is also associated with cylindrical coordinates
(Ylocal, θlocal, Rlocal) according to the usual conventions.
second, referred to here as "true incidence plane" Piv, defines the incidence
of a beam on the piece surface. This plane contains transducer axis Zc,
together with the axis normal to the piece at impact point (point where the
transducer axis intersects with the piece surface). A distinction is sometimes
made between these types of incidence planes, namely in defining
inspection configurations.
To further illustrate this definition, consider the two cases where the
inspection plane does not coincide with the two incidence planes Pic and
Piv, defined before:
1/ where the user has deliberately "disoriented" the transducer (and
thus the two planes Pic and Piv,) with respect to the default orientation; and
2/ where the selected Inspection plane does not contain the axis locally
normal to the piece surface. True incidence plane Piv, does not then
coincide with Inspection plane and Pic. This situation can occur with conical,
nozzle or CAD pieces.
depends on the type of pice selected. The choice made from this list
results in definition of the Inspection plane.
2.1.3.4.2.1 Plane
2.1.3.4.2.2 Cylinder
2.1.3.4.2.3 Cone
• Parallel to rotation axis: the inspection plane contains the Y axis and
the axis radial to the impact point.
• Perpendicular to generatrix: the inspection plane is perpendicular to
the generatrix at the impact point.
• Perpendicular to revolution axis: the inspection plane is the (X,Z)
plane. Note that the Perpendicular to revolution axis configuration is not
accessible for a Contact-type transducer.
• Oblique: in this case, a positive or negative angle must be entered, in
degrees. This angle is the one formed by the inspection plane and the
plane containing the X axis and the generatrix at impact point. If the
angle is zero, the Oblique configuration is equivalent to the Parallel to
rotation axis configuration.
• Along the profile: the inspection plane is the plane containing the CAD
profile, i.e. (X, Z) or (Y, Z), depending on whether extension takes place
by translation or revolution (and assuming that θ = 0).
• Perpendicular to profile plane: the inspection plane is perpendicular to
the plane containing the CAD profile and contains the axis vertical/radial
to impact point. This configuration is not available for a contact (or
flexible)-type transducer. For such transducers, the applicable
configuration is normal to profile as defined below.
• Normal to profile: the inspection plane is perpendicular to the plane
containing the CAD profile and contains the axis normal to impact point.
• Oblique: For this configuration, a positive or negative angle is entered,
in degrees. This angle is the one formed by the inspection plane and
the (X, Y) plane (assuming that, if the profile is extended by revolution,
the impact point is located at θ = 0). If the angle is 0°, the Oblique
configuration is equivalent to the Along profile configuration.
• From sidewall: The From sidewall configuration is only accessible for
CAD profiles extended by revolution and immersion-type transducers. In
the same way as for Along profile, the inspection plane is the plane
containing the CAD profile; but in From sidewall configuration, the goal
is to position the transducer with respect to profile vertical entities
("sidewall" of a piece extended by revolution). The settings used to
define this particular configuration are detailed in 3.5.1, which describes
the Inspection window Positioning tab.
2.1.3.4.2.5 3D CAD
The user can upload 3D CAD files of which he has no prior knowledge
(except that they comply with certain rules set down in Using CAD
pieces – 3D CAD pieces). The approach used to position the transducer
on a 3D CAD piece is to liken it to the previous configuration, i.e. a CAD
profile obtained by translation or revolution.
2.1.3.4.2.6 Nozzle
• Oblique.
•
In the Parallel to nozzle generatrix configuration, the inspection plane is
the one containing the revolution axis (Y or Z) of the cylinder of interest
and the impact point on the piece (or, for a contact transducer, the center
of gravity). Inspection plane orientations associated with the
Perpendicular to revolution axis and Oblique options are identical to
those defined for a cylindrical piece if X, Y and Z axes are replaced by
the corresponding axes of the selected cylinder. Finally, the inspection
plane orientation associated with the Normal to nozzle generatrix option
is identical to the orientation defined for a CAD profile extended by
revolution, after the same replacements as above.
Notes:
• The Normal to profile configuration is not accessible if the Element
center positioning mode is selected under the Positioning tab (see
later). This is because procedures for these two options are
incompatible.
• The Oblique from inside configuration is not accessible for a Contact-
type transducer.
•
2.1.3.4.2.7 Elbow
• Along the generatrix curve
• Perpendicular to generatrix
• Oblique
•
The oblique configuration requires definition of an angle in degrees. The
orientation of the plane depends not only on the value of the angle, but
also on the position of the transducer in the elbow (along its generatrix
curve).
2.1.3.4.2.8 Sphere:
The only choices proposed for a sphere are from inside/from outside.
2.1.3.4.2.9 Bore
See chapter “specimen”
the user must first fill in zone 1, then, depending on the choices made in
that zone, the fields available in either zone 2 or zone 3.
There are two different positioning modes: beam impact point mode and
element center mode.
When the beam impact point positioning mode is selected, the user must
therefore fill in zone 2: whose fields include the coordinates of the
desired impact point and various "impact orientations" (transducer
incidence, squint and disorientation angles), as well as coupling range
(called "coupling range" in the corresponding panel). These parameters
are defined below:
A distinction must also be made here between the Along profile and
From sidewall, since the search for possible impact points depends on
the type of configuration selected (see the 2 following Figures). If Along
profile is selected, the two coordinates available for specifying impact
point position are X and Y. The impact point search algorithm is then
applied in the Z direction, which corresponds to the depth of the piece
(see corresponding Figure below). If the From sidewall is selected
(implying that the piece profile is extended by revolution), the two
coordinates available for specifying transducer position are R and θ. With
the cylindrical coordinate system used in this type of piece, the impact
point search algorithm is applied in the Y direction, i.e. parallel to the
piece revolution axis (see corresponding Figure below).
If several impact points are identified, the user can select any one of
them from the dropdown list appearing in zone 1 of the Positioning panel.
By default, the selected point is the point numbered 1. The value of this
point is the one displayed in the field relating to the third impact point
coordinate (which is accessible in read-only mode). Transducer element
center fields then display the coordinates of whatever the center
corresponding to this impact point. If the user replaces the point
displayed with another taken from the list, transducer position in the 3D
display is modified accordingly; and all of these values are updated. If
only one impact point is identified, the number 1 appears in the
dropdown list of impact points and this list appears dimmed. If no point is
found, the message "No impact point" is displayed in the dropdown list.
In such cases, transducer position is not modified.
Figure 221: Impact point search for a CAD profile extended by translation in Along profile configuration
2) Impact orientations:
The three parameters Incidence angle, Deflection angle and Rotation
angle enable definition of an arbitrary element orientation. These three
angles are expressed in degrees and may have positive or negative
values. As already stated elsewhere, rotations are not commutative
operations. The program thus computes element orientation by applying
the rotations associated with the Incidence, Deflection and Rotation
angles, in that order. These rotations are defined as follows:
3) Coupling range:
By keying in the Coupling range, the user can further refine the position
of the element center whose coordinates appear in Zone 3. This value
corresponds to the distance in mm from the element center to the impact
point.
• The Tilt angle is the degree of rotation of the element around the Yc
axis (i.e. a Zc rotation in the inspection plane).
• The Squint angle is the degree of element rotation around the Xc axis.
• The Disorientation angle is its degree of rotation around the Zc axis.
In common applications for which the transducer incidence plane Pic
coincides with the inspection plane, the Squint angle and the
Disorientation angle are both zero. These two angles represent and thus
allow simulation of deviation from a "normal" situation.
On the basis of the three element center coordinates and the three
element orientation angles, Civa searches for the points at which the Zc
axis intersects with the surface of the piece. If at least one such point is
found, Civa automatically selects as Impact point the first point occurring
along the Zc axis. The coordinates of this point are displayed in
Positioning tab zone 2, and the impact orientations are refreshed
accordingly. The dropdown list of impact points displays the number of
this point to enable consistent back and forth interplay between the
Impact point and Element center modes. If no intersection point is found,
the message "No impact point" is displayed in the dropdown list.
Note: Element center mode is not accessible for Normal to profile (CAD
piece) or Normal to nozzle generatrix (nozzle) configurations. In both
these cases, inspection plane definition requires knowledge of the impact
point that makes the Element center mode inoperative.
Positioning tab zone 2 contains the three coordinates for the Wedge center
in the piece reference frame. Only the first two of these values are
accessible in read/write mode. When the user keys in values for these two
coordinates, an algorithm automatically positions the transducer on the
surface of the piece. This algorithm makes allowance for wedge
By keying in values for the two wedge center coordinates, the user defines
a so-called "landing" axis. Civa then searches for the point or points at
which this axis intersects with the surface of the piece. Only on CAD2D and
CAD3D pieces can there be more than one such point. Where this is the
case, the pair of coordinates keyed in by the user may correspond to any
one of several possible positions. The user then makes his choice among
the options given by the dropdown list in zone 1. The points of intersection
identified by Civa are numbered starting from 1.
Zone 1 displays the number of the selected point, around which the
transducer is automatically positioned. If the user replaces the point
displayed with a number taken from the list, the transducer position in the
3D display is modified accordingly, and automatic positioning is reinitialized.
By default, the selected point is the one numbered 1. If a single point is
identified, the number 1 is displayed in the dropdown list, which then
appears dimmed. If no point is found, the message "No impact point" is
displayed in the dropdown list. In such cases, transducer position is not
modified.
Once automatic positioning has taken place, the value obtained for the third
wedge center coordinate ("elevation") is displayed (in read-only mode) in
zone 2. At the same time, the value of an angle that gives the wedge
orientation in the inspection plane ("misadaptation angle") is displayed in
read-only mode. If the bottom of the wedge is perpendicular to the "landing
axis", the value of this angle is 0.
Zone 3 of the Positioning tab displays the coordinates of the impact point on
the bottom of the wedge. This is the point at which the transducer Zc axis
intersects with the wedge bottom surface.
Real impact point is not the one selected: Either the From inside/From outside
configuration or the coupling range is inconsistent with the impact point
selected.
Center of element is located inside the piece: The element center detected by
Civa falls inside the piece.
Angles incompatible with inward normal at the impact point: The transducer
axis detected by Civa originates inside the piece.
Center of gravity is located outside the piece: The axis defining initial position of
the center of gravity does not intersect with the surface of the piece.
On display of any of these messages and, before further action, the user
must make whatever positioning parameter changes required to achieve
consistency.
The previous figure shows the general layout of the Inspection window
Displacement tab. This panel is divided into four main zones:
Figure 227: Displacement "Along profile…" on a flat piece in "Along X" configuration
b) Oblique
Figure 228: "Oblique" displacement (at 45°) on a flat piece in "Along X" configuration
Figure 229: "Rotation around Z" by an angle of 60° for a flat piece in "Along X" configuration
Figure 230: Displacement "Along profile…" on a flat piece in "Along Y" configuration
Transducer scanning motion takes place in the inspection plane (Y, Z) and
increments are made in the plane perpendicular to the inspection plane (X,
Z).
b) Oblique
Figure 231: "Oblique" displacement (at 45°) on a flat piece in "Along Y" configuration
Figure 232: "Rotation around Z" by an angle of 90° for a flat piece in "Along Y" configuration
• "Oblique" configuration:
a) Along profile, increment defined along axis
Figure 233: Displacement "Along profile…" on a flat piece, in "Oblique" configuration with an angle of 45%
b) Oblique
Transducer scanning takes place along a plane that is "disoriented" by an
angle θ (in degrees) relative to the inspection plane (X, Z) and increments
made in the plane perpendicular to this disoriented plane. Transducer
orientation is likewise defined by an angle θ (in degrees) selected by the
user.
Figure 234: "Oblique" displacement (at 45°) on a flat piece in "Oblique" configuration (45° angle).
Figure 235: "Rotation around Z" by an angle of 60° for a flat piece in "Oblique" configuration (with an angle of
45°)
Figure 237: Displacement on a cylindrical piece, in "Parallel to revolution axis" configuration for an immersion
transducer positioned in "Element Center" mode
• "Oblique" configuration:
In the "oblique" configuration, the transducer displacement path is the same
as the one followed in a "Parallel to revolution axis" configuration, except for
transducer disorientation.
• "Oblique" configuration:
There are two possible displacement modes for a 2D CAD piece. Both of
them entail following the piece profile in the (X, Z) plane, then performing a
translation along Y. In Civa, the corresponding displacement modes are
called "Along profile" and "Along true profile" as described below.
Figure 243: "Along profile" option for a contact transducer and a 2D CAD piece
Figure 244: "Along profile" option for an immersion transducer and a 2D CAD piece
Figure 245: "Along true profile" option for contact and immersion transducers and a 2D CAD piece
1) Translation
Figure 246: Displacement by translation associated with an angle θ = 10°for a 2D CAD piece and an immersion
transducer positioned in "Element center" mode
2) Rotation
3) Oblique
Figure 247: Oblique displacement (at an angle of 45°) on a 2D CAD piece for an immersion transducer positioned
in "Element center" mode with an "Along profile" configuration
• Along profile: by default, scanning takes place along the CAD profile and
increments are made by translation along Y.
• Perpendicular to profile plane: by default, scanning takes place along Y
and increments are made along the CAD profile.
• Oblique: both scanning and increment take place along a direction θ (in
degrees) entered by the user. The direction θ = 0° corresponds to the
"Along profile" option.
• From sidewall: this type of positioning is only available for immersion
transducers and CAD pieces extended by revolution. Both scanning and
increment-type displacements are defined in the same way as for an
"Along profile" configuration.
Figure 248: Displacement around a nozzle connection zone in "Parallel to nozzle generatrix" configuration
Figure 249: Displacement around a nozzle connection zone in "Parallel to nozzle generatrix" configuration
Figure 252 : example of the positionning panel for a symmetric configuration in TOFD mode inspection
Figure 254: example of the configuration panel for a symmetric configuration in TOFD mode inspection
Note: as the probes are identical, this constraint appears also in the
probe panel: you can’t choose the option “different” (figure below).
Figure 258 : example of the positionning panel for a non symmetric configuration in TOFD mode inspection
Figure 259 : example of the configuration panel for a non symmetric configuration in TOFD mode inspection.
Note: as the probes can be different, in the probe panel, you can choose
this option “different” (figure below):
Figure 261 : Probe panel for a non symmetric configuration in TOFD inspection mode
2.1.3.8.3 TANDEM
It corresponds to an inspection with two transducers with the same
scanning direction (see figure below).
To define a TANDEM configuration, open the panel “inspection” and choose
the “inspection mode “TANDEM”.
You can see “TOFD inspection mode” above for the definition of the
parameters of a TANDEM inspection.
2.1.4 Setting
2.1.4.1 Phased array settings: principle and terminology
During inspection, the ultrasonic transducer is usually displaced relative to the
test piece. In CIVA, the term burst designates all the data acquired at a given
phased array or monolithic transducer position.
At each phased array position, the user can select several successive
combinations of transmission and/or reception channels. In Civa, a subset of
burst data acquired with the same combination of transmission and reception
channels is known as a sequence. A burst can thus have one or more
sequences, e.g. for acquisition in electronic scanning mode (switching of large-
aperture linear array elements to T/R mode to obtain high acquisition rates
without transducer displacement).
For a given shot, one or several "summed" signals can be recorded (sums of
individual signals received by each of the reception channels after application
of one or more delay or amplitude laws known as reception laws).
The Settings window allows the user to parameterize the transmission and
reception modes of the phased array transducer channels. It has five
menus as shown on the figure below:
At the bottom of the panel (see figure) you can see the general setting
options and functionalities, including:
2.1.4.3 Description of the initialization and Sequencing tabs for the cases
“unisequential” and “electronic scanning”
Under Initialization and Sequencing, the user defines the successive shot
sequences performed at each transducer position.
Six pre-defined functions are available from the “Initialization panel” (except
for annular, elliptical or bi-elliptical probes for which “electronic scanning” is not
available).
Figure 267: Settings panel Sequence tab and "Simple sweep" scanning function
When the function of initialization is chosen, one has to define the transmission
and reception trajectories and patterns (elements constituting the sequences)
using the “sequencing panel” (by clicking on the button “launch editor”).
By default, all channels of the transducer will both transmit and receive (it is
not the case with a dual T/R probe, one transmits and one receives). If one
plays the animation (visualization of the successive patterns in emission
and reception), one will see successively the transmission pattern displayed
in red (all the elements in this case), and then in reception pattern (all the
elements also in this case) displayed in blue (figure below).
One can change the patterns. Here are several examples of possible
pattern’s designs:
Figure 270: pattern design in the case of identical Emission and Reception patterns
Then, to design the pattern, click left on the first element of the pattern,
keep the button pressed, and move the mouse to the last element of the
pattern. The number of the element positioned just under the mouse while it
is moved over, is displayed at the bottom of the “trajectory wizard” panel
(see figure below). Then validate this pattern by clicking on the button
“validate” (red button as long as the pattern is not validated).
Figure 271: pattern design in the case of identical Emission and Reception patterns
To do so, click first on the “reset” button. Then, click left on the figure “1”
displayed in the Emission patterns area (see figure below). You can now
define the transmission pattern as described in the previous examples: click
left on the first element of the pattern, keep the button pressed, and move
the mouse to the last element of the pattern. Validate this pattern by clicking
on the button “validate” of the emission area (see figure below).
To design the reception pattern, click left on the figure “1” displayed in the
Reception patterns area (see figure below). You can now define the
reception pattern and validate it by clicking on the button “validate” of the
reception area.
Figure 272: pattern design in the case of non identical Emission and Reception patterns.
Ex 3: case of a pattern with non jointed elements: define the first part of the
pattern as described before (part 1 of the figure below), then press the “Ctrl”
key, keep it pressed and define the part2 of the pattern and so on…
Figure 274: Simple electronic scanning, choice of “simple sweep” and “transmission/Reception”.
Notes: N1) Step and position algorithms credit either negative or positive step
numbers (to enable use, for example, of the last transducer channels before
the first, i.e. elements 24 to 32, then 23 to 31, then 22 to 30, etc.). N2)
However, some tests will not take place (for example, if the number of the first
channel is higher than the total number of transducer channels). If the values
captured are consistent, the sequences can be correctly determined. N3) If the
step is positive, the formula given earlier for the number of positions is correct.
If the step is negative, an equivalent formula applies.
Figure 279: Profiles of ultrasonic beams for two successive sequences with a whole step equal to 1.
The figure below thus depicts the first four electronic scanning sequences for a
same 32-element transducer, with an 8-channel gate, the first of which
corresponds to channel 1, and two options: scanning step = 1 and scanning
step = +1/2.
In the half-step option, there are two times more sequences than for a full step
(if the full step option has N sequences, the half-step option has 2N+1
sequences).
Lateral resolution is better with the half-step option, since the ultrasonic field is
"centered" with respect to the aperture (i.e. the active elements for a sequence)
and therefore moves, for each successive sequence, from the center of one
aperture to the next, that is by a half-step (thus the name "half-step"). The next
figure shows echodynamic curves of the radiated field in half-step option for the
first three sequences and in full-step option for the first two sequences (the
profiles of full step sequences 0 and 1 naturally coincide with sequences 0 and
2 of the half-step option).
Figure 281: Comparison of beam profiles for full and half-step options
• Either of two buttons can be checked for the half-step option: +1/2 or -1/2.
• Button +1/2 must be checked if channel displacement is "positive" (i.e. it
takes place in increasing order, for example, first channel = 1, scanning step
= 1 or +1/2).
• Button -1/2 must be checked if channel displacement is "negative" (i.e. it
takes place in decreasing order, for example, first channel = 32, scanning
step = -1 or -1/2).
• Similarly to the full step option, the half-step option does not provide a
consistency check of user-defined parameters.
• (Further requirement for the half-step option): For electronic scanning with
the half-step option, selection of more than two elements is necessary; use
of a single element would mean switching from 0 to 1 active element from
one sequence to the other.
This option involves two gates, one for transmission and one for reception that
are applied concomitantly.
For each of these two gates, the user inputs the Number of elements in
sequence and the First element in sequence along with the Scanning step
as defined above.
The Number of steps in sequence is the same for both gates: To each
iteration correspond both a gate displacement in transmission mode by
whatever the step defined by the user, and a displacement in reception mode
by whatever the defined step. When you change a parameter in transmission or
in reception, the “number of steps in sequence” is automatically ajusted: the
smallest number of allowed positions in transmission or in reception is kept.
In this mode, all gate displacements are identical, but sweeping stops once one
of the two gates has scanned the entire array.
All the parameters are defined in the “sequencing panel” by launching the
“trajectory wizard” (see figure below). One has to define the trajectories
and the pattern design in transmission and in reception. To do that, one
can choose to define a “manual trajectory” or “trajectory with law” and the
type of trajectory is “emission and reception identical” or “bijective between
emission and reception”.Those possibilities are illustrated in the following
using some examples:
Figure 284: “trajectory wizard” for a matrix phased array probe, electronic scanning, general description
Note: If you click left in the last element defined as the last point, it
disappears.
The emission and reception patterns in this case are identical or not.
A1) Type of trajectory “emission and reception identical” and case of identical
emission and reception patterns:
You can suppress those points by checking the button “automatic correction”.
Figure 288: successive points of the emission (red) and reception (blue) patterns, case of identical patterns in
emission and reception and type of trajectory “emission and reception identical”
A2) Type of trajectory “emission and reception identical” and case of non
identical emission and reception patterns:
Define for instance the trajectory below (same trajectory for emission and
reception):
As the patterns are not identical, you have to design the pattern in emission
and reception (see figure below):
Note: the emission and the reception pattern are positioned in reference to the
first position of the trajectory.
Figure 291: successive points of the emission (red) and reception (blue) patterns (see patterns in the presvious
figure), case of NON identical patterns in emission and reception and type of trajectory “emission and reception
identical”.
....
• Last point (N) in emission with Last point (N) in reception.
We will illustrate the trajectory “bijective between emission and reception” in the
case of “non identical Emission and reception patterns”.
As the emission and reception trajectories are not identical, you have to define
the 2 trajectories: in emission and in reception (see figure below):
To define a trajectory with law, click on “trajectory with law”. The choice
between the 2 types of trajectory: “Emission and Reception identical” and
“bijective between emission and reception” is available (those 2 possibilities
have already been described). The specific parameters for the trajectory with
law are: Xstep, Xmodulo, Xstep/Xmod, Ystep/Xmod, Ystep, Ymodulo,
Ystep/Ymod, Xstep/Ymod.
When those parameters are defined (we will explain the different parameters
through examples), click on “create trajectory” (see figure below).
Example 1:
Figure 295:example 1
Example 2:
Example 3:
Example 4:
By default, all channels of the transducer will both transmit and receive (it is not
the case with a dual T/R probe, one transmits and one receives).
Figure 299: “Planar wave front full array”, emission and reception sequences, case where all elements are
connected to a channel.
Figure 300: “Planar wave front full array”, emission and reception sequences, case where all elements are not
connected to a channel.
By default, each channel of the transducer will successively transmits and all
channels receive (it is not the case with a dual T/R probe, one transmits
and one receives).
Figure 301: “Full matrix capture”, emission and reception sequences (case where all elements are connected to a
channel).
Figure 302: “Full matrix capture”, emission and reception sequences, case of particular numerotation.
•
3) Reception cycling on Emission (see example 2)
General definition: If you define an emission trajectory with X points and a
reception trajectory with Y points, the succession of the E and R sequences
will be:
2.1.4.6.2 Pattern
You can choose between:
Figure 304: option “emission and reception patterns invariant (or not) along the trajectory”.
You can also choose different “relation” between the emission and
reception patterns” (see figure):
• Identical
• One reception pattern for each emission pattern
• No relation
Figure 305: examples of options for the patterns with “expert mode”.
2.1.4.6.3 Examples
In this case, you have to define the patterns at each point of the trajectory.
The following example illustrates that feature for a trajectory identical in
emission and reception and with 2 points:
First, define the 2 points of the trajectory (for example “manual trajectory”
option “emission and reception identical”)
Then, to define the patterns (for example 2 patterns) at the point 1 of this
trajectory, click on the button “pattern design” and then click right with the
mouse on the number “1” of the trajectory (after that this number “1”
becomes bold), define the 2 patterns (as seei before, design the first
pattern with the mouse (left button pressed) and validate it, then click on
“add”, design the second pattern and validate it). Note: in this example, the
characteristic of the patterns is “identical for emission and reception
patterns”.
Figure 307: definition of the first and second patterns of point 1 of the trajectory.
Figure 310: parameters of an example of Trajectory: “reception cycling on emission”, Pattern: “identical emission
and reception patterns” and “invariant patterns along the trajectory”
In this example the type of trajectory is: “emission and reception identical”
and there is only one point in the trajectory.
Figure 312: parameters of an example of “non invariant pattern along the trajectory” (emission and reception
trajectories are identical)
Figure 313: succession of E and R sequences for the example of “non invariant pattern along the trajectory”
In the Type of focusing field of the Transmission panel, the user selects,
from a list, the application for which the settings are made; the delay law or set
of laws for the sequence are then computed. This is illustrated by the figure
below.
The user chooses here the path for which delays are computed. He has
to define the Wave type entering the piece (L or T wave). It is then
possible to opt for:
• direct computation, i.e. without reflection from the piece backwall (this
option is selected by not checking the boxes labeled Backwall
reflection).
• computation after backwall reflection without wave mode conversion
(this option is selected by checking the boxes labeled Backwall
reflection).
Dynamic law computation:
If the user selects Dynamic law computation by checking the box next
to this label, the transmission law/sequence of laws or the law/sequence
applicable in reception mode, is repeated at each of the transducer
positions on the basis of parameters entered under Sequence,
Transmission and Reception.
If the user does not select this mode, delay law computations take place
only for the initial transducer position, and the resulting values are
applied throughout transducer displacement.
• Uniform (default option): all elements are activated with the same
amplitude.
• Hanning : the elements at transducer center have a higher
transmission amplitude (or transmission gain) than those at its edge.
• Inverse Hanning: this is the opposite of the Hanning law: edge
elements have a higher amplitude than those at transducer center.
The following figure depicts these three laws for a 24-element linear
transducer in unisequential mode (amplitude histograms obtained under
Edit laws, after selecting "display of amplitudes").
Note: In the same way as for delay laws, after computing a law, it is
possible to manually change the amplitude of each element using
the list of automatically displayed values under Edit laws, by
clicking the line and the value that is to be modified. NB: Although
the modification is not refreshed on the 3D view, these
modifications are taken into account in the computation.
For a linear array transducer or for an annular array transducer with non
sectored rings, a 3D calculation is useless and slows the computation process.
In such cases, the 2D option is recommended. For matrix or sectored annular
arrays and for dual T/R transducers regardless of type of array, only 3D
calculation is relevant.
2.1.4.8.1 Delay law algorithms defining a single law
The focal point is depicted in the test scene display as a red dot (or a
blue dot for a reception delay law). Its position is defined using the same
conventions as for Beam computation zones. The user is referred for
this purpose to the definitions given in Civa UT Beam computation –
Computation definition.
In the first field, the user selects a Positioning option. There are two
such options: In the inspection plane and Arbitrary.
By selecting this option, the user imposes a focal point that is located in
the test plane as defined in Civa UT Setup – Test. The focal point is
thus defined relative to the Local reference frame (see Civa UT Setup
– Test). A panel then appears with the following content (case of a plane
specimen):
Figure 317: Settings for a "Single point focusing " law with positioning in the test plane
With the option “in the inspection plane”, if either of the suboptions
Along L-wave axis (or Along T-wave axis), is selected, the focal point
is positioned along the selected axis. These are geometric axes defined
in Civa UT Setup – Test. A single coordinate is adequate. The user opts
to input either the Depth or the Distance along the axis of interest, the
field not selected is deduced from the other field and displayed. The
Depth here is the distance to the plane that is tangent to the surface at
the point of impact (determined in the absence of delay laws and as
defined in Civa UT Setup - Test) if the Zlocal axis of the local reference
frame is oriented along the normal axis. If the Zlocal axis is oriented along
the vertical (or the radial) axis, this Depth is the distance to the
horizontal plane (or the plane normal to the radial axis).
With the option “in the inspection plane”, if the suboption Arbitrary is
selected, the user defines the focal point position in the test plane by
entering two coordinates expressed in the local reference frame. To do
so, he first selects in the Reference Frame field the type of system to
which these coordinates belong: the Cartesian frame (Xlocal, Ylocal, Zlocal)
has been chosen in case 2. The cylindrical frame (Ylocal, θlocal, Rlocal) has
been chosen in case 3.
Warning: This possibility is not available in CIVA V9.0. Tha value for a
new configuration is “Vertical”, for an old one, it is the one of the file.
B) Position: arbitrary
The focal point is positioned by entering three coordinates expressed
either in the Local frame, or the Specimen frame (frame defined for
each type of piece). This choice is made in the Frame field.
When the local frame is selected for these coordinates and a distinction
is required between local normal and vertical (or radial for a piece
extended by revolution), the user selects the orientation of the frame
Zlocal axis. He also opts to enter Cartesian coordinates (Xlocal, Ylocal, Zlocal),
cylindrical coordinates (Ylocal, θlocal, Rlocal) or spherical coordinates
(R,theta,phi) for this frame.
Figure 318: Settings for a single point focusing law based on a local frame
Figure 319: Principles of Single focusing and Direction and depth focusing laws
When the optimized algorithm is selected, the delay law is computed so
that the focal point is positioned at the Depth specified in the Settings
panel and the resulting beam forms an angle with the vertical (or radial
axis). This angle is as near as possible to the also specified Deflection
angle.
Note that this algorithm does not impose a focal point position (in
particular its abscissa). However, the coordinates of the "optimized" focal
point, which are computed to afford a refracted angle as near as possible
to the specified deflection angle, are displayed in the Settings panel
display.
Computation parameters for each focusing law are also shown in the
figure:
Figure 320: Application of Single point focusing and Direction and Depth focusing laws to beam computation
As already seen earlier, the algorithm that optimizes focal point position
to control the refraction angle is only useful for flat and cylindrical test
specimens. For other types of specimens, the Direction and depth
focusing option enables specification of a focal point in terms of
direction and depth, but does not afford a refraction angle as near to the
specified value as is possible with optimization: As shown by the figure
below, the angle defined is that formed by the vertical axis and the axis
passing through both the focal point and the center of the transducer (or,
more generally, the center of the first active transducer sequence
projected onto the specimen after allowance for the angle of incidence.
The refracted angle is thus necessarily different from the specified angle.
Where delay laws are computed dynamically, this option nevertheless
allows positioning of focal points at a constant depth with respect to
plane Z = 0.
Figure 321: Differences between Optimized point and Geometrical point options for Direction and Depth focusing
• For a linear-type array, the beam can be deflected in the phased array
plane, by arbitrarily user-specified angle (see below).
Figure 325: Deflection angle in and outside the test plane for a matrix-type transducer
Note: While no settings are made for this option, the user must
nevertheless click "compute" to update the law.
Unaligned points
If the user selects Points not aligned, he must specify the number of
focal points, then individually position of each of them. The points are
positioned as described earlier. The user first selects the number of the
point to be positioned in the corresponding field (points can be positioned
using different positioning options for each).
Note: In the same way as for other delay law options, when the
transducer operating mode is electronic scanning (commutation of
element groups), the different laws computed are applied to each
sequence.
If the user selects Aligned points, he must position two focal points
(Extremity number) to represent the extremities between which the N-2
remaining points are positioned at regular intervals (N = total number of
desired focal points). The user also enters the Number of samples (equal
to N-1) to be taken.
Figure 328: definition of several focal points in "aligned" mode, Cartesian frame.
Figure 329: definition of several focal points in "aligned" mode, Cylindrical frame
In all these cases, the user can obtain a 3D display of focal points by
actuating the Display focusing/deflections button at the bottom of the
panel.
To do so, the user enters the two depths, minimum Pmin and maximum
Pmax, that he wishes to achieve, along with a number of steps Np. The
depths for which delay laws are computed are Pi depths such that i ∈ [0,
Np] Pi = Pmin + i * (Pmax – Pmin)/Np.
Figure 330: Focusing at different depths: Differences between Optimized Focal Point and Geometrical Focal
Point suboptions
For a CAD piece, the "Optimized point" algorithm cannot be used. The
same is true in "Direction and Depth focusing" mode. In both these
cases, only the "Geometrical point" option is valid, which amounts to
situating the desired angle relative to the transducer reference frame,
without allowing for the local normal axis and the considering depth
relative to Z=0, as shown in the figure below (focal points displayed in
two different transducer positions on a misaligned piece, with dynamic
law computation).
Figure 331: Focusing at different depths in a CAD piece, with "Geometrical point" suboption
The user makes the same settings as for the Beam steering option
along with the following data: Initial angle and Final angle (which
correspond to the first and last laws in the sequence respectively), as
Figure 332: Settings for the "Sectorial scanning" law, plane specimen.
Figure 333: Settings for the "Sectorial scanning" law, 2D CAD specimen, difference between Reference frame
“vertical radial” or “along normal”
Both these configurations are made available on choice of focal point position.
Figure 334: Focusing at a point defined in a piece frame with dynamic delay law computation
• If the focal point or points are defined in the local frame associated with
the transducer, their coordinates follow transducer displacement.
There are two ways of defining a focal point in the frame associated with the
transducer:
• Positioning "In the inspection plane": Since the test (inspection) plane is
defined relative to the transducer reference frame, positioning the focal
point in this plane implies that the focal point is displaced with the
transducer frame.
• "Arbitrary" positioning in a "local reference frame": this positioning mode
directly relies on the local reference frame associated with the
transducer (i.e. with the latter's center or the center of the sequence).
These two positioning options operate in a similar manner (the only
difference is that, in arbitrary positioning, it is possible, with the local frame,
to define a focal point outside the test plane). Both options are illustrated in
the following figure for a same misaligned piece with dynamically computed
laws.
Figure 335: Focusing at a point defined in a local frame or test plane with dynamic law computation and depth
direction "Along normal"
This figure, like the previous one, superposes several transducer scanning
positions as well as the paths associated with the delay laws. In this case,
the focal point follows transducer displacement.
Note: The figure also depicts the reference frame associated with the
transducer. In computation settings, the parameter denoted as "Depth
direction" is "Along normal". With this setting, the local frame associated
with the transducer, which is defined as the projection of the transducer (or
sequence) center on the piece, is rotated with respect to the local normal
axis, resulting in the "focal point path" likewise shown in the figure.
There is another possibility: if in the "Depth direction" field the option "Along
vertical" is selected, the rotation associated with the axis normal to the
piece is not applied to the transducer reference frame (and the frame keeps
its initial orientation, without being rotated). This option modifies the focal
point path as depicted on the following figure.
Figure 336: Focusing at a point defined in the test plane with dynamic law computation and depth direction
"Along vertical"
Figure 337: Direction and depth focusing with dynamic law computation: focusing depth determined relative to
Z=0 and deflection angle to the transducer local reference frame
The following figure summarizes the different options (fixed focal point or
point following transducer displacement, with Single point focusing or
Direction and depth focusing) and their associated paths.
Figure 338: Summary of focal point paths obtained with different types of delay algorithms and positioning
options
Note: In Electronic scanning mode, delay law calculations are automatically
repeated for each position of the gate or gates (1 or 2), i.e. for each burst
sequence insofar as the scene "viewed" by said gate(s) changes from one
sequence to another. In other words, wherever necessary, delay laws will
differ from one scanning sequence to another. Similarly to what takes
place in dynamic computation, a focal point either remains in a fixed
position or follows gate displacement, depending on the reference frame in
which its coordinates are specified (see above).
Figure 339: Reception tab, left: “Reception = Transmission”, right: Reception # Transmission “
Figure 340 : Application of DDF in Reception mode for a shot in Transmission mode with Beam steering
Access to DDF :
The DDF function is accessed from the Initialisation panel of the Array
setting window. This is illustrated by the figure below.
Parameters of DDF :
In the Type of focusing field of the Transmission panel, the user selects,
from a list, the transmission law for which the settings are made, the
computation of the delay law or set of laws that allows focusing at different
depths. The different algorithms available are listed below and described in the
other paragraphs …:
Single point focusing
Beam steering
Direction and depth focusing
Sectorial scanning
Null delay law
After that, in the zone of the Reception panel labeled Parameters, the user
enters the following parameters:
two depths :
minimum depth Pmin and maximum depth Pmax , in the case where the
transmission focusing point cannot be defined, that is, if the user has selected
the transmission law Beam steering or Sectorial scanning or Null law delay;
minimum depth variation Δ min = Pmin + Pfoc and maximum depth variation
Δ max = Pmax − Pfoc , in the case where the transmission focusing point is defined,
that is, if the user has selected the transmission law Single point focusing or
Direction and depth focusing;
number of steps N p ;
aperture :
« constant aperture » ;
« optimal resolution » (this option is available only if the transmission focusing
point is defined) ;
« homogeneous resolution ».
The figures below show the settings for two of the cases described above and
the differences between them.
Figure 343 : Example of application of DDF in Reception mode for a shot in Transmission mode with Beam
steering
Figure 344 : Example of application of DDF in Reception mode for a shot in Transmission mode with a Single
point focusing
The depths for which delay laws are computed are Pi depth such that
[ ]
i ∈ 0, N p , Pi = Pmin + i ⋅ ( Pmax − Pmin ) / N p .
The two options «optimal resolution » and « homogeneous resolution » as
proposed in the field Aperture enable to automatically adjust the active
aperture of the transducer in reception mode so as to ensure that the beam
width is kept constant with depth.
If the user has selected the option « optimal resolution », the maximal aperture
authorized in reception mode reduces for all depths inferior to the depth of
the transmission focusing point.
If the user has selected the « optimal resolution », the maximal aperture
authorized in reception mode reduces for all depths inferior to maximum depth.
The option « constant aperture » preserves the maximal aperture of the
transducer in reception mode for all depths.
The figures below show the difference between the options « constant aperture
», « optimal resolution » and « homogeneous resolution».
Figure 345: Case where the transmission focusing point cannot be defined (transmission laws : Beam steering,
Sectorial scanning and Null delay law) : difference between « constant aperture » and « homogeneous resolution»
options
Figure 346: Case where the transmission focusing point is defined (transmission laws :Single point and Direction
and depth focusing) : difference between « constant aperture», « homogeneous resolution » and « optimal
resolution » options
• Type of law: the user opts either to work on one or more delay laws or one
or more amplitude laws.
• A table lists the numerical values of the two current (delay or amplitude)
laws in transmission or reception mode. Delay laws are expressed in µs and
amplitude laws in arbitrary units. By double-clicking a value in the table, the
user accesses it for manual modification purposes.
• The area called “laws” displays in histogram form the two current laws
shown in Zone 2. Transmission laws are displayed in red and reception laws
in blue. By dragging the mouse over the histogram, the user obtains the
numerical values associated with each of its elements. With the left
mousebutton, he can then modify the heights of the different elements (and,
therefore, the corresponding numerical values in the Zone 2 table).
• Tree-type structure: the two (Transmission/Reception) laws listed and
displayed as histograms are selected from the tree-type structure (at the top
of the panel). The user navigates, via the tree hierarchy, through the bursts,
sequences, shots and reception law applications that make up the simulated
test. By moving the mouse through the tree, he can displace the selected
(highlighted) reception law. This is the "current" reception law. The current
transmission law is the law assigned to the shot to which the highlighted law
belongs. The transducer 3D display then shows either the current
transmission (delay) law or the current reception (delay) law.
Note: Calculated laws are saved in a special file (extension .dat). It is possible
to export values after computation by Data infos (copy-paste in excel for
example is working).
note: In Civa, there is no automatic consistency check of loaded law files and
test setup parameters (e.g. type of transducer, number of channels, etc.). The
user himself is thus expected to verify their consistency to allow correct
operation of the software.
A delay law computed for transmission or reception at a same focal point (for
example) requires other, complementary delay laws as shown in the following
figure. That is because:
• For 2D/3D displays (in the test scene display panel): transmission and
reception delay laws are displayed using the complementary approach;
• In histograms and the lists of numerical values, delay law displays may be
either "complementary" or not. The user's preference is defined under
"Preferences" in the "Tools" menu of the Civa main window, by checking
"Complementarity of delay laws in reception".
Figure 348: Principle for representing Transmission and Reception delays according to the selected
complementarity convention
2.1.5 Flaw
By "flaw" or "defect" is meant a surface or subsurface object that occupies a part of
the space contained in a piece, itself contains one or more materials and is
considered to be potentially detrimental. Flaws simulated by Civa 9 are the planar
rectangular, spherical, side-drilled hole, flat or hemispherical-bottomed hole, planar
CAD, semi elliptical (New), multifaceted type, plain cylinder (New) and ellipsoidal
(New).
Contrary to Civa 8 - Defect Response which only accounts for "empty" flaws (flaws
through which there is no propagation), Civa 9 is able to model inclusions of
several shapes (spherical, cylindrical and ellipsoidal) which are filled by an
isotropic medium. The spherical defect can be a void or an inclusion whereas the
plain cylinder and the ellipsoidal flaws refer only to inclusions. Specificities of the
modelling of inclusions responses will be described in CIVA UT Defect Response-
Computation theory.
Note that Multi facetted defect Interface has been improved, see corresponding
chapter.
The flaw properties panel (first figure above) comprises three main zones: the
top zone, which is always visible and serves to create, duplicate or delete all or
part of a list of flaws. The option “inclusion” is for the moment only useful for
spherical flaws and gives the choice between a cavity or an inclusion. The flaw
properties panel includes two tabs for empty flaws and three tabs for inclusions
(see 2nd figure above). Under the first tab, the user defines the type of flaw and
its dimensions; under the second, he positions the flaw in the piece. The third
(2nd figure above) enables him to define the isotropic medium inside the
inclusion.
Choice of one of the types listed above displays a set of fields for specifying
flaw dimensions. The number and contents of these fields obviously depend on
the selected flaw type. Definitions of the different dimensions associated with
the rectangular, spherical, side-drilled hole, plain cylinder, flat and
hemispherical-bottomed hole-type flaws are intuitive enough to not require
further explanation. For the ellipsoidal flaw, the user needs to define the 3
diameters along the 3 axis of the ellipsoid. These dimensions are given in mm.
The process for defining planar CAD contour and multifaceted flaws is,
however, described in detail below.
If the Civa CAD tool is used to define the contour of a planar flaw ["Edit" button,
see Figure 2), a CAD capture interface, identical to the one for piece definition
(see Using CAD pieces – 2D CAD Pieces) appears. This interface initially
contains a cross section view of the piece in the test plane represented as a
solid black line. This view gives an idea of the size of the objects defined, since
the dimensions of the CAD planar flaw are determined by those of the various
entities making up its profile. The full contour of the flaw is then defined by a
sequence of contiguous segments and/or arcs. An example of one such
contour is shown in Figure 4.
• Multifaceted flaw
A multifaceted flaw is a CAD-defined flaw. The geometry tab corresponding to
this type of flaw is the same as for a planar CAD flaw. To define it, the user can
either load an existing .dxf file or use the CAD tool built into Civa.
To create a multifaceted flaw via Civa's CAD tool, the user must define two
elements of different colours, one to describe the flaw profile (red segment) in
the inspection plane (see Civa UT Setup –Inspection for definition of the
inspection plane), and the other to describe its profile in one of the two
perpendicular plane, which, in Civa, is also called the flaw extrusion (magenta
segment).
These segments can be either defined in the “CAD profile” panel or in the CAD
GUI by clicking on bottom.
a) To define the extrusion in the P1 plan the user will have to select the
following icon: (extrusion invariant along the height)
b) To define the extrusion in the P2 plan the user will have to select the
following icon: (height modified along the extrusion)
The Reference point is defined as follows for the various types of flaws:
• Rectangular flaw: The Reference point is the barycenter of the rectangle.
• Spherical or ellipsoidal flaw: The Reference point is the centre of the flaw.
• Side-drilled hole or plain cylinder: The Reference point is located on the axis
of revolution in the middle of the cylinder.
• Flat-bottomed hole: The Reference point is the center of the disk
representing the bottom of the hole.
• Hemispherical-bottomed hole: The Reference point is the center of the
hemisphere representing the bottom of the hole.
• Planar CAD flaw: This flaw is defined as an encapsulating rectangle which is
the smallest rectangle that can contain the flaw contours. The Reference
point is the barycenter of this rectangle.
• Multifaceted flaw: This flaw is defined as the smallest encapsulating
parallelepiped that can contain the flaw such that two parallelepiped surfaces
coincide with the two planes containing the flaw-defining CAD profiles. The
Reference point is the barycenter of this parallelepiped.
• Rectangular flaw: Xdef and Zdef belong to the plane containing the flaw; Xdef is
oriented along the length of the flaw and Zdef along its height.
• Spherical flaw: A spherical flaw has no orientation. The three vectors Xdef,
Ydef and Zdef are defined arbitrarily.
• Side-drilled hole or plain cylinder: Xdef is oriented along the length of the flaw
(hole axis of revolution). Ydef and Zdef are defined arbitrarily.
• Flat-bottomed hole: Zdef is oriented along the hole axis of revolution. Xdef and
Ydef are defined arbitrarily.
• Hemispherical-bottomed hole: Zdef is oriented along the hole axis of
revolution. Xdef and Ydef are defined arbitrarily.
• Planar CAD flaw: Xdef is the horizontal axis of the CAD plane and Zdef is the
vertical axis of the same plane.
• Multifaceted flaw: As stated earlier, this flaw is defined by two profiles of
different colors in two planes perpendicular to one another. (Xdef, Zdef) is the
plane used to define the first CAD profile (in red), with Xdef the horizontal and
Zdef the vertical axis. (Ydef, Zdef) is the plane used to define the second profile
(in magenta).
• Ellipsoidal flaw: The three vectors Xdef, Ydef and Zdef are defined as the axis
of the ellipsoid.
•
Flaw positioning and orientation are determined in two stages, similar to the
Configuration and Positioning steps of the transducer positioning procedure
(see Civa UT Setup – Test).
The second step is to position the Reference point in the piece and to orient the
flaw relative to the Reference plane. There are two ways to position the
Reference point. These are referred to as "positioning Modes" in the same way
as for transducer positioning: either the user directly keys in the reference point
coordinates in the Piece reference frame, or he refers to a point on the piece
surface (or backwall). This point is said to be Directly below the flaw. The first
mode is known as Defect center and the second From surface/backwall.
Depending on the mode selected, the Reference plane contains the Reference
point or the point Directly below the flaw.
Note: The natural orientation of the flaw as defined above, is not entirely
reflected by the positioning option. The orientation of axis Zdef differs
according to positioning mode, i.e. to whether the Reference point is
positioned in the piece (Defect center mode) or relative to a piece surface
(From surface/backwall mode). For purposes of simplification, the following
paragraphs describe the natural orientation associated with each
positioning option in Defect center mode. For the From surface/backwall
mode, we then consider the Zdef to be oriented in the Direction of translation
(see 5.4.2.2), regardless of the positioning option.
The following list shows the various positioning options available for the
different types of pieces.
• Flat piece:
•
There are three possible options:
• Along X: in "natural" orientation, the (Xdef, Zdef) plane is the (X, Z) plane.
The Zdef axis lies along the Z axis (Defect center mode).
• Along Y: the (Xdef, Zdef) plane is the (Y, Z) plane. The Zdef axis lies along
the Z axis (Defect center mode).
• Oblic: the user enters the angle (in degrees) between the X axis and the
(Xdef, Zdef) plane. The Zdef axis lies along the Z axis (Defect center
mode).
•
For example, in a flat piece for which the Along Y axis option is selected,
the default orientation of a rectangular flaw is such that its height lies along
Z and its length along Y, while the revolution axis of a side-drilled hole is
parallel to Y and the axis of a flat-bottomed hole is vertical.
• Cylinder:
As stated earlier, the Y axis of a cylinder is its axis of revolution. There are
three possible positioning options:
• Parallel to the axis of revolution: The (Xdef, Zdef) plane is the one
containing the Y axis and the radial axis at the point Directly below the
flaw. The Xdef axis coincides with the Y axis (axis of revolution) and Zdef
lies in the radial direction (Defect center mode).
• Perpendicular to the revolution axis: The (Xdef, Zdef) plane is the (X, Z)
plane perpendicular to the cylinder axis and Zdef lies in the radial
direction (Defect center mode).
• Oblic: In this case, the user enters an angle in degrees that defines the
(Xdef, Zdef) plane orientation in the plane containing the point Directly
below the flaw and the Y axis. This angle is 0° when the Oblic option is
equivalent to the Parallel to revolution axis option. The Zdef axis lies in
the radial direction (Defect center mode).
•
For example, in a cylindrical piece for which the Parallel to revolution axis
option is selected, the default orientation of a rectangular flaw is such that
its height lies in the radial direction and its length along the cylinder axis,
while the revolution axis of a side-drilled hole is parallel to Y and the axis of
a flat-bottomed hole lies in the radial direction.
• Sphere:
There are no options.
• Cone:
There are four possible positioning options. Three of them are similar to the
three options for positioning a cylindrical flaw. The fourth reflects the
distinction made, in the case of a conical flaw; between cone generatrix and
revolution axis.
• Parallel to generatrix: The (Xdef, Zdef) plane is the plane containing the Y
axis and the vertical axis at the point Directly below the flaw. The Xdef
axis coincides with the Y axis (revolution axis) and Zdef lies along the
vertical axis (Defect center mode).
• Perpendicular to revolution axis: The (Xdef, Zdef) plane is the (X, Z) plane.
The Zdef axis lies along Z (Defect center mode).
• Perpendicular to generatrix: The (Xdef, Zdef) plane is perpendicular to the
generatrix at the point Directly below the flaw. The Zdef axis lies in the
radial direction (Defect center mode).
• Oblic: the user enters an angle in degrees that defines the (Xdef, Zdef)
plane orientation in the plane containing the X axis and the generatrix at
the point Directly below the flaw. This angle is 0° when the Slanted
option is equivalent to the Parallel to revolution axis option, except as
concerns Zdef axis orientation. Under the Slanted option, the Zdef axis in
fact lies in the radial direction (Defect center mode).
• Elbow :
•
(Xdef, Zdef) plane orientations associated with the three positioning options
proposed for an elbow are identical to those associated respectively with
the three options for a cylinder of the same size as the elbow and whose
revolution axis is tangent to the elbow U-shaped generatrix curve. These
three options are:
• Along the generatrix curve: The (Xdef, Zdef) plane is the one containing
the axis tangent to the generatrix curve, and the radial axis at the point
Directly below the flaw. The Xdef axis coincides with the axis tangent to
the elbow "U-shaped" generatrix curve and Zdef lies in the radial direction
(Defect center mode).
• Perpendicular to the generatrix curve: The (Xdef, Zdef) plane is the plane
perpendicular to the elbow generatrix curve and Zdef lies in the radial
direction (Defect center mode).
• Oblic: The user enters an angle in degrees. (Xdef, Zdef) plane orientation
does not depend only on the value of the angle, but also on the position
of the flaw in the elbow (along its generatrix curve).
• Nozzle:
•
Flaw positioning in a nozzle is based on the reference frame of one of the
two figures of revolution. The user first selects Main cylinder or Secondary
cylinder, depending on which is used as a reference for flaw positioning.
The list of possible options is then:
Under the Along joint axis option, the (Xdef, Zdef) plane is the one containing
the revolution axis (Y or Z) of the cylinder of interest and the point Directly
below the flaw in the piece. The (Xdef, Zdef) plane orientations associated
with the Perpendicular to revolution axis and Slanted options are identical to
those defined for a cylindrical piece after replacement of the X, Y and Z
axes with the corresponding axes of the selected cylinder. Finally, the (Xdef,
Zdef) plane orientation associated with the Normal to joint axis option is
identical to the orientation defined for a CAD profile extended by revolution,
after the same replacements as above.
Note: The Normal to profile option is not accessible for the Reference point
positioning mode. This is because procedures associated with these two
options are incompatible.
• 2D CAD piece:
•
There are four positioning options for this type of piece:
• In profile plane
• Perpendicular to profile plane
• Normal to profile
• Oblic.
•
Under In profile plane, the (Xdef, Zdef) plane is the one containing the CAD
profile, i.e. (X, Z) or (Y, Z), depending on whether the piece is extended by
translation or revolution (assuming that θ = 0). The Perpendicular to profile
plane and Normal to profile options are associated with an (Xdef, Zdef) plane
perpendicular to the plane containing the profile. Under Perpendicular to the
profile plane, the test plane contains the vertical (or the radial) translation
direction. Under Normal to profile, it contains the axis normal to the point
Directly below the flaw. For the slanted option, the user must enter an angle
in degrees that defines the (Xdef, Zdef) plane orientation in the (X, Y) plane
(by assuming that if the profile is extended by revolution, the position of the
point Directly below the flaw is at θ = 0). This angle is 0° if the Slanted
option is equivalent to In profile plane.
In all cases, the Zdef axis lies along Z (Defect center mode) if the piece has
a planar extension and in the radial direction if the piece is extended by
revolution.
For example, in a 2.5 D CAD piece with planar extension for which the
option In profile plane is selected, a rectangular flaw is oriented by default
such that its height lies along the vertical axis of the plane used to define
the profile (Z axis) and its length lies along the horizontal axis of this plane
(X axis), while the revolution axis of a side-drilled hole is horizontal in the
same plane (parallel to X) and the axis of a flat-bottomed hole is vertical.
Note: The Normal to profile option is not accessible for the Defect center
positioning mode. This is because the procedures associated with these
two options are incompatible.
If Defect center mode is selected, the user inputs the coordinates of the flaw
reference frame origin which, depending on type of flaw, coincides with the
Defect center or is labeled Reference point. These coordinates are
expressed in the Piece reference frame as defined in the Piece
specifications for each type of piece. For Flat pieces and CAD profile pieces
with planar extensions, the three coordinates are X, Y and Z. For
Cylindrical and Conical pieces, Nozzles and CAD profiles extended by
revolution, the coordinates are Y, θ and R (for nozzles, these coordinates
refer to whichever of the two cylinders the user selected when he chose the
positioning option). For an Elbow, the coordinates are U, θ, and R, and for a
Spherical piece, they are θ, φ and R.
• The Skew angle is the degree of rotation of a flaw around the Zdef axis
(e.g. for a planar flaw, it is the rotation applied to the flaw plane, without
change to the "height of flaw" direction).
• The Disorientation angle is the degree of rotation around the Ydef axis
(i.e., a planar flaw is rotated in its own plane).
•
Based on the three coordinates of the flaw center and the above three
angles, Civa searches for the points at which the Zdef axis intersects the
piece surface (or backwall), to determine the positioning parameters for the
From surface/backwall mode.
Figure 353: "From surface/backwall" positioning menu for a flaw in a) a flat piece and b) a 2.5 D CAD piece
When this mode is selected, the user specifies a point on the surface
that is said to be "Directly below the flaw". This positioning mode is
available for all types of flaws.
To define the position of this specific point in the piece, two of the three
coordinates displayed in the GUI can be written in. These include X and
Y, or Y and , or U and or and , depending on the type of piece.
The third coordinate is defined by selecting the surface to which the point
belongs (i.e. the reference surface selected by the user to define the
flaw), which he specifies differently for each type of piece.
• For a Flat piece, the user chooses between Surface and Backwall.
• For a Cylindrical, Conical or Spherical piece, a Nozzle or an Elbow, he
chooses Inside or Outside.
Figure 354: Definition of the "impact coordinates" used in Surface/Backwall positioning of a 2.5 D CAD piece
Positioning the flaw relative to a piece surface requires definition not only
of the surface used as a reference but also, for more complex
geometries, of a "Translation direction" from which the distance to this
surface is measured.
• The Skew angle is the degree of rotation around the Zdef axis. Again,
this rotation may be accompanied by a translation movement to
preserve the Ligament value (see below).
• The Disorientation angle is the degree of rotation around the Ydef axis.
Such rotation may likewise be accompanied by a translation movement
to preserve the Ligament value (see below).
•
Note: For the purposes of defining these angles, the Xdef, Ydef, and
Zdef axes define the current flaw reference frame, i.e. the earlier
described initial frame to which any Tilt, Skew or Disorientation-type
rotations were applied.
The flaw is then positioned as follows: once flaw orientation and the
Translation Direction are known, Civa computes the point on the flaw (or
on the encapsulating "box" for a CAD-defined flaw) that is closest to the
piece in the translation direction. Once this point has been determined,
the flaw is translated (from its initial position) such that the distance of
this "end" point from the piece along the translation direction is equal to
the Ligament.
Note 3: For CAD-defined flaws, the ligament defined in the GUI refers to
the encapsulating "box" and not the flaw itself.
Finally, for " From surface/backwall", the user has access, in read only
mode (see bottom of panel) to flaw center coordinates in the reference
frame.
« Computation not allowed for inclusions with flaw medium : air or vacuum.
Do you want to continue ? (if yes, no computation of corresponding echoes)
« Yes/No »
Do you want to continue ? (if yes, account of this attenuation only for direct
echoes of inclusions)
Yes/No »
There’s no use to define a noise inside the inclusion since it won’t have an
effect on the modelling result.
The simulation of inclusions in Civa9 is only based on the modified Born
approximation which leads to an important number of limitations concerning the
running options (see CIVA UT Defect Response-Computation theory)
2.2.1 Introduction
The Beam Calculation function of the Civa_UT module is intended to simulate the
ultrasonic field. The parameters used to simulate the test configuration, i.e. to
define the test piece, the transducer used and the position of the transducer whose
field is to be simulated, are common to both the Beam computation and Defect
response functions. They are described in this manual under Civa UT Setup. The
following paragraphs describe only the settings for Beam computation (made in
the Computation definition panel of the Civa_UT module) and for the associated
post-processing functions. The last part of this VOLUME describes various
theoretical aspects of the model.
The Beam computation module is accessed from the Civa start window, by
selecting the UT modeling menu, then the dropdown Civa_UT submenu as
illustrated below.
Figure 356: Access to the Beam computation module from the Civa start window
Note: The Beam computation module is also accessed if a settings file is loaded
via the Civa "File" menu.
The Options and Storage Options tabs are described below. The Computation
area tab is described separately in the document that also deals with transducer
positioning. The positioning function is now closely linked with Piece and Test
data, to make definition of the computation zone as simple as possible for the user.
The user chooses one of three options: L, T or L and T waves (by clicking
the corresponding box). For anisotropic materials, selection of L-waves
leads to computation of the quasi-longitudinal (qL) component; that of T-
waves to simultaneous computation of both quasi-transverse components
(qT1 and qT2). While qT1 and qT2 propagation modes are computed
simultaneously, they are subsequently displayed separately.
N paths
∑ d ( j)
j =1
i
< d >i = ,
Npaths
N
α (ω ) = ∏α (ω )
i =1
i
(where ω is the pulsation), of the different basic filters (by type of path)
given by the generic formula:
⎛ α (i ) ⎛ ω ⎞ ⎞⎟
p (i )
⎜
α i (ω ) = exp − 0
< d > i ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎜ 8.686 ⎝ 2πν m (i ) ⎟⎠ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
where α0(i), value of the attenuation coefficient for the ith path, in dB/mm;
p(i) the power (which may be a non-integer) to which the frequency is raised
in the ith path filter (e.g. 2 for water), νm(i) the frequency (in MHz) at which
the ith path coefficient α0(i) was measured. Note: Dividing the result by
8.686 then converts it from dB/mm to neper/mm.
This means that, once computation with attenuation has taken place, said
option cannot be reversed (the same is true if computation takes place
without attenuation). To allow comparison of a result obtained with
attenuation and one for which no attenuation was credited, both these types
of computation must be performed.
Notes:
• for test pieces made of anisotropic material, Civa credits attenuation in
the piece approximately, by considering an isotropic attenuation.
• No allowance is made for attenuation by a lens, since lenses are
generally assumed to be thin.
•
2.2.2.1.4 Accuracy
The Accuracy setting, whose default value is 1, refers to the number of
contributions credited in the computation. This number is proportional to the
center frequency and whatever the transducer's largest dimension.
For an interface between the coupling medium (or wedge) and a CAD-
defined piece, the system automatically multiplies this number by a factor of
2.5. An accuracy of 1 thus implies computation of 2.5 more contributions
than for parametrically-defined interfaces.
The factor 2.5 is applied to account for geometric variations in the coupling
medium-to-CAD piece interface with respect to a parametrically-defined
interface. If the CAD-defined interface comprises very few elements, this
factor may be overestimated and the user can then reduce the accuracy
factor proposed by default. If the CAD-defined interface comprises many
elements, thus producing a test piece geometry that is far from canonical,
this number may be an underestimate. In such cases, the user can increase
the accuracy factor proposed by default.
Note:
The computation also credits the elastic characteristics of the Backwall
medium defined in the Test window; these characteristics are used directly
in computing backwall reflection coefficients (with or without
conversion).The following example shows the impact of backwall medium
characteristics on the amplitude of a reflected field.
b
Figure 359 : Comparison of beams with reflection (L-waves) computed with two different Backwall media
These two fields are computed together, but can be decoupled (see
paragraphs on "post-processing").
The radiated field for bulk (L or T)-waves must, however, also be computed
(it is not possible to deselect both these propagation modes).
By selecting the "Backwall reflection" mode, the user actually obtains the
field computed in the water after surface reflection.
The Zone tab includes a sequence of options intended to simplify the above
steps, while also providing a broad range of features. These options are
discussed in the following paragraphs. There is a close link between the
transducer positioning options and those used to define the computation zone
(the reader is thus referred to explanations given in Civa UT Setup – Test).
Where necessary (i.e. depending on type of piece and the options selected
in Zone 1), in Zone 4 of the tab, the user defines the reference frame for
entering the zone center coordinates and the zone orientation (Zone 5).
Zone 4 may contain up to three fields, since the user may need to perform
the following (see 2.2.4):
2) if the local reference frame is selected, orient the Zlocal axis either along
the axis that is locally normal to the point of impact or along the vertical axis
(or the radial axis in the case of a piece extended by revolution);and finally,
In Zone 4, the user enters the zone center coordinates. Depending on the
options selected in Zone 1, Zone 4 contains either two or three fields.
Finally, in Zone 2, the user specifies the dimensions and sampling scheme
of the computation zone.
L is the length of the segment and N > 1 the number of computation points
distributed over the segment. The distance between two consecutive points
is called a "step", and Step=L/(N -1). The user inputs the length L and the
number of steps N – 1. These two values then serve to compute the Step
value. This value is accessible to the user in read-only mode, as are the
coordinates of the two end points on the segment (which are taken as
computation points). This means that mid-point M on the segment (and,
therefore, the center of the computation zone) is only used as a
computation point if the number of steps is an even number. This situation
is illustrated by the following figure (for a number of steps equal to 3).
Figure 362: Computation zone sampling scheme: Distribution of computation points (Pi) along a segment
Two other options may also appear under certain conditions (see below) for
a Profile or Plane-type zone. They are: "Perpendicular to L-wave axis" and
"Perpendicular to T-wave axis".
Along T-wave axis: When this option is selected, if the zone is the
Profile-type, the profile is oriented parallel to the T axis. For a Plane or
3D type zone, the zone Height (see below) is oriented parallel to this
axis. This suboption is proposed only if the T-wave axis is defined (see
under Civa UT Setup – Test).
A single coordinate suffices for the other two suboptions – Along L-wave
axis and Along T-wave axis. The user opts to input either the Depth or
the Distance along the axis of interest, and the unselected field
automatically adjusts itself to the value entered in the other field. The
Note: If the local normal axis does not belong to the test plane,
replace "normal axis" in the previous paragraph with "normal axis
as projected into the test plane".
This option is accessible only when the L-wave axis (see Civa UT Setup
– Test) is defined (i.e. when the material is isotropic and the "nominal"
transducer incidence angle is smaller than the critical angle for
longitudinal wave generation).
Selection of this option limits the number of coordinates that the user
must enter to define the position of the zone center. Whether the zone is
the Profile or Plane type, its Center in this option is positioned on the L-
wave axis. This coordinate is either the Depth as defined in Civa UT
Setup - Test, or the Distance along the L-wave axis.
2.2.2.2.4.4 Arbitrary
With this option, the user can position and orient the zone as he wishes:
Positioning:
Orientation:
Profile-type: Along the X (or Xlocal) axis, for a Piece reference frame (or
Local reference frame) respectively.
Plane-type: with Height along Z (or Zlocal) and Length along Y (or Ylocal),
for a Piece reference frame (or Local reference frame) respectively.
3D-type: with Height along Z (or Zlocal), Length along X (or Xlocal) and
Extension along Y (or Ylocal) for a Piece reference frame (or Local
reference frame) respectively.
For a Profile-type zone, there are two rotations: Rotation around the X
(or Xlocal) axis and Rotation around the Z (or Zlocal) axis. The program
rotates the zone first around X (or Xlocal), then around Z (or Zlocal ).
For a Plane or 3D-type zone, there are three rotations: Rotation around
the X (or Xlocal) axis, Rotation around the Y (or Ylocal) axis and Rotation
around the Z (or Zlocal) axis. The program rotates the zone first around X
(or Xlocal), then around Y (or Ylocal ) and finally around Z (or Zlocal).
The Center of a Profile-type zone is the point from which are measured the
right and left lengths of the profile.
Applying new delay laws: this option is accessible only for phased-array
transducers. If it is selected, transmission and reception results are stored
separately for each individual element, to allow subsequent application of new
delay laws. If it is not selected, one transmission result and one reception result
(obtained by respectively applying the transmission delay law to transmission
results and the reception delay law to reception results) are stored.
Figure 364 : Principle for defining/performing computations and post-processing results in the Beam computation
module
Once the computation settings are defined, the user clicks "Compute" to initiate
computation.
• Heterogeneous piece
• Simultaneous computation in L and T-wave modes
• Computation in Rayleigh wave mode (requiring computation of the L
or T wave)
• Computation with backwall reflections and/or mode conversion
• Computation zone including the coupling medium
In all cases, the displayed results are obtained by summing all the
modes present. The quantity represented is based on the computation
setup.
• all propagation modes are the pure L-wave type (which implies that all
test piece materials are isotropic): scalar potential.
• all propagation modes are the pure qL type (which implies that all
piece materials are anisotropic): component of displacement along the
Z axis of the qL mode test plane.
• all propagation modes are the pure T-wave type (which implies that all
piece materials are isotropic): component along the vector potential y
axis.
• all propagation modes are the pure qT type (which specifically
implying that all piece materials are anisotropic); two quantities are
computed and displayed: they are the component of displacement along
the test plane x axis and the component normal to the test plane in
mode qT1 + qT2.
• in all other cases: the displacement vector modulus, after summing all
modes.
•
2.2.3.2.2 Computation mode
It is possible to perform computations in the transmission or reception
mode or the transmission and reception mode (that latter amounts to
convoluting the transmitted and received fields). For post-processing by
default, the computation mode is selected in accordance with the type of
transducer:
•
Note: A reception mode computation is not in itself meaningful. Whether
the transducer is in transmission or reception mode, the transmitted field is
always computed. However, the characteristics used are those of the
transducer operating mode – transmission or reception. A conventional
means for estimating the zone of interest of a dual T/R transducer, for
example, is to represent the convoluted field as the transmitted/received
field. The zone of coverage (e.g. zone of convergence) for two transducers
operating in Tandem (see Civa UT Setup – Transducer) would therefore
be displayed to estimate the most efficient inspection area of the Dual
element probe. Finally, it is possible to display the field of a phased-array
transducer, to which different laws are applied in Transmission or Reception
mode.
In all cases (except for a single-point computation), the field result appears
in the display panel:
• as an echodynamic curve, if the computation is a profile-type (with the
curve displayed along the computation profile),
Figure 370: Field represented in the display panel for a Profile-type computation zone
Figure 371: Field represented in the display panel for a Plane-type computation zone
Figure 372: Field represented in the display panel for a 3D parallelepiped-shaped computation zone
2.2.4 Post-processing
2.2.4.1 Introduction
The Beam computation module enables "post-processing" of computation
results. Post-processing capability is afforded by an impulse response-based
calculation kernel. At the end of computation, a temporary file is created to
contain the impulse responses of all independent quantities (i.e. those not
obtainable by post-processing a result), for each point in the defined
computation zone.
Impulse responses are time functions independent of the electro-acoustical
excitation of the transducer. They link transducer surface vibration to the wave
The "Post-processing" panel has three tabs: Signal, Modes and Quantities.
This tab enables the user to choose one of the following options:
• Current signal: the computed impulse responses are convoluted by the
current transmission signal defined in the Transducer panel. This
This tab has three zones: Modes list, Display choice and T/R choice.
This mode appears in the list only if the computation zone was partially (or fully)
defined in the coupling medium and the transducer used is the immersion type.
In this list:
For Rayleigh waves, the system proposes the following mode R, which
designates a Rayleigh wave with two compoments:
• Rayleigh wave per se, which radiates in the material
• Leaky Rayleigh wave, which radiates in the fluid
If the "Backwall reflection" option is checked, as already explained under
"Computation definition", this amounts to computing the compression wave in
the fluid that is reflected by the entry surface and corresponds to the PreP
mode (where "re" means piece "surface reflection – entry surface").
• Mode by mode
The same post-processing operation(s) chosen from the list are applied
separately to all of the selected modes.
Important note: This post-processing option is not available in Civa 9.1. In
actual fact, only the last mode selected is post-processed and displayed.
One or more modes are selected by clicking the corresponding button(s) to the
left of each option.
• Grouped modes
The same post-processing operation(s) chosen from the list are applied to the
selected combination of modes.
2.2.4.2.2.3 Transmission/reception
It is possible to perform computations in the transmission or reception mode or
the transmission/reception mode.
2.2.4.2.3 Quantities
A list proposes various elastodynamic Quantities.
Post-processing operations
Post-processing synthesizes various types of new results. These new results
are saved to a temporary file and can also be saved at any time to other files
(in various existing formats).
thereby opening a dialog box in which the name of the file and its access
path in the hard disk tree structure are requested. The corresponding
extension is .xml.
2.2.7.2 Theory
2.2.7.2.1 Geometric model of pencil propagation
The model is based on transposing to elastodynamic waves the
electromagnetic wave theory developed by G.A. Deschamps [3].
The following figure shows how a narrow beam or "pencil" of rays
propagates, with or without backwall reflection, from a source point to two
computation points, when a transducer wedge is placed in contact with a
geometrically irregular piece. In such cases, the energy path may have
three or four elementary segments (depending respectively on whether the
beam reaching the computation point has or has not undergone backwall
reflection).
computation
Source point points
Figure 377: Pencil propagation from a source point on the surface of the active transducer element to two
computation points (before and after backwall reflection)
axialaxial
rayon ray
Figure 378: Schematic description of a pencil in terms of axial and paraxial rays
At a given propagation time, the paraxial ray deviates from the axial ray
by a vector dx, which, in the reference frame formed by z, the axial ray
direction and xy, the plane perpendicular to z, is given by two coordinates
dx and dy. The paraxial ray deviates from the axial ray with a velocity that
differs infinitesimally from that of the axial ray. This deviation is identified
by a slowness vector ds. Only two of its three components are
independent, the third being determined by the first two, as well as by
local properties of the medium and the type of wave involved. At a given
instant, the pencil is described relatively to the axial ray by a quadrivector
Ψ, {dx, dy, dsx, dsy}
⎛ ds x ⎞
⎜ ⎟
ds = ⎜ ds y ⎟ ialraraxyial
⎜ ds ⎟ praayroanx pa
⎝ z⎠
dy
axialaxial
rayon ray
dx
⎡A B ⎤
ψ 2 = L • ψ1 = ⎢ ⎥ • ψ1 , (1)
⎣ C D⎦
where A, B, C and D are four 2 x 2 matrices used to simplify notations.
The conservation of energy principle is applied, on the assumption that
energy flux (which follows the axial ray) is contained inside the pencil
envelope. It can thus be deduced that acoustic intensity decreases (or
increases) with pencil cross- section dS. The wave associated with the
pencil has the same characteristics as the plane wave along the axial
ray, weighted by changes in energy. A spherical wave from a source
point in the coupling liquid is described as a plane wave weighted by a
1/r decreasing factor.
Pencil energy at the source point is contained within a solid angle dΩ.
The rate of decrease (or increase) in acoustic intensity is called the
divergence factor (denoted as DF). At a given instant, for a pencil cross-
section of dS, this factor is given by DF 2 = dΩ / dS , which can then be
related to the pencil matrix as follows: DF −2 = s12 det B . DF itself can be
computed if the propagation matrix L describing pencil evolution from
one instant to a second instant is determined. This means simply
describing the basic matrices (transmission or reflection on an interface,
denoted as LInter, propagation in a homogeneous medium between two
interfaces, denoted as Lprop.) and "cascading" them to obtain the overall
pencil evolution from source point Ψintial to computation point Ψfinal. The
global matrix Lglobal for propagation through n media involving n-1
interactions with interfaces is then written as:
⎛ n −1 ⎞
ψ final = L global • ψ initial = ⎜⎜ ∏ L prop. (i + 1) • LInter . (i ) ⎟⎟ • L prop. (1) • ψ initial .
⎝ i =1 ⎠
(2)
Subsequent pages show the expressions for these basic matrices.
Submatrix Bglobal of matrix Lglobal is used to deduce the overall value of DF
at the computation point.
⎡1 0 rk / s 0 ⎤
⎢0 1 0 rk / s ⎥⎥
ψ' = ⎢ •ψ . (3)
⎢0 0 1 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣0 0 0 1 ⎦
• Anisotropic medium
The expression for an anisotropic medium is more complex, since
slowness is a function of propagation direction. If gij is defined by
gmn = ∂ n+msz / ∂ sxm ∂ syn, then:
⎡1 0 − rk g 20 − rk g11 ⎤
⎢0 1 − rk g11 − rk g 02 ⎥⎥
ψ' = ⎢ • ψ , (4)
⎢0 0 1 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣0 0 0 1 ⎦
⎡ Θ ' Θ −1 0 ⎤
ψ' = ⎢ −T −1 −T T ⎥
• ψ , (5)
⎣ hΘ ' CΘ Θ ' Θ ⎦
where Θ is the matrix for projection onto the plane tangent to the
interface and h = s ' cosθ '− s cosθ , where θ and θ'' are angles of incidence
and reflection or transmission.
⎛ sin ϕ ⎞
T (t ) = A ⎜⎜ cos ϕ δ (t ) + ⎟⎟ , (6)
⎝ π t ⎠
whereby the first term preserves a time-invariant incident pulse shape
and the second converts it to the time-dependent shape of its Hilbert
transform.
• Distortion due to caustic crossing
If the pencil crosses a caustic, one of the two radii of curvature of the
local wavefront changes sign (from convex to concave or vice versa).
The time-dependent shape of impulse response beyond the caustic is
the Hilbert transform of the impulse shape before crossing the caustic.
2.2.7.2.5 Attenuation
It is possible to account for wave attenuation in both the coupling medium
and the piece. If this option is selected, computation allows for wave
attenuation in the piece and the coupling medium (a fluid for immersion
transducers; an L-wave attenuating wedge for contact and TR transducers).
The attenuation coefficients entered in the boxes defining anisotropic media
are taken into account and lead to model approximately the attenuation by
considering it as isotropic.
For each computation point and wave propagation mode, the model
computes an average distance per type of path, which is then denoted as
< d > i . This distance is the average of the distances di (j) of all contributions
(there are Npaths in all), from the transducer to the computation point.
N paths
< d >i = ∑ d ( j) / N
j =1
i paths . (7)
α (ω ) = ∏α (ω )
pathtypes
i (8)
(where ω is the pulsation), the product of the different elementary filters (by
type of path) as given by:
⎛ α (i ) ⎛ ω ⎞ ⎞⎟
p (i )
⎜
α i (ω ) = exp − 0
< d > i ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (9)
⎜ 8.686
⎝ ⎝ 2πν m (i ) ⎠ ⎟⎠
where α0(i) is the attenuation coefficient for ith pathtype in dB/mm, p(i) is the
power (may be a non-integer) in the filter for the ith pathtype (e.g. 2 for
water), νm(i) is the frequency (in MHz) at which coefficient α0(i) of the ith
pathtype was measured. Note: division by 8.686 converts dB/mm to
neper/mm. Frequency filtering is applied to the wave shape corresponding
to the propagation mode of interest at the computation point (one filter per
mode and per computation point). This means that, once a computation
accounting for attenuation is performed, it is no longer possible to not
account for this parameter. To compare a result obtained after allowance for
attenuation and one in which this was not the case, both results must be
computed.
2.2.7.2.6 Roughness
Statistical effect of roughness of the entry surface of the specimen on the
field transmitted through the coupling / specimen interface can be
accounted for. The effect is a function of the Ra parameter of roughness
(which must be entered in µm (micrometer) by the user in the menu
“specimen”); default value is equal to zero.
The effect of roughness is all the more high since roughness parameter is
high and frequency is high: the effect is modelled as a modification of the
transmission coefficient, a function of the frequency.
lm 0
where s(x) describe the roughness of the surface along a length of lm. One
can also define the roughness by simply considering the mean value of the
same function; it is denoted by Ra, given by
l
1 m
Ra = ∫ sdx .
lm 0
A general relation between the two parameters does not exist. A standard
relation is a simple factor linking one to the other. One has
Rq = 1.25 Ra.
In CIVA, the coefficient Ra is to be entered. Transmission coefficient for L or
T waves is modified by a factor that is a function of the angular frequency ω
⎡ ⎛ cos θ L ,T cos θ coupl. ⎞
2⎤
1
exp ⎢− R q2 ω 2 ⎜ − ⎟ ⎥,
⎢ 2 ⎜ c L,T c coupl. ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦
where θ coupl . and θ L,T (resp. c coupl. and c L,T ) stand for the angles (resp.
propagation wave speed) of incidence in the coupling medium and of
refraction (L or T) in the specimen. Similarly, reflection coefficient is affected
by roughness, by a factor that writes
⎡ ⎛ cos θ coupl . ⎞
2⎤
exp ⎢− 2 R q2 ω 2 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥.
⎢ ⎜ c coupl . ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦
Since both factors are function of the frequency, the filtering effect is
computed over the whole bandwidth in relation to the sampling frequency.
Incident and refraction angles taken into account in the computation are
those of the transducer axis in relation to the direction normal to the
surface.
Remark: in the implementation of CIVA and for the case of a contact
configuration, the wave speed accounted for in the incident medium is that
of the transducer shoe.
2.2.7.3.1.1 Geometries
2.2.7.3.1.2 Materials
The module accounts for materials that are homogeneous or
heterogeneous (homogeneous in each zone) and either isotropic or
anisotropic. For anisotropic materials, all crystal symmetries can be
considered. The crystal orientation of these materials, as defined by
the orientation of the crystal reference frame relative to that of the piece,
is postulated to be identical at all points in the piece or the
homogeneous zone, regardless of the latter's geometry.
2.2.7.3.2 Transducers
The field computation module accounts for different types of transducers
and their respective active element geometries. This implies various
hypotheses about transducer operation and the relationships between
geometric parameters, namely the way transducer electroacoustic behavior
is modeled and how it radiates into the medium with which it is in contact.
2.2.7.3.2.1 Transduction
All of the transducers credited are assumed to include (at least) one
piezoelectric element enabling electroacoustic transduction. To do so,
the active element is postulated to vibrate only in the thickness mode.
While this hypothesis is largely borne out for elements made of
piezocomposite materials, it is less evident for conventional piezoelectric
elements, which also have radial vibration modes [4]. However, such
modes have negligible effect on the field radiated by refraction. Another
hypothesis calls for all points on the active element surface to vibrate
in phase with the same time dependence. For phased array
transducers, different delays can be assigned to the various elements by
applying suitable delay laws.
This option credits both direct and backwall reflection modes. Each direct
mode is associated with two (for isotropic material) or three (for
anisotropic material) backwall reflection modes, corresponding to all the
possible wave propagation modes.
This integral models fields directly radiated by the transducer but does
not account for fields reflected at the coupling/piece interface.
2.2.7.3.4.10 Accuracy
The parameter "accuracy," which by default is taken equal to 1, defines
the number of contributions to be computed. This number is proportional
to the transducer central frequency, the largest dimension of the
transducer and the sampling frequency of the computation (which is
given as the input signal sampling frequency).
For an interface between the coupling medium (or wedge) and a CAD-
described piece, this value is multiplied, in the internal computation
process, by a factor of 2.5. An accuracy of 1 then implies 2.5 times more
contributions than for interfaces defined parametrically. This factor is
intended to allow margin for variations in interface geometry with respect
to a parametrically defined interface. If the CAD-described interface has
very few elements, a factor of 2.5 may be too high and the user may
wish to decrease the accuracy parameter used by default. If, on the other
hand, the CAD-described interface has many elements that significantly
change piece geometry with respect to an established standard, this
number may be too low. The user may then wish to raise the accuracy
factor default value.
For a phased array transducer, the number of contributions is
multiplied, in the internal computation process, by a factor of 2. An
accuracy of 1 then reflects two times more contributions than for a single
element transducer. As a result, for a phased array transducer, and an
interface between the coupling medium (or wedge) and the CAD-
described piece, this value is multiplied, in the internal computation
process, by a factor of 2 x 2.5 = 5. An accuracy of 1 then reflects 5 times
more contributions than for parametrically-defined single element
transducer interfaces.
If the user examines the time dependences of impulse responses (a
post-processing option allows to do so), he will note that, with a default
accuracy value of 1, the time signal contains high frequency digital noise.
However, when impulse responses of different elastodynamic quantities
are convolved with a typical NDT transducer excitation signal, the
convolution behaves like a passband filter and blanks out the effect of
the HF digital noise.
Detailed study of impulse response variations, for example with
computation point position in the field, usually requires computing to a
degree of accuracy greater than default value 1.
necessary for its crystal orientation to have two axes of symmetry within
this same plane.
Quantitatively speaking, a 2D field can only provide an accurate picture
of the field radiated by a transducer if the test configuration is truly 2D
(i.e. case of a transducer/piece configuration that is invariant along an
axis perpendicular to the plane in which computation takes place).
Where this is not the case, the only advantage of the 2D option is to limit
the number of computation points considered, thus significantly
decreasing computation time. The results obtained then provide an idea
of the phenomena involved, and are all the more quantitatively accurate
as the configuration approximates a 2D setup.
If this option is selected, the program will not verify whether the
configuration used in computation is legitimate in terms of 2D model
hypotheses.
-0,5
Displacement
0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5 -0,5
Stress0,5
0,0 1,0 0,0
Energy
0,5 1,0
0 0 0
ur σ rr
uz σ zz
σ rz
1 1 1
z z z
λ 2
λ 2
λ 2
3 3 3
Figure 380 : Amplitude variation for various elastodynamic quantities as function of depth.
The field associated with the propagation of this wave in the piece can be
deduced from that at the interface itself. For an incident pencil of bulk wave
in the coupling fluid arising from one of the source points (its amplitude
varying as the inverse of the propagation distance), the pencil of Rayleigh
wave it generates has an amplitude that decreases as the squared root of
the distance of propagation due to its specific geometric divergence.
The figure below shows the bulk wave pencil which generates the Rayleigh
wave pencil, as well as the principle of deducing the field inside the piece
from the surface pencil.
r
S
θR
fluid L
S O’ incident bulk wave at Rayleigh angle
LR Rayleigh wave
solid
O
Figure 381 : Generation by refraction at Rayleigh angle of a Rayleigh wave.
The Rayleigh wave propagates as a straight pencil when the surface is flat.
In general terms, Rayleigh waves follow curves which are geodesics of the
surface. On a cylinder, the geodesic is an helix ; it becomes a straight line
when the direction of propagation is parallel to the cylinder axis and a circle
of the same radius as that of the cylinder when the propagation is
perpendicular to the axis. For a sphere, the geodesic is a circle of radius
equal to that of the sphere.
The following figure shows geodesics on a flat, spherical or cylindrical piece
along which a Rayleigh wave propagates between two points of the same
colour.
Figure 382 : Geodesics for Rayleigh wave propagation on flat, spherical or cylindrical surfaces.
During the same surface propagation, the rest of the energy is re-radiated
into the coupling fluid as an acoustic (pressure) wave according to a
mechanism (leakage) inverse of that of their generation; therefore, these
contributions propagate in a direction forming an angle equal and opposite
to that of generation. Radiation of leaky Rayleigh waves can also be
described as a pencil of bulk wave which amplitude depends on that of the
Rayleigh wave at the locus of its generation on the interface.
The following figure shows the various paths that must be taken into
account to model the field between a point source in the fluid coupling and
an observation point in the same medium: simultaneously, both the field
implying a propagation as a Rayleigh wave and that corresponding to a
specular reflection of bulk waves are computed. (NB: however, their
prediction may be computed separately in practice).
r
S
θR θR O
incident bulk wave at Rayleigh angle
fluid L LO Rayleigh wave
S
Figure 383 : The various bulk or Rayleigh wave pencils involved in the propagation between source point S and
observation point O.
Thus, by introducing the notion of Rayleigh wave pencil, it is possible to
derive a model that predicts the generation, the propagation and the re-
radiation of Rayleigh waves under a formalism common to that adopted for
bulk waves.
Quantitatively, the acoustic potential ϕ at the observation point O in the
coupling, associated with the propagation of the leaky Rayleigh wave is
expressed as follows. It is proportional to the incident acoustic field ϕ0.
⎛ L +L L ⎞
A fluid (ω ) −α R (ω ) LR
jω ⎜⎜ S O + R ⎟⎟
ϕ fluid (O' ; [ S ]) ≈ ϕ 0 e e ⎝ c0 cR
, ⎠
r
where the distances LS, LO, LR, and r are defined on the figure, c0
(respectively cR) is the wave speed in the fluid coupling (respectively of
Rayleigh wave at the surface of the piece), Aflu is a coefficient which
depends on plane wave reflection coefficient at the interface between the
fluid coupling / solid piece, ω is the angular frequency, αR is a attenuation
coefficient along the surface wavepath due to leakage in the fluid.
Both the Rayleigh wave speed and its attenuation depend on the density
and on the wave speed in the fluid coupling. Influence of these
characteristics is weak (but taken into account) on the wave speed, and
strong on the attenuation.
Similarly, the field associated with the propagation of the Rayleigh wave at
an observation point O inside the piece is given by:
−α (ω ) z
ϕ R _ L ,T (O; [ S ]) = ϕ fluid (O' ; [ S ]) AL ,T (ω ) e R _ L ,T O ,
where the Rayleigh wavefield is decomposed into two parts proportional to
the amplitude of the Rayleigh wave at O’ at the interface, to a specific
coefficient AL,T and to an exponential attenuation along the direction normal
to the interface depending on a coefficient αR_L,T and the distance zO (= O’O,
distance of O to the interface).
The two coefficients αR_L,T are computed automatically since they only
depend on elastic properties of the piece medium (and to a lesser extent to
acoustic properties of the coupling, though it is accounted for).
The various elastodynamic quantities are deduced from these expressions,
for each pencil propagation, before summation over the full set of source
points.
cR)]. Calculation zone is a segment partly in the fluid coupling and partly in
the piece, parallel to the normal to the interface.
Computations of the incident bulk field in the fluid, then specularly reflected
in the fluid, of bulk transmitted field (T) together with contributions due to
Rayleigh waves in the solid and leaky Rayleigh waves in the fluid are made
simultaneously. Two components of the particle displacement field are
shown, ux and uz, z being the direction normal to the planar interface and x
the direction parallel to the interface plane and in the incidence plane of the
transducer. The figure displays time-dependent variations of these
components for the set of observation points along the segment.
flat disk
Rayleigh
angle
calculation
zone
water
steel
Figure 384 : computation configuration: immersion at Rayleigh angle
Figure 385 : Left : bulk wave contributions only. Right: bulk wave, Rayleigh surface and leaky Rayleigh wave
contributions all together. Top (resp. bottom): x- (resp. z-) component of particle displacement.
In left column, only bulk wave components are shown; in right column, the
same components are shown together with those due to Rayleigh and leaky
Rayleigh waves.
In this configuration, i.e., at Rayleigh angle, contributions of Rayleigh waves
in the solid and leaky Rayleigh waves in the fluid are of higher amplitude
than that of bulk waves.
2.2.7.5 REFERENCES
[1] M. El Amrani, Étude de différentes méthodes de focalisation ultrasonore
appliquées au contrôle non-destructif, thèse de doctorat de l’Université Paris
VII (1995). Disponible sous la référence CEA – R – 5717.
[2] N. Gengembre, Modélisation du champ ultrasonore rayonné dans une
pièce anisotrope hétérogène par un traducteur immergé, thèse de doctorat de
l’Université Paris VII (1999). Disponible sous la référence CEA – R – 5934.
[3] G. A. Deschamps, « Ray techniques in electromagnetics », Proc. I.E.E.E.
60 (1972), pp.1022-1035.
[4] J. P. Weight, « Ultrasonic beam structures in fluid media », J. Acoust. Soc.
Am. 75 (1984), pp. 1716-1720.
[5] F. Coulouvrat, « Continuous field radiated by a geometrically focused
transducer: Numerical investigation and comparison with an approximate
model », J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 94 (1993), pp. 1663-1675.
[6] H. Djelouah, J.- C. Baboux and M. Perdrix, « The transient field of a planar
ultrasonic transducer coupled to a lens : experiments and simulations », J.
Acoust. Soc. Am. 87 (1990), pp. 76-80.
[7] N. Gengembre, A. Lhémery and P. Calmon, « Calculation of wideband
ultrasonic fields radiated by water-coupled transducers into anisotropic media
», Review of Progress in QNDE 17 (1998), pp. 899-906.
[8] O. Poncelet, M. Deschamps, A. G. Every and B. Audoin, « Extension to
cuspidal edges of wave surfaces of anisotropic solids : treatment of near cusp
behavior », Review of Progress in QNDE 20 (2001), pp. 51-58.
[9] S. W. Lee, M. S. Sheshadri, V. Jamnejad and R. Mittra, « Refraction at a
curved dielectric interface: Geometrical optics solution », I.E.E.E. Trans.
Microwave Theory Tech. MTT-30 (1982), pp.12-19.
[10] A. Lhémery, « A model for the transient ultrasonic field radiated by
an arbitrary loading in a solid», J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 96 (1994), pp. 3776-3786.
[11] T. P. Lerch, L. W. Schmerr and A. Sedov, « The wavefield of an
ultrasonic angle beam shear wave transducer : an elastodynamic approach »,
Review of Progress in QNDE 16 (1997), pp. 885-892.
[12] P. Calmon, A. Lhémery and J. Nadal, « Broadband fields radiated by
water-coupled transducers in solids - Comparison of approximate models,
numerical methods and experiments », Review of Progress in QNDE 15
(1996), pp. 1019-1026.
[13] A. Lhémery, N. Leymarie, P. Calmon and R. Coulette,
« Simultaneous calculation of bulk and surface transient waves radiated by
water-coupled ultrasonic transducers », Review of Progress in QNDE 24
(2005), pp. 1002-1009.
This chapter describes the imaging system used to display beam computation
results and the analysis tools available in CIVA to characterize UT fields.
2.2.8.1 Generalities
The beam computation results are displayed using a dedicated imaging system
that will be described in following paragraphs of this chapter. By default, the
result of a beam computation is displayed in an independent window. It is also
automatically displayed in the 3D modeling view.
After any computation the result window is automatically displayed and the
image appears in a “tree” representation of the Civa Manager Window as
illustrated on the screenshot hereafter. A double click on any “Image” listed in
this “tree” representation will display the corresponding image. It is also
possible to call any image by right clicking on it and selecting the “Display”
menu:
From any beam representation image, other types of images can be displayed.
All these images are linked together by a parent/children connection, so that if
you close a “parent” image, all children images are automatically closed.
Moreover, the cursors of parent/children images are synchronized. The
following section describes all type of images that can be displayed using the
beam computation module of the Civa software.
In the title bar of this image, the name of the corresponding XML
configuration is given as well as the image number that is written in the
Civa manager window (ex: Image1 on the previous screenshot). Finally,
the image is named “ASCAN” by an abusive extension of what is called
an Ascan image in Ultrasonic testing. Details about this type of image
(cursors, menus …) will be given in section “Ergonomics and practical
use of beam images”.
In the title bar of this image, the name of the corresponding XML
configuration is given as well as the image number that is written in the
Civa manager window (ex: Image1 on the previous screenshot). This
image represents the maximum amplitude of the beam, given in dB
according to the reference (see section “Beam comparisons” for more
details) vs. the size (length) of the computation zone in mm. Finally, this
type of image is named “Image 1D Beam L”. Details (cursors, menus …)
will be given in section “Ergonomics and practical use of beam
images” and other images than can derive from this one will be
described in “Available views from ‘Image 1D Beam L’ images”.
2.2.8.2.2.5 Synthesis of beam images that can be derived from default images
The set of images described in the previous sections can be represented
following the flowchart hereafter. It is not perfectly exhaustive in the
sense that most images can be recovered from various images (there is
not a unique way to open a given image). Nevertheless, it gives a global
overview of the hierarchy used to organize all possible images ant the
way to recover them.
wavefront for all time values and therefore visualize the wave
propagation inside the computation zone. It is possible to switch from the
default representation mode to the amplitude representation by selecting
appropriate option in the “Display option” menu of beam images (refer to
section “Ergonomics and practical use of beam images” for more
details). An example of such representation is given hereafter for three
time values.
exiting Civa has the same position and size than previously specified by the
user.
2.2.8.3.2 “Images” menu of beam images
For all possible images, the “Images” menu allows to open other types of
images every time that it is possible (see “Chaining views available from
default images” for details). Then in all cases, the “Images” menu provides
the two following choices:
• “Data Infos…”: the “Data Infos…” selection opens an html file containing
a description of the beam computation configuration (Specimen type,
Transducer characteristics, computation parameters, etc.)
• Close: this option closes the current images and all children images.
•
2.2.8.3.3 “Tools” menu of beam images
Depending on the nature of the beam image, the following items may be
available in the “Tools” menu.
• AMAX: the selection of AMAX option displays an information window
(see screenshot below) in which the maximum amplitude of the image is
given in arbitrary units of CIVA, called points (pts).
After selecting desired options, click on the “Build” button. A progress bar
will appear and finally the video window will be automatically displayed. It
looks like the image above. It is possible to save this video in “avi” format by
clicking on the “Save video as…” button.
• Export to 3D scene: this option allows the user to export the computed
beam in the 3D modeling view. If needed, it is possible to “unexport” this
image (remove the beam image from the 3D modeling view) by right
clicking anywhere in the white background of the 3D modeling view and
select “Unexport” menu. When the beam image is exported in the 3D
modeling view, any modification in the independent beam window
(cursor movement, type of representation, etc.) is automatically applied
to the exported view.
• Export image (txt): this option calls an export function in text format of
some ultrasonic data contained in the image. This procedure extracts
the amplitude of the computed beam for each point of the computation
zone. In the particular case of ASCAN image, the export procedure
exports all points of the waveform.
• Export image (png…): this export function allows the user to save any
beam image in “png”, “jpg”, “jpeg”, “gif” or “bmp” format.
•
2.2.8.3.4 Right hand information panel of beam images
Any beam image contains an information panel located on the right side of
the image. By default, this information panel is hidden to reduce the size of
the whole image window. To open this information panel, just click on the
icon, as illustrated below:
Depending on the nature of the image (1D, 2D or 3D), different options will
be provided in the right-hand information panel. These options are now
described in following sections for each kind of image.
2.2.8.3.4.1 1D images
1D images can be either ASCAN or “Image 1D Beam X” image, where X
stands for computation zone dimension (X = L, H or E for Length, Height
or Width respectively). Options provided in the information panel are
therefore listed below:
Provided options
ASCAN
Image 1D Beam X
2.2.8.3.4.2 2D images
2D images can be either “Image 2D Beam XX” or “Image 2D Amplitude
T/X” images where X stands for computation zone dimension (X = L, H
or E for Length, Height or Width respectively). Options provided in the
information panel are therefore listed below:
Provided options
Image 2D Beam XX
• Color map: the “Color map” menu allows the user to change the color
bar of the image. Refer to section “Color map” for details.
• Cursor: the cursor menu provides measurements (coordinates,
amplitude) at cursors position. Refer to section “Cursors” for detailed
description of cursors.
• Display Options:
The display options menu
allows the user to switch the
type of representation of the
beam. Refer to “agraph
“Type of representations”
for details about available representations (Maximum amplitude,
Amplitude, Time). Another option is also provided in this menu. This
option is named “Smooth the image” and it results in an interpolation of
amplitude between consecutive calculation points in order to get a nice
resolution on the beam image even if the number of calculation point is
not very high.
• Focal Spot: the focal spot menu allows automatic measurements of
the focal spot. This option is fully detailed in section “Focal spot
measurement”.
• Local Orientations: this option allows displaying local orientation of the
beam at each calculation point of the computation zone. Refer to
section “Local orientations” for all details about this option.
2.2.8.3.4.3 3D images
The “Display planes” option displays or hide the three cross section
“planes of the 3D beam image (see next screenshot).
The “Display wire box” option allows displaying or hiding the red lines
corresponding to the contour of the 3D computation zone (see
screenshot below).
2.2.8.3.5 Cursors
Except the 3D beam images, any image of the beam imaging system
contains horizontal and vertical cursors that are suited to the type of view
involved. The user can move these cursors by clicking with the left button of
the mouse on the selected cursor and move it to the expected point of the
image. It is possible to move the two cursors at the same time by clicking on
their crossing point.
For a given file, all cursors are linked to each other. This means that, when
a cursor is moved along the axis of a given view, its movement is
automatically reproduced in all the views affected by the displacement. On
the example illustrated hereafter, any cursor movement in a given 2D image
derived from the 3D image automatically implies refreshing of the 3D view.
Whatever the image; the cursor menu is divided into 3 main parts: the upper
part concerns measurement of cursor coordinates in the specimen frame,
the middle part gives the information of cursor coordinates in a local frame
associated to the computation zone, and finally the lower part gives
amplitude measurement at cursor position and time information.
By default, measured values are given in mm for coordinates, µs for time
information and in dB for what concerns amplitudes. It is however possible
to modify these default units by selecting the desired unity in the
appropriate list.
2.2.8.3.6 Zooms
It is possible to zoom-in or zoom-out in any part of beam images by
applying the following procedures.
Press the Ctrl button, while also holding the left mouse button in any image,
and then use the mouse to define a rectangular zoom area. Once the
rectangle is drawn, release the left mouse button. The zoom area then
occupies all the space available in the view.
To move the zoom area during the zoom-in operation, press the shift button
and then release the Ctrl button while still holding the left mouse button.
This zoom-in operation is limited to the opened window.
For zoom-out operation and restore the image to its initial state, double click
in the window. If several zoom-in operations were applied, each double click
restore the display in the state it was before previous zoom-in.
Color gradation
Gray gradation
Non Symmetric gray gradation
Civa color map
Non Sym. Civa
From the color map menu, it is possible to concentrate the color map
dynamic over a reduced amplitude range. This can be done using two
methods:
• Moving the mouse on the color scale cursors located on the right-hand
side of the image:
• To raise the color scale minimum value, position the mouse at the
bottom of the scale until its icon changes to a double arrow, then left
click, hold and drag the scale up.
• To lower the color scale maximum value, position the mouse at the top
of the scale until its icon changes to a double arrow, then left click, hold,
and drag the scale down.
• Keying-in the upper and lower limits of the color scale in the (min., max.)
fields of the color map menu.
Regardless of the method used, the cursor position on the scale and the
value given in the relevant field are automatically adjusted for consistency.
It is also possible to increase (or decrease) the overall dynamic of the
image. By keying in a value (in dB only) in the color map menu option
named "Dynamic", it is possible to move the scale by any value (the value
can be negative).
For example, if a value of 6dB is keyed in, the maximum color scale value is
-6dB (blue saturation). This action results only in visual effect and does not
in any way modify the amplitude values associated with the signals.
If the lowest value on the color scale is a finite one (e.g. -12dB), it is
corrected by whatever the dynamic value.
Note that the dynamic can be modified by simply clicking the buttons
located to the right of the dynamic field. Each click increases or decreases
the dynamic by 3 dB.
Finally, it is also possible to select the unit for expressing amplitude (points,
% or dB) on all images.
• Show focal spot: select this option to activate the measurement of the
focal spot and display the automatic measurement in current image.
• Compared to local max: this option is available in images derived from a
3D beam image only. It allows measuring the focal spot at given level
amplitude (the one define in the same toolbox in focal spot threshold)
Parameters to be defined when using the local orientations tool are listed
and described below:
Notes:
1) The local orientation option is only available if the beam computation has
been performed using the “Propagation orientation” storage option
(Computation parameters panel Æ Storage options tab). Therefore if you
cannot find the local orientation toolbox in beam image, check that relevant
storage option was selected in your beam computation configuration.
2) When the computed beam includes more than ONE ultrasonic path
(direct longitudinal, reflected Longitudinal, direct transverse, etc.), the local
orientation display option is not provided in the right-hand information panel
of beam images. Thus, if you made a beam computation including more
than ONE UT path, you have to open the “Modes” tab of the Post-
processing panel, select a single mode (unselect all modes except one) and
perform the beam post-processing (of course, relevant storage options must
be selected). Then the local orientation toolbox will be available in the post-
processed beam image.
Figure 386: tabs in the Computation parameters panel of the Defect Response module.
Under the “Incident field” tab, the user may choose between several methods for
computation of the incident beam. Under the “Options” tab, the user refines the
options for the chosen method. The user may activate or deactivate the
computation of selected wave modes (direct echoes, corner echoes, pressure
waves, shear waves, mode conversion, and surface and backwall echoes). The
“Interaction” tab enables the choice of the beam-flaw interaction model. Either the
Kirchhoff model, the GTD (Geometrical Theory of Diffraction) or the Born model
can be selected depending upon the type of inspection and on the flaws. The
“Acquisition” tab enables the user to specify the time window that will be used for
computation and waveform display. Finally, under the “Calibration” tab, an
amplitude reference value for normalization can be enabled, either entered by the
user or computed by the software.
Figure 387 : Computation-parameters menu illustrating Parametric field selection using a mathematical function
Figure 388 : : Beam-flaw interaction computation using a stored beam file. This example illustrates the
importance of defining a computation zone that is large enough to cover all the defects of interest.
To load a stored beam file for defect response computation, one has to
select the method “stored beam file” in the “Incident field” tab, then to
click on the icon “+” on the right side of the beam table list (empty as no
field is loaded by default). Once the beam file has been loaded, it can be
displayed (then hidden) in the main visualization window using the button
“Display…” of the lower part of the window.
Figure 389 : Choice of a stored beam file in the “Incident field” tab
For the incident field, the user can select a L(ongitudinal, or Pressure) or
T(ransverse, or Shear) waves beam file to perform the beam-flaw
interaction.
The user may also add or delete incident beams in this panel by clicking the
buttons labeled “+” and “x,” respectively. The “+” button opens a browsing
window allowing selection of a file from the CIVA folder tree. The name of
the selected file, as well as its associated polarization (L or T) now appears
in the panel. To suppress a file from this list, select the file you want to
remove and click the “x” button.
When loading a stored beam file, the software automatically checks its
polarization (L or T) and displays this information. Selecting an L-wave file
when the list already contains an L-wave field replaces the initially selected
file with the new file. Similarly, selecting a T-wave file when there is already
one selected replaces the initially selected field with the newest.
When loading a stored beam file, all the common parameters between the
“Beam computation” and the “Defect Response” modules are loaded from
the beam file (e.g., specimen, probe, inspection, and array-setting panels).
This inspection configuration may be edited by the user.
Warning #1: After loading a stored-beam file, there are no restrictions on
the editable parameters. However, modifying some parameters, such as
probe properties, will result in errors.
Warning #2: When two files are selected (one for each polarization), the
loaded inspection configuration corresponds to the one added last.
Warning #3: When two files are loaded as stored beam files, there is no
check of the compatibility of the inspection parameters in the two files. For
example, the user is able to load two fields calculated with two different
probes, thus rendering the calculation meaningless.
Warning #4: There is no consistency check on the modes (L- or T-
polarization) of the stored-beam files and the modes of the selected echoes
in the beam-flaw interaction options (see next section). For example, it is
possible to select the computation of T-wave echoes when the only loaded
beam file is an L-wave field with no information on the T-wave field. The
computation in this case provides no result.
Warning #5: 2D/3D interaction options. The governing option is the one
selected in the calculation zone of the stored beam file. Thus, when loading
a field calculated in a 2D-zone (field computed in a planar section), the
wave-defect interactions will automatically be computed with the 2D option.
This will occur even when the 3D option is selected in the “computation
parameters” panel of the “Defect response” interaction module.
Figure 390 : The “Incident field” tab and the “on-line beam computation” dropdown menu
By clicking on either the 2D- or the 3D-computation buttons, the user
chooses if the incident field is calculated in 2 or 3 dimensions.
By clicking or unclicking the “Attenuation” option, the user is choosing
whether or not to take attenuation into account in the calculation. The
attenuation parameters are specified by the user in the “Material” tab of the
“Specimen” panel.
The user may also refine the “Accuracy” parameter of the incident field
computation (see CIVA UT Beam Computation – Computation
parameters).
Please bear in mind that while increasing this parameter improves the
precision of the results, it also increases the computation time. In most
cases, the accuracy may be set to 2 for quantitatively accurate results.
However, the user may set different increasing values of accuracy to check
the convergence of the results.
Warning: the “Accuracy” parameter described above only affects the
incident field calculation, as for the same parameter from the “Beam
computation” module, “Computation parameters” panel. It is not related
to the “Accuracy” parameter in the “Options” tab of the “Defect response”
module, which is related to the flaw discretization.
Figure 392 : panel for specification of the parameters for the flaw-influence zone
1. In the inspection plane: this option allows the user to define the
calculation zone using a reduced number of parameters (the
calculation plane is automatically taken to be the same as the
inspection plane). The centre of the coordinate system is
attached to the transducer and therefore moves with the probe
during the inspection. When this option is chosen, three more
choices become available: “along L-wave axis”, “along T-wave
axis” or “Arbitrary,” as shown in the following figure.
Figure 393: Positioning options for the flaw-influence zone in the inspection plane
Figure 394: the “Options” tab on the “computation parameters” setting panel of the “Defect response” interaction
module
Computation mode: 2D or 3D computation
The “Options” tab starts with the “computation mode” choice, where the user
selects 2D or 3D computation. For the 2D computation option, the defects are
only meshed along the profile corresponding to the intersection between the
inspection plane and the defect. For the 3D option, the entire surface of the
defects is accounted for, as illustrated in the following figure.
Figure 395 : Illustration of the 2D and 3D discretization options for the beam-flaw-interaction calculation
Warning: 2D computation is only allowed for side-drilled holes and planar
defects. Other types of defects such as spherical defects, flat-bottomed holes,
hemispherical-bottomed holes, CAD defects and multifaceted planar defects
can only be considered using the 3D option.
Propagation mode:
Figure 396: Illustration of the “mirror” algorithm using a stored beam file for the “Defect Response” module with
the “half skip” option
Mode conversion:
Mode conversion can be taken into account in the beam-flaw interaction for any
option selected under “echoes” (direct, half-skip or skip). After reflection off the
bottom surface, the refracted waves can include more than one polarization. By
clicking the “mode conversion” option, the user specifies that all wave
polarizations incident on defects be included in the computation. Mode
conversions that occur at the defect surface are automatically taken into
account.
Accuracy:
Under “accuracy”, the user enters a number that determines the meshing
(sampling) of the defect surface. The greater the number, the more precise the
calculation is. The tradeoff with higher precision is longer computation times. In
most cases, the default value (1) gives acceptable results. However, as
described below, it is recommended that the user optimize the value of this
number.
To optimize the value of the “accuracy” number, the user is advised to iterate
over several values until the results converge. For example, if there is no
significant change in results for computations made with “accuracy =1” and
“accuracy=2”, the lowest value is the best choice in terms of minimizing
computation time. If the results are significantly different, the user is advised to
repeat this process with larger values until the results converge.
Geometrical echoes:
This zone allows simulating echoes arising from the specimen boundaries
itself: surface echoes (new feature in CIVA) and backwall echoes.
Figure 397: Example of inspection setup with various crack-like, volumetric and inclusions defects
The corresponding interaction tab is displayed on the following figure: after
selection of one defect in the list, a right-click on the model name allows to
modify it according to the restriction mentioned above.
Figure 399 : The Acquisition tab in the Computation parameters panel of Defect Response module
The “Min. time” parameter is the delay (in microseconds) between the origin of
the digitized signal (defined under the “Probe” panel) and the origin of the user
specified time window to be used in the calculation. Note that the “Min. time”
parameter is analogous to the positioning of a recording gate when performing
actual measurements.
The user must then specify the “digitization depth” parameter, which is the
length of the signal to be digitized. The user can define this parameter either in
microseconds or in number of points.
The user can also specify the “sampling frequency” in MHz, with effect on the
digitizing depth, but without effect on the signal actual sampling frequency,
which remains fixed to the sampling frequency used to define the reference
signal.
In CIVA9, another option, dedicated to phased arrays simulation, is also
available: one can store the response of each element used at reception.
Whatever the phased arrays settings, it is possible to compute and to store the
response of each element used at reception, for each sequence or probe
position : from the resulting scan image, one may open the so-called “Bscan
channels file” image.
directly comparable. The maximum amplitude of the signals from the calibrated
defect in the reference model can be used to calibrate the amplitudes of the
signals from the case of interest.
The “Calibration” option performs the comparison to a reference case
automatically, eliminating the need for a separate simulation.
Whether or not the calibration is used, the amplitudes of the simulated signals
are the same. However, the display of scan images (or ascan or echodynamic
curves), although represented in order to exploit the full scale of color coding
(or full curves without saturation), are expressed in dB with respect to the
calibration reference (manual value or calculated by simulation, see details
below).
Three options are available in the “Calibration” tab, as illustrated in the
following figure: None, Manual and Simulation
Figure 400 : Calibration tab showing the three different available options
“None” corresponds to the default option. No calibration is applied to the
simulation results and signal amplitudes are reported in arbitrary units.
The “Manual” option requires that the user enter a reference value (in points,
arbitrary units, as used in simulation) that will be used to report the amplitude
results without modification of the color scale (see discussion above).
The “Simulation” option allows the user to specify a calibration computation to
be performed in parallel with the case of interest. As outlined below, in the
current release CIVA9, the user’s choices have been extended. The following
are the parameters to be specified.
Figure 401 : Calibration using simulation value : display of the panel before/after calibration calculation
2.3.2 Theory
2.3.2.1 Domain of application of the module Defect response
The module Defect response simulates echoes received in an ultrasonic
inspection. These echoes arise from defects inside the component, from the
Figure 402 : Inspection modes available in the Defect Response module in CIVA9
2.3.2.1.4 Defects:
New kinds of defects have been added in CIVA. The list of defects that can
be simulated is (for details about their definition, see CIVA UT Setup-
Flaws):
• Crack-like flaws (planar flaws of various contours) :
1. Rectangular defect (arbitrary orientation)
2. CAD-contour planar defect: planar defect with a contour defined by
CAD (using the CAD tool inside CIVA).
3. Semi-elliptical planar defect: planar defect defined as a half of an
elliptical flaw.
4. Multi-facetted defect. This defect is an assembly of planar defects: it
is defined by CAD as a set of segments which represent the facet
edges in the incidence plane and in the perpendicular plane.
• Volumetric void flaws:
1. Standard reflectors: side-drilled hole, flat-bottomed hole,
hemispherical bottomed hole.
2. Warning: for the side-drilled hole, only the cylindrical surface is
accounted for. Similarly, only the flat (respectively, hemispherical)
surface of a flat (respectively, hemispherical) -bottomed hole is
accounted for. For these two standards reflectors, corner echoes
arising from the cylindrical part of the hole are not computed.
3. Spheres
• Volumetric solid flaws: This new type of flaw corresponds to volumetric
flaws made of solid material inside the specimen. The prediction of
echoes scattered by such flaws was available in previous version of
CIVA from the former simulation module (“Méphisto”), but restricted to
planar specimen. The different 3D defects are:
1. Sphere
2. Plain cylinder
3. Ellipsoid
Figure 403 : Example of echo-formation in the case of a T45° inspection of a planar piece with a vertical surface-
breaking crack : 1) direct tip-diffraction echo, 2) corner effect, 3) indirect tip diffraction
These three echoes correspond to “direct”, “corner” and “indirect” families of
echoes, respectively, which can be described as follow:
• "Direct" echoes: refer to those modes corresponding to an echo (an
incident wave either L or T is scattered by the defect) received directly
by the receiver without reflection in the backwall (for example, the echo
from a side-drilled hole).
• "Indirect" echoes: refer to those modes for which two reflections onto
the backwall take place: one on the way toward the defect (before defect
scattering), one on the way back to the receiver (after defect scattering).
• "Corner" echoes: these modes correspond to two different wavepaths
on the way toward the defect and on the way back to the receiver after
defect scattering, one of the two wavepaths including a backwall
reflection.
These various modes (direct, corner or indirect echoes) can also include
mode conversion phenomena (conversion of a transverse wave into a
longitudinal one and vice-versa) in the scattering by the defect or in a
reflection on the backwall.
Figure 405 : Illustration of the separation of variables principle for the incident transient field over the
defect
This simplification considers that the transducer signal is modified during
the propagation by nothing but an amplitude factor, a phase and a time-
delay.
This assumption means that distortions of the transient signal, due for
instance to near-field interferences, will not be taken into account. However,
the extraction of the amplitude and time of flight is associated to the main
contribution of the beam; therefore this assumption does not affect the
simulation results, especially in terms of prediction of the amplitude
responses.
In addition, the direction of propagation is also extracted from the field
computation to know the direction of incidence at each point of the defect.
From now on, complex valued amplitude obtained from the field
computation as well as a direction of propagation will be considered for
each point of the beam/defect interaction.
Figure 406 : Calculation principle of the echo scattered by a defect according to Kirchhoff’s approximation
The complex-valued amplitude function is described as amplitude and a
phase, both extracted from the computed field. The time-of-flight and the
incidence direction i0 local to the mesh point on the defect are also
extracted from the computed field. One may express the field scattered by
one elementary surface of the flaw as a spherical wave :
Figure 407 : Limitation of Kirchoff application using two probes in Tandem mode
Similar limitations occur when using a pair of probes in TOFD inspection
(see following figure) for nearly vertical flaws: The Kirchhoff approximation
will soon be not applicable as the orientation of the flaw prevents the axis of
the transmitter and receiver probes lying from the same side of the flaw. On
the following figure, only the configuration displayed on top can be
simulated using the Kirchhoff model.
Figure 408: Limitation of Kirchoff application using two probes in TOFD mode
• Involved flaws :
Flaws which can be modelled thanks to GTD are :
• planar flaws : rectangular, semi-elliptical or CAD contour planar
flaws.
• multi-facetted flaw.
a) spherical inclusions :
There’s no limitation concerning spherical inclusions :
• all the possible modes can be computed for this flaw shape (direct,
indirect, mode conversion, corner echoes, 2 bonds).
• these flaws can be embedded in all kinds of specimen.
b) cylindrical or ellipsoidal inclusions:
For cylindrical or ellipsoidal inclusions, the model is able to compute the
scattered echoes for a mode only if the flaws have one axis aligned
along the focal axis of the corresponding mode. This axis is compulsory
the axis of revolution for a cylinder and one of the three axis for an
ellipsoid (see Figure below). If this condition is not verified, the following
warning will occur at the running start :
« No echo computation for cylindrical or ellipsoidal inclusions which are
not aligned along the focal axis of the corresponding mode.
Do you want to continue ? (if yes, no computation of corresponding
echoes)
O/N »
This limitation concerning the alignment along the focal axis allows the
user only to compute a single direct mode for a cylindrical or ellipsoidal
inclusion. For such a flaw, P and SV waves must be simulated
separately (see Figure below) as expresses this warning :
«Both computation of P and SV echoes not allowed on a cylindrical or
ellipsoidal inclusion.
Each mode must be computed independently since the inclusion must be
aligned along the focal axis of the corresponding mode.
Do you want to continue ? (if yes, computation of only direct echoes for
cylindrical and ellipsoidal inclusions)
O/N»
Figure 411: Principle of the different shadowing effects that may be taken into account in the Defect Response
Module
The only restriction used to take account of this phenomenon is to use the “on-
line beam computation” method for the incident field.
Figure 412 : Principle of shadowing effects (here, shadowing of flaw over flaw) in the Defect Response module,
via removal of UT paths in the beam computation
Therefore, the echo superposition hypothesis means that the «defect / defect»
interaction is not taken into account (e.g. an echo from a corner made by two
defects perpendicular and close to each other). Similarly, multiple scattering is
not simulated.
Under Kirchhoff’s approximation, only interactions of bulk waves with voids are
accounted for:
• Surface wave inspection or inspections involving lateral waves generated at
the backwall are not simulated.
• Surface waves generated by diffraction at the tips of planar defects then
diffracted as bulk waves that can be measured by the receiver are not
predicted.
2.3.3.2.1 Views
A view represents a set of data as an image or a curve. Civa proposes
conventional views for each NDT technology. In the case of ultrasonic
testing, they include Ascans, Cscans, etc.
A view contains one or more cursors that can be displaced by means of a
mouse.
The values displayed are usually signal amplitudes. Other values may also
be displayed in certain cases.
2.3.3.2.4 Menus
The menus allow the user to initiate various actions that may generate new
views. The possible actions differ depending on the type of view. Menu
content therefore also varies according to the type of view and the type of
data displayed. Subsequent paragraphs describe the main principles for
"chaining" operators. There are three basic menus:
• The "image" menu serves to create new views from a same set of data.
It is also used to close the view and access information about the data
contained in it.
• The "processing" menu allows use of various operators (processing,
limitations, etc.) to generate new data and create views of them.
• The "tools" menu gives access to various utility programs, e.g. to export
views to a file.
For example, if all the above elements are present in the file, the first view
shows scanning on the horizontal axis and increment on the vertical axis.
All other parameters are shown in "cumulative" form. This means that, at
each point in the image, if the represented parameter is signal amplitude,
the value given for scanning with a fixed increment (that of the point of
interest) is the absolute value of maximum amplitude for all the signals and
all the channel numbers of all the shots in all the sequences.
These "daughter" images, which have all of the fixed parameters contained
in the parent image, to which are added a new fixed parameter, until the
simplest possible image: an Ascan (a signal vs. time image, in which all
other parameters are "fixed") is obtained.
The Ascan in turn enables opening of an Fscan that shows, for the signal of
interest, the frequency distribution of the signal present in the Ascan (see
example in "Example of chained images").
Closing the "parent" image, implies that the "daughter" images also close,
since their fixed parameters are no longer available.
It should be noted that only one view of each type is displayable (e.g. if a
Bscan window is open, calling a second window of the same type has no
effect).
Any 2D view whose vertical axis is the time axis can generate a True view.
The first mode provides Bscans for all the sectorial scans obtained by
juxtaposing all shots taken at the same scanning angle along a mechanical
scanning path. This means defining a fixed shot (i.e. a fixed angle of
refraction from among those available). Using the parent image
obtained, for example, by scanning, with a sectorial scan at each position,
select "scan scanning\time", then "scan true scanning\time".
The second mode provides sectorial scans one by one. This means
defining the sequence (i.e. showing the sectorial scan for a given probe
position). Using the parent image, e.g. obtained by mechanical scanning
with a sectorial scan at each position, select "scan shot/time", then "scan
true shot/time".
In all cases, it is possible to cumulate images of a same type for all the
fixed values, i.e. all the sectorial scans obtained by mechanical scanning or
all shots taken at each sectorial scan position. These views are generated
using the "Cumulative scan" cursor (see Figures 3 and 4).
Note: An image that is closed, then reopened without exiting Civa, has the
same positions and sizes previously selected by the user.
2.3.3.3.3 Cursors
All images have cursors suited to the type of view involved.
For example, a view shows an image along two axes, increment and
scanning (Cscan). Another view shows an image (Bscan) along the
scanning and time axes and features a fixed increment value. When a
change is made to cursor position on the increment axis of the first view,
the second image is recomputed to credit the new increment value (i.e. a
change in Cscan increment automatically updates the Bscan).
For instance, in Figure 1, the "time" axis is not represented and is not
"fixed". It is a "cumulative" value, meaning that each point in the image
represents, for all time values, the maximum amplitude at that point (for
fixed scan and fixed increment values).
This axis can be measured in two ways (if the value is available and
recognized in the file):
If the axis is not present in the lefthand part of the window, only the line
number is given to the right. This constitutes a fixed cursor (identified as
such in the righthand part of the window), which is depicted in Figure 8.
If the axis is not present to the left of the window, only the burst number
is given to the right. This constitutes a fixed cursor (identified as such on
the right), which is depicted in Figure 10.
• Axis of sequences:
This parameter is only accessible for electronic scanning (defined as
the displacement of a phased array aperture, i.e. several array
elements). Sectorial scanning is not included under this category.
If the axis is not present to the left of the window, only the sequence
number is given to its right. It then constitutes a fixed cursor (identified as
such on the right).
• Axis of shots:
This parameter is only accessible for phased array simulations, when the
focusing option selected implies several shots at each probe position or
sequence (for electronic scanning).
If the axis is not present to the left of the window, only the sequence
number is given to the right. It then constitutes a fixed cursor (identified
as such on the right).
• Time axis:
This axis can be measured in two ways:
Views are time-adjusted at the time of True view editing (see following
paragraphs).
For this reason, time adjustments take place during True view editing, in the
Time offset box:
In this box, the interval field defines cursor limits. Taking the cursor to its
rightmost or leftmost limit adjusts time by the same value as the interval
(except for the sign).
It is also possible to directly key in the desired offset in the offset field.
The relevant images, along with all the True images associated with the
same file are then also adjusted. This adjustment is also carried forward in
an image exported to a 3D scene.
For an acquisition file, use the "test" tab to modify the initial probe position
with respect to the test piece, then "apply" the modification.
2.3.3.3.6 Color map - Dynamic
The color map (color scale) is displayed for all nonwireframe 2D views. This
map shows the color codes for physical values in such views.
• Gray scale:
• Color scale:
The type of color map is selected in a "color map" box to the right of the
NDT views, as shown in the following figure:
It is also possible, via this box, to concentrate the color map dynamic over a
reduced amplitude range. This can be done in two ways:
• by displacing the mouse on the color scale to the right of the view.
• To raise the color scale minimum value, position the mouse at the
bottom of the scale until its icon changes to a double arrow, then left
click, hold and drag the scale up.
• To lower the color scale maximum value, position the mouse at the
top of the scale until its icon changes to a double arrow, then left click,
hold, and drag the scale down.
• or by keying in the upper and lower limits of the color scale in the (min.,
max.) fields in the color map box (see Figure 12).
Regardless of the method used, the cursor position on the scale and the
value given in the relevant field are automatically adjusted for consistency.
By keying in a value (in dB only) in the color map box "Dynamic" field, it is
possible to move the scale by whatever that value.
For example, if a value of 6dB is keyed in, the maximum color scale value is
-6dB (blue saturation).
By saturating the strongest echoes, it is possible to also detect small
echoes that would otherwise have been invisible.
This action results only in visual effect and does not in any way modify the
amplitude values associated with the signals.
If the lowest value on the color scale is a finite one (e.g. -12dB), it is
corrected by whatever the dynamic value.
The first zone lists the "daughter" images that can be opened from the
image in which the menu was accessed.
• Load:
• Normalization : see "Normalization" § 1.1.1.3.12
• Signal processing: enables loading of a signal processing operation
whose parameters were saved to a file, without displaying the user
interface used to modify them (this interface can, if necessary, be
accessed via the "parameter" menu).
• Export US file: opens an "old imaging" file containing data for the file
being used.
• Export to 3D scene: This submenu, when it appears, exports the
view of interest to the 3D test scene containing the piece and the probe.
All signals are then plotted in three dimensions, in the piece reference
frame, which, in some cases, means that the image cannot be flat.
A change in cursor position in a 2D view may imply updating of the
exported view.
If "Cursor-editor link" is checked in the "Preferences" submenu of the
Civa manager "Tools" menu, the 3D scene probe is "linked" to the
2.3.3.3.8 Zooms
To zoom any image, proceed as follows:
Press the Ctrl button, while also holding the left mouse button, then use
the mouse to define a rectangular zoom area. Once the rectangle is drawn,
release the left mouse button. The zoom area then occupies all the space
available in the view (this zoom mode also applies to 2D and 3D views in
the test scene).
To displace the zoom area during the operation, press the shift button (then
release the Ctrl button while still holding the left mouse button).
To cancel the zoom and restore the image to its initial state, double click in
the window.
If zooms are chained, each double click causes the display to revert by one
zoom to the initial image.
2.3.3.3.9 Limitations
The purpose of limitations is to reduce the volume of data to be processed.
Limitations are applied via the "Processing" menu available from the views.
Activating the "limitation" option calls two windows, a view of the same type
as the original view (the word "limitation" is then added to the new view title)
and a box for input of the limitation parameters, as shown in the following
figure.
• by keying in the desired values in the Min and Max columns of the
limitation box for whatever the relevant parameters; or
For example, once the "active" option is checked for scanning, blue cursors
appear on the sides of all the open views for which scanning is one of the
two (vertical or horizontal) axes of representation (at the edges of existing
boundaries).
When the positions of these cursors are changed (by pressing the mouse
and Ctrl buttons), the boundaries of the view being limited also change (and
these changes are automatically applied to the associated parameter box
and shown as rectangles on all scans with the same axes).
Once limitations are applied to a view, the user can create a new view with
the same limitations, from any other view in which this is possible, by
selecting Apply Î Limitation under the Processing menu for the relevant
image.
It is also possible to save the applied limitation parameters (if, for example,
the action is repeated for several files) and to give that limitation a name (at
the top of the parameter box – see Figure 19).
The bandpass filter is used to limit and weight the frequency passband of
the signal being processed. Its application diminishes the impact of noise
whose frequency lies outside the transducer passband and thus
improves the signal-to-noise ratio. The filter also allows selection of a
specific portion of the passband, to give preference to certain signal
contributions. Such action, however, can degrade the time signal due to
passband narrowing. Bandpass filtering can also be associated with
signal rectification. In this case, the filter is used in low-pass mode and
the choice of cutoff frequency (filter maximum frequency) is a parameter
of the resulting envelope.
The bandpass filter can be called from an Ascan, via "Processing", "New
signal processing," then by clicking "+" and selecting "Bandpass" in the
proposed dialog box.
The above figure shows the parameters required for bandpass filtering:
• the first, in the form of a table, lists the applied signal processing
operations (filtering can, for example, be followed by application of a
DAC).
Once the processing parameters have been defined, the processing
operation can be saved to a file and reopened in another application (by
clicking the icons next to the file name). Note: When a "filtering"
operation is loaded, its name does not appear in the table. To display
filter parameters, the user must then click "name" (see Figure 20).
The first two parameters define the filter's upper and lower cutoff
frequencies. These values are linked to the two cursors appearing in the
Frequency (amplitude) graph at the bottom of the panel.
A choice of four functions is provided for the bandpass filter. These are
weighting functions (Hanning, Hamming, Triangular or Rectangular) that
determine filter shape.
Finally, the Apply button at the bottom of the panel applies the filter
defined in the initial Ascan to a new window with the same title as its
parent image, including a hyphen and the name given to the filter (which,
by default, is "name").
To apply this filter to other images, display the type of image desired in
the "Processing" menu, then select "Apply" and the name assigned to
the processing operation. This action automatically creates a new image
of the same type containing the signals to which the operation was
applied.
2.3.3.3.10.2 DAC
This tool, which is called from an Ascan, makes it possible to
subsequently correct signal amplitude as a function of time.
The third zone of the panel shows the current Ascan (defined by the
cursors) and the Ascan corrected for distance amplitude.
In the same way as for bandpass filtering, the "Apply" button opens an
Ascan window in which the DAC is credited; this correction can then be
applied to any other window via "Processing", then "Apply", and selection
of the name assigned to the DAC operation.
2.3.3.3.11 2D segmentation
The segmentation tool incorporated into the current version of Civa is only
two-dimensional. It is intended to display segments obtained from true
images.
For instance, from a "scan scanning/time", the user selects "images", then
"scan scanning/segmented time".
The parameters are the same as for segmentation in the Mephisto module.
Unlike the tool proposed in Mephisto, however, the Civa 8 segmentation
feature can also segment sectorial scans.
• type of processing:
• "Wavefront": For each shot, all points at which the signal leading edge
crosses the amplitude threshold are taken.
• type of signal:
If the signal is the high frequency type, it can be preprocessed. The user
then opts for any of the following:
• positive alternations only. There is no preprocessing.
• a rectified signal. Negative alternations are rectified.
• Signal envelope. The signal undergoes a Hilbert transform.
• threshold:
The processing threshold is an amplitude criterion, expressed as a number
of amplitude points. This criterion can be entered manually in the relevant
field or adjusted using the current Ascan cursor (display in the lower zone of
the panel).
This parameter serves to delete any points whose amplitude is not deemed
representative for the desired type of processing.
For a given shot, all the points whose amplitude is less than the threshold
are therefore eliminated.
• Dx:
This is the maximum number of shots whose points are taken into
consideration for segmentation purposes.
• Dt:
The direction of segmentation is given by the model (direction of the path to
the point of interest).
For any point selected on a given shot (using the parameters described
above), a theoretical point is positioned on the next shot in the
segmentation direction perpendicular to the direction of that shot (which is
computed in accordance with the model and the appropriate laws of
refraction).
If one of the points on the next shot meets the abovementioned parameters
and is located at a time interval shorter than that of the previously computed
theoretical point +/-Dt, this point is joined to the previous one by a segment.
2.3.3.3.12 Normalization
The normalization panel is accessed from the "Processing" menu of an
echodynamic sequence/amplitude curve (for scenarios in which several
shots are defined per sequence).
Different chains of "daughter" images give rise to the same image (e.g. the
same Ascan).
The Ascan is displayed only once, even if it is obtained via different image
chains.
If a parent image is deleted from one of the chains that led to an Ascan, that
Ascan remains available for as long as the images of at least one other chain
leading to it also remains.
Figure 33 : Configuration
The following figure shows the resulting image for this example, along with the
six names of its possible "daughter" images.
The image depicts the amplitude of the strongest echo obtained for all the
sequences and all the shots defined at each position.
"Daughter" images:
• no fixed parameter:
Dscan abscissa: time (sampling number), ordinate: increment (line)
Figure 40 : Dscan
Then is the editing window being displayed for the selected filter; from this
editing window, processing can then be performed on the initial scan (par
“Signal processing” editing window description/ Command buttons).
Processing will be further performed on other scans such as B-scan or C-scan
by selecting the “Apply” option of the “Processing” menu. This option appears
with the name of the filter as soon as this one has been applied from its editing
window.
Another way to apply signal processing filters is to save them in files from the
editing windows and then call the “load’ menu which enables you to access to
any already-defined filter.
The four last filters don’t need parameters, so their configuration interface is
reduced to the input signal graph and the filtered signal graph (Output signal).
Regarding to the others, a particular interface for each of then will be described
in the paragraph “Description of Filters and Filter parameters”.
Figure 446 : example of signal processing editing window with a reference signal
The ‘Cancel’ button closes the window without applying the linked
processing.
At each new opening of the editing window, the system will increment of
one point the name of the processing to define. The user may choice
another name before applying or saving his linked processing.
• The third view entitled "Output signal" (see figure below) containing the
filtered A-scan as a function of the displayed parameters. The complete
current signal is processed, without taking into account the time limits
applied to the current A-scan. Here, filtering low frequencies clearly
improves the signal-to-noise ratio.
The parameters panel (left center of the window) provides access to the
parameters required to construct the band pass filter.
“Taper”: the weighting function is used in "flat top" mode and is separated
into two edges connected by a straight line segment. This parameter is
related to the segment length and consequently to the slopes of rising and
falling edges, at fixed cutoff frequencies. The value of this parameter varies
from 0, for a zero-length segment, to 100 for a rectangular function. A
rectangular-shaped weighting function seems ideal, since it strictly excludes
outside contributions without affecting the others. However, a sharp break in
the band pass results in a degraded signal. It is thus useful to "attenuate"
the gradients of function rising and falling edges.
2.4.1.5.2 Low-pass
Description and use
This filter is defined in the same way as the band pass filter (in frequency
after a Fourier transform).
With this filter, the band pass frequency of the current signal can be limited
and weighted for low frequencies. It is then possible to reduce the influence
of high frequency noise and to improve the signal-to-noise ratio.
Parameters
Selecting this filter opens a window called "Signal processing” with “Low-
pass” option in the filters list. In this window, the left central panel allows
setting of the weighting function parameters. Any modification of one of the
parameters immediately updates the filter and the various associated signal
views. Three signal representations are associated with this editing panel:
• An A-scan view (see figure below) containing the “Input signal”. Part of
this signal can be selected by two blue cursors: outside samples are
considered to be zero. The cursor positions are set with the mouse and
their values will appear in µs on the cursor if the context option “cursors
with measure” is selected (right click on the cursor).
• A view entitled “Reference signal spectrum" (see figure below)
containing the Fourier transform modulus of the edited signal selected in
the preceding view. The defined filter is represented in red in this view.
The maximum filter frequency can be specified by a green cursor in the
same view. The corresponding value in MHz is displayed to the right of
the cursor when “Cursor with measure” context option is selected. The
values are also displayed in the parameters panel at the left center of
the window, after the label "Upper frequency". This value is set either by
entering it into the editing box or by moving the green cursor with the
mouse, directly on the screen.
• An A-scan editing view “Output signal” (see figure below) containing the
A-scan, filtered as a function of the displayed parameters. The complete
current signal is processed, without accounting for the time limits applied
to the current A-scan.
The parameters panel (left center of the window) gives access to the
parameters required to construct the low pass filter.
“Taper”: the weighting function is used in "flat top" mode and can start with
a right hand segment. This parameter is linked to the length of the segment
and thus to the slopes of rising and falling edges, at a fixed cutoff
frequency. The value of this parameter varies from 0, for a zero-length
segment, to 100 for a rectangular function.
The previous example (cf figure Low-Pass editing window) shows how to
get rid of high frequency noise.
2.4.1.5.3 Rejector
Description and use
This filter is defined and applied in the frequency domain after a Fourier
transform of the current signal. The computation consists of multiplying
signal frequency spectrum components by a weighting function that can be
parameterized. The filtered signal is the inverse Fourier transform modulus
of this product.
With this filter, it is possible to suppress components located within the
transducer pass band, thus favoring certain signal contributions.
Parameters
Selecting this filter opens a window called "Signal processing” with
“Rejector” option in the filters list. In this window, the left central panel
allows setting of the weighting function parameters. Any modification of one
of the parameters immediately updates the filter and the various associated
signal views. Three signal representations are associated with this editing
panel:
• An A-scan view (see figure below) containing the “Input signal”. Part of
this signal can be selected by two blue cursors: outside samples are
considered to be zero. The cursor positions are set with the mouse and
their values will appear in µs on the cursor if the context option “cursors
with measure” is selected (right click on the cursor).
• A view entitled “Reference signal spectrum" (see figure below)
containing the Fourier transform modulus of the edited signal selected in
the preceding view. The defined filter is represented in red in the same
view. The minimum and maximum filter frequencies can be specified
using the two green cursors. The corresponding values appear on the
cursors as soon as “Cursor with measure” context menu has been
selected; the values appear as well in the parameters panel on the left of
the window, in the editing box named “Lower frequency" and "Upper
frequency". These frequencies are set either by entering their values in
the editing box or, directly, by displacing the cursors with the mouse.
• An A-scan editing view “Output signal” (see figure below) containing the
A-scan, filtered as a function of the displayed parameters. The complete
current signal is processed, without accounting for the time limits applied
to the current A-scan.
The parameters panel (left center of the window) provides access to the
parameters required to construct the rejector filter.
• Hamming
• Triangular
• Rectangular
“Taper”: the weighting function is used in "flat top" mode and is separated
into two edges connected by a straight line segment. This parameter is
related to the segment length and consequently to the slopes of rising and
falling edges, at fixed cutoff frequencies. The value of this parameter varies
from 0, for a zero-length segment, to 100 for a rectangular function. A
rectangular-shaped weighting function seems ideal, since it strictly excludes
outside contributions without affecting the others. However, a sharp break in
rejector results in a degraded signal. It is thus useful to "attenuate" the
gradients of function rising and falling edges.
Thanks to the ‘Rejector’, high frequency noise can be filtered. The next
views show the effect of the Upper frequency value.
parameters immediately updates the filter and the various associated signal
views. Two signal representations are associated with this editing panel:
• An A-scan view (see figure below) containing the “Input signal”: current
signal from the original scan.
• The last view displays the A-scan corrected for distance amplitude.
Time/amplitude correction values appear as yellow dots (the red dot is
the one being edited). Dot can be added/modified using the mouse. A
click on the curve adds a dot, whose time and/or amplitude is modified
by dragging it to the desired position. To delete a dot, use the "delete"(X)
button on the vertical toolbar in the left parameters panel. (see par
below)
The parameters panel (left center of the window) lists the dots required to
construct the DAC filter. For each dot, the time value is displayed in μs and
enables to set the dot on the horizontal axe; the amplitude correction value
is a gain in dB which allows processing dot position on the corrected A-
scan.
On the right of the list, a toolbar allows defining the dots for the DAC.
Thanks to it, adding, suppression or changing order of the dots is allowed.
A click on the ‘+’ button of the toolbar adds a new dot with its time and
amplitude correction value. Time value is the one of its position on the
horizontal axe, the default correction value is null. A click on the ‘->’ button
inserts a new dot after the selected line. A click on the ‘x’ button allows
suppression of the selected dot. The two arrows buttons allows moving up
or down the selection in the list.
At the very bottom of the list two buttons ‘Signal-centered display’ and
‘DAC-centered display’ are provided to adjust the display to show the full
signal or the part of it that is corrected for distance amplitude (thus enabling
finer changes/adjustments).
Using DAC filter enables to show particular zones of the graph. Next
example, on a scanning-time processed, scan enables to particularize two
specific echoes.
2.4.1.5.5 Subtraction
Description and use
This type of processing consists of subtracting a reference signal from the
current signal. The filtered signal is obtained by subtracting reference signal
sample amplitudes from those of current signal samples.
This filter can be used to suppress a permanent echo or to detect any echo
masked by a permanent echo.
Parameters
Selecting this filter opens a window called "Signal processing” with
“Subtraction” option in the filters list. This window enables you to set a
reference signal from the parameters editing panel. Any modification of one
of the reference signal parameters (‘min time’ or ‘max time’) immediately
updates the filter and the various associated signal views. Three signal
representations are associated with this editing panel:
• An A-scan view (see figure below) containing the “Input signal”: current
signal from the original scan.
• A view entitled "Reference signal" (see figure below) containing the
reference signal (cf Signal processing” editing window
description/reference signal). Part of the signal in this representation
can be selected with the two green cursors: samples outside this region
are considered to be zero. Cursor positions are set with the mouse. The
corresponding values appear on the cursors as soon as “Cursor with
measure” context menu has been selected; the values appear as well in
the parameters panel on the left of the window, in the editing box named
“min Time" and "max time". These values are set either by entering their
values in the editing box or, directly, by displacing the cursors with the
mouse.
• An A-scan view “Output signal” containing the A-scan, filtered as a
function of the reference signal parameters.
The parameters panel gives access to the "Min. time" and "Max time"
parameters required to construct the reference signal. It also provides
command button to choose a new reference signal (cf Signal processing”
editing window description/reference signal).
• Reference signal:
• Reference signal selection buttons: The default reference signal is
identical to the current signal, but the latter can be modified by clicking
the "New" button. “Load” button will be later implemented.
• Min time value: defines a minimum time limit for the reference signal.
This value is set by entering it in the box or by displacing the
corresponding cursor directly on the reference A-scan with the mouse.
• Max time value: defines a maximum time limit for the reference signal.
This value is set by entering it in the box or by displacing the
corresponding cursor directly on the reference A-scan with the mouse.
• Parameters:
• Noise level: defines the noise level below which the echoes are no
longer analyzed.
• Signal variance: defines deconvoluted signal variance. This
corresponds to the sum of the square of the ratios of signal echo and
wavelet amplitudes. If the selected wavelet corresponds to the highest
amplitude echo, the signal variance will be close to 1.
• Echoes number: defines the number of estimated echoes in the input
signal.
• Output type:
Parameters
Selecting this filter opens a window called "Signal processing” with
“Parametric deconvolution” option in the filters list. This window enables you
to set a reference signal as well as deconvolution parameters from the
parameters editing panel. Any modification of one of these immediately
updates the filter and the various associated signal views. Four signal
representations are associated with this editing panel:
• An A-scan view (see figure below) containing the “Input signal”: current
signal from the original scan.
• A view entitled "Reference signal" (see figure below) containing the
reference signal (cf Signal processing” editing window
description/reference signal). This view enables display of the
reference signal and selection of its regions of interest, using the two
green cursors. Cursor positions are set with the mouse. The
corresponding values appear on the cursors as soon as “Cursor with
measure” context menu has been selected; the values appear as well in
the parameters panel on the left of the window, in the editing box named
“Min time value" and "Max time value". These values are set either by
entering their values in the editing box or, directly, by displacing the
cursors with the mouse.
• A view entitled "Reference signal spectrum" (see figure below)
containing the Fourier transform modulus of the edited signal selected in
the preceding view.
• An A-scan view “Output signal” (see figure below) containing the
filtered input signal. Its contents depend on the type of output selected in
the parameter panel (see par below : Parameters ).
The parameters panel (left central part of previous figure) provides access
to the parameters defining the reference echo and the ideal spectrum shape
and is thus divided into sections designated "Reference signal" (cf Signal
processing” editing window description/reference signal) and
"Weighting Function".
• Reference signal:
• Reference signal selection buttons: The default reference signal is
identical to the current signal, but the latter can be modified by clicking
the "New" button. “Load” button will be later implemented.
• Min time value: defines a minimum time limit for the reference signal.
This value is set by entering it in the box or by displacing the
corresponding cursor directly on the reference A-scan with the mouse.
• Max time value: defines a maximum time limit for the reference signal.
This value is set by entering it in the box or by displacing the
corresponding cursor directly on the reference A-scan with the mouse.
• Parameters:
• Noise level: defines the noise level below which the echoes are no
longer analyzed.
• Min value between echoes: the algorithm looks for echoes until the
maximum number of echoes (next parameter) is reached or the
determined echo has amplitude below the noise level.
The search can be interrupted on determination of two echoes with
arrival times shifted by less than the value set by the "Min shift between
echoes" parameter (e.g. where a value of 0.5 indicates that a shift
greater than half of reference signal duration is authorized)
• Max signal Nb: this parameter sets the maximum number of echoes.
• Output type:
• Impulse response: the signal as convoluted with the reference signal is
the same as the input signal.
Parameters
Selecting this filter opens a window called "Signal processing” with “Split
spectrum processing” option in the filters list. This window enables you to
set spectrum sectioning parameters. Any modification of one of these
parameters immediately updates the filter and the various associated signal
views. Four signal representations are associated with this editing panel:
• An A-scan view (see figure below) containing the “Input signal”: current
signal from the original scan.
• A view entitled "Reference signal spectrum" (see figure below)
containing the Fourier transform modulus of the selected signal and the
weighting windows (plotted in red) for sectioning. Sectioning zone limits
can be defined by the two green cursors. The corresponding values
appear on the cursors as soon as “Cursor with measure” context menu
has been selected; the values appear as well in the parameters panel on
the left of the window, in the editing box named “Lower frequency" and
Parameters:
• Lower frequency: defines the lower frequency limit of sectioning zone.
This value is set by entering it in the box or by displacing the
corresponding cursor directly on the reference signal spectrum with the
mouse.
• Upper frequency: defines the upper frequency limit of sectioning zone.
This value is set by entering it in the box or by displacing the
corresponding cursor directly on the reference signal spectrum with the
mouse.
Processing type:
• Evaluation of coherence: selection of processing for evaluation of sub-
signal sample consistency at any time. Three processing options are
proposed:
• "Initial value" gives the sample initial value.
• "Minimum" gives the sample minimum value.
• "Mean value" computes the sample average value.
• "mean square" computes the average of the squares of sample
values. This option cannot be associated with the "Squares of shots"
option.
• Nature of the under-signals: determines the type of under-signal to be
processed. Two processing options are proposed:
• "Ascan" designates raw sub-signals.
• "Squared Ascan" designates squared sub-signals. This option cannot
be associated with the "Average of squares" option.
Criterion of polarity: validates selection of a polarity criterion. There are
three possible choices:
• "Raw Ascan" signifies that the polarity criterion is not applied. All the
samples are processed.
• "Polarity + level..." signifies that the processing is applied only if all the
samples at any given time have the same sign. In the opposite case, the
resulting value is zero. This application is coupled with a gage
designated by "Threshold (%)", which appears if the polarity criterion is
selected.
• "Consecutive Polarity Coincidence (CPC)": At any given time, the
polarities of the split signals originating from subsequent frequency
bands constitute a binary sequence. Processing takes place only if the
maximum length of the subsequent, consecutive polarity coincidence,
when compared to the total number of frequencies, is greater than the
"Threshold (%)" (9) appearing if the CPC criterion is selected. In the
opposite case, the resulting value is zero.
Normalization:
• Auto: validates the automatic gain computation mode
• Magnitude of the filtered signal: adjusting the amplitude of the filtered
signal. The displayed gain value can be adjusted by entering it
numerically or by using the adjacent buttons. This amplitude is
automatically normalized by default to follow that of the initial signal. This
default operating mode is validated if button ‘Auto’ is pressed.
Applying split spectrum processing to the initial scanning-time scan permits
to particularize the interesting echoes.
2.4.1.5.10 Wavelets
Description and use
Transformation into wavelets is a time-frequency analysis method based on
decomposition of the signal into a sequence of wavelets generated by
expansion and translation of the analyzing wavelet. Efficient analyses can
be made with this transformation thanks to accurate localization of the
signals in terms of both time and frequency. Transformation into continuous
wavelets is achieved by subdividing each octave of the dyadic
decomposition into several channels. This makes possible a proportionately
finer analysis in the time-frequency plane. Moreover, decomposition into
wavelets is reversible. It thus also enables definition of processing options
in the time-frequency plane and reconstruction of the signal from this same
plane.
The first application of "Wavelet" processing is simultaneous time and
frequency analysis of the signal. This three-dimensional representation
(signal energy or phase as a function of time and frequency) allows efficient
detection of the instantaneous pass bands linked to different echoes of the
same signal. This analysis facilitates the selection of possible signal
filtering. Two types of filtering are performed using this transformation: the
first corresponds to a pass band limitation using the frequency
decomposition interval (equivalent to a band pass filter), while the second,
more specific, is equivalent to applying an energy threshold to the
coefficients constituting the wavelets. Reconstructing the signal from the
remaining coefficients makes possible improving the signal-to- noise ratio or
attenuating the large-amplitude perturbing echoes.
Parameters
Selecting this filter opens a window called "Signal processing” with
“Wavelets” option in the filters list. This window enables you to set signal
decomposition parameters and then signal reconstruction parameters. Any
modification of one of these parameters immediately updates the filter and
the various associated signal views. Four signal representations are
associated with this editing panel:
• An A-scan view (see figure below) containing the “Input signal”: current
signal from the original scan.
• A view entitled "Reference signal spectrum" (see figure below)
containing the Fourier transform modulus of the selected. The
decomposition interval can be defined with the two green cursors. The
corresponding values appear on the cursors as soon as “Cursor with
measure” context menu has been selected; the values appear as well in
the parameters panel on the left of the window, in the editing box named
“Lower frequency" and "Upper frequency". These values are set by
entering them numerically or by directly displacing the cursors using the
mouse. In actual fact, only the maximum frequency can be precisely set
by the operator: minimum frequency is computed so as to obtain an
integral number of octaves between these two limits.
• A view entitled “BmScan” (see figure below) containing the moduli or the
phases of the wavelets generated by the decomposition. The horizontal
axis of this representation is the time (identical to the A-scan
representations) and the vertical axis the frequency, with low
frequencies shown at the bottom of the image. The amplitude is given by
a color code adapted to the representation mode. In this example, the
echo is easily identified by its time position and its high coefficient
values. In addition, this representation clearly shows that echo
coefficient frequencies are lower than those linked to noise.
• A view entitled “Output signal” (see figure below) containing the A-scan
filtered signal. The example in figure 23 Wavelets filter editing
window shows the signal reconstructed from coefficients above a
predefined threshold. The signal-to-noise ratio is improved and there is
no change in echo form.
• Parameters:
The filter defined in the previous figure Wavelets filter editing window,
applied on the following scan shows how the decomposition in wavelets
enables to improve the signal to noise ratio.
Figure 466 : Scanning/time scan from which processing has been defined
2.4.1.5.11 Rectified
Description and use
This type of processing gives the absolute value of the current signal
amplitude, which is equivalent to rectifying the negative half waves of a
sinusoidal-type signal. No parameter is needed in this case.
The rectified signal is of interest only if it is associated with another
processing operation such as segmentation of B-scan images. In signal
processing, this filter can be combined with a band pass filter (constructed
using the "Band pass" filter). The user thus obtains an envelope
computation that can be parameterized.
2.4.2 Segmentation
2.4.2.1 Objective
The goal of the segmentation algorithm is to group signals that come from the
same defect or part of a defect. This grouping is based on an algorithm that
ensures a more efficient association than a geometrical one (only based on
geometrical proximity).
Once the grouping is done, a list of groups can be manipulated and exported in
an Ascii format.
The call for the segmentation process can be made from an image presenting a
BScan (mechanical scanning, electronic scanning – sequences or shots).
If the cursors are on a signal representing a defect that you wish to group,
press on Reset button, which will initiate default values.
Then click on the “Auto” option (right bottom corner), which will ensure an
immediate calculation and display of the segments in the scan as shown in the
figures below (the image on the right is a zoom of the left one).
At that time, the segmentation has only been calculated for the opened scan.
This lets you adapt parameters without having to process a large amount of
data.
You may now display this result on other 2D images or in the 3D scene.
On CScan :
Various possibilities are offered in the 3D scene (mask some groups, represent
segments, max amplitude points of groups or segments, number for groups…),
just right click on group envelopes to select them.
Once the groups have been calculated, you can work on the group list
(selections, group information…) and built a report by selecting “Group
managing…” in the parameters menu of the segmented scan.
With the button “Sort”, you can select the fields used to sort the list of groups.
With the button “Group fields”, you can select the columns you want on the
screen (the same columns will be exported in the ASCII file). The choice
proposed is really wide, even encompassing box sizes are proposed for
example.
You have the same choice for segments.
Finally, you can export all the groups or the selection (see below) in an ASCII
file. The format is easy and an excel sheet has been made to ease opening
these reports, you can download it from CIVA Club web site.
This allows to create formulas in order to make automatic selections in the list
of groups.
Then you can choose to display (in views and in exported report) the selected
groups or all the groups.
In part 1, you choose the field that will be compared to a numerical value.
In part 2, you select the type of comparison and the numerical value (please
strike the “enter” key after entering the numerical value then “add rule” by
clicking on the button).
In part 3, the rules are copied, with “And” or “Or” as you wish.
As an example, we make the rule: select groups with max amplitude over -3dB.
The result is shown below; red groups do not correspond to the rule and
disappear if in “Groups view” you choose “selected”
You can of course save in a file your rules or segmentation parameters in order
to use them for another file.
This ends the “Getting started” chapter for the use of segmentation.
2.4.2.3 Description
2.4.2.3.1 Adjusting parameters
2.4.2.3.1.1 To start
As described in the “Getting Started” chapter, if you wish to use
segmentation, you first have to open a “Segmented Bscan” from a
classical BScan. Segmentation can be applied on experimental data or
simulated data (defect response module).
Once this image is opened, you can call the parameters dialog box
through the menu “Parameter” and sub menu “Segmentation
Parameters…”.
First, if you want to see in real time the effect of the modifications you
make in segmentation parameters, please select “Auto” option (number
10 in the next chapter image).
2.4.2.3.1.1.1 2D Segmentation
Important Warning : In CIVA 9.0 version, the fixed shot option is not
available.
For each choice, the Ascan (8) is modified to show the effect of the
choice made.
• "All maximum time smoothing": For each shot, all the maxima
are taken, regardless of whether or not the processing threshold is
crossed in the interval between them.
• "Wavefront": For each shot, all the points for which the signal
leading edge crosses the amplitude threshold are taken.
• Threshold (5) :
The processing threshold is an amplitude criterion. This criterion can
be entered manually in the relevant field or adjusted using the current
Ascan cursor (display in the lower zone of the panel (8)).
This parameter deletes any points whose amplitude is not considered
representative for the desired type of processing.
For a given shot, all the points below the threshold are therefore
eliminated.
Clicking on the “Reset” button will adjust the threshold to half of the
maximum amplitude of the current Ascan in (8).
The default value set for this parameter is one period of the probe
frequency (if known).
2.4.2.3.1.3.1 Principle
Each segment on line "k" is compared to each segment on line "k-1",
to form a group, as a function of the two grouping parameters. In each
processed line, the segments form new groups or are added to groups
already formed.
A group is thus made up of segments contained in one or more
consecutive scan lines. A group consists of at least one line, with at
least one segment having a minimum of two points.
2.4.2.3.1.3.2 Parameters
• Dy dimension (1) :
In this field, you can choose the direction in which you want to create
groups between segments.
• Dy (3) :
Along the Dy dimension selected, define the number of steps in this
direction authorised to find a segment corresponding to other
parameters (2 and 4).
Select the dimensions on which you wish to limit by clicking in the “Active
column” in front of selected dimension. Enter values in the Min and Max
columns or adjust on the CScan the red cursors that can be selected by
CTRL+Click.
The CScan displays segmentation results, obtained only for the red
rectangle area.
If you want to apply these parameters on the whole data, just uncheck
“Active” column, the segmentation will run on the whole data.
• Segments
• Maximum amplitude point of the segment
• Drawing of group outline (projection in the selected plan of the 3D
group)
• Maximum amplitude point of the group (if some points have the same
value, the “first” one is selected). The number of the group is displayed
near this point.
2.4.2.3.2.2 3D Display
All the groups are then represented in the active scene, as shown below.
Some options are available for this 3D display. They are called though a
RIGHT CLICK on the envelope of each group:
2.4.2.3.3.1 Principles
This tool has several objectives:
• To display information on each group
By clicking on the (+) present at the beginning of each line, you will see
the segment characteristics of the group.
You can choose among the proposed characteristics those that you want
to display.
Click on the characteristic in the left part (a4), click on the arrow (a1), this
characteristic goes in the right part (a5) and will be displayed in the main
window.
Choose a characteristic you want to hide in the right part (a5), click on
the arrow (a2), this characteristics goes in the left part (a4) and
disappear from the main window.
The order of the columns in the main window can be changed with
arrows in part (a6).
The same kind of dialog box can be opened for segments, button (4) of
group management window.
You can select the key fields to sort the list in the same manner as in the
previous paragraph.
You have to open formula edition by clicking on the black triangle shown
below:
Name Definition
Amplitude max (dB) Maximum amplitude of the group in dB
Amplitude max (%) Maximum amplitude of the group in %
Measures count by group Number of measurement points kept in all the segments of the group
Segments count by group Number of segments kept in the group
X Position in X (or Y or Z) of the point of maximum amplitude of the group
Y
Z
Increment Position in Increment of the point of maximum amplitude of the group
Scanning Position in Scanning of the point of maximum amplitude of the group
Sequence Sequence number containing the point of maximum amplitude of the group
Shot Shot number containing the point of maximum amplitude of the group
Time Time of flight of the point of maximum amplitude of the group
DX (st) Dimension along the X (or Y or Z) axis between extremities of the group
DY (st) calculated at the amplitude threshold of segmentation
DZ (st)
DX (-6dB) Dimension along the X (Y or Z) axis between extremities of the group
DY (-6dB) calculated at -6dB from the maximum amplitude point of the group (a “/” is
DZ (-6dB) displayed when calculation is not possible, ie when max amplitude of the
group is less than 6dB over segmentation threshold)
Xmin Position for the corresponding axis (X, Y, Z…) of the first point of the
Ymin group.
Zmin
Scan min
Inc min
Time min
Xmax Position for the corresponding axis (X, Y, Z…) of the last point of the group.
Ymax
Zmax
Scan max
Inc max
Time max
X min (-6dB) Position for the corresponding axis (X, Y, Z…) of the first point of the group
Y min (-6dB) which amplitude is -6dB of the maximum amplitude of the group.
Z min (-6dB) (a “/” is displayed when calculation is not possible, ie when max amplitude
Scan min (-6dB) of the group is less than 6dB over segmentation threshold)
Inc min (-6dB)
Time min (-6dB)
X max (-6dB) Position for the corresponding axis (X, Y, Z…) of the last point of the group
Y max (-6dB) which amplitude is -6dB of the maximum amplitude of the group.
Z max (-6dB) (a “/” is displayed when calculation is not possible, ie when max amplitude
Scan max (-6dB) of the group is less than 6dB over segmentation threshold)
Inc max (-6dB)
Time max (-6dB)
Group number Number attributed to the group by segmentation calculation (unique)
Then select an operator between those displayed (<, >, >=, <=, =, <>).
Then enter a numerical value in the field called “value” and press
“enter”.
Then press the button “Add rule”. The formula is added in the part (3) of
the window and the selection is made.
In the lower part of the window, you can choose between “Group view:
all or Selected”.
If you choose Selected, then only green groups remains in the list and
2D and 3D display are updated with these information (not selected
groups disappear).
Note that you can combine rules with AND (“Et”) and OR (“Ou”) key
words.
Export in an ASCII file the result by pressing the button called “Export to
ASCII…”.
Note that information about segments and points of the segments can be
added to the report if needed.
3 CIVA ECT
3.1 CIVA ECT Module - Setup
3.1.1 Specimen
3.1.1.1 "Canonical" test pieces
ECT models available in CIVA are semi-analytical and dedicated to the ECT
simulation of workpieces with canonical geometries. Hence the workpiece’s
geometry is selected by the user in a list located on top of the Specimen
window, see figures below. Choices available are:
• Plane: in this case the workpiece is a plate with finite depth (Z axis) and
infinite length and width (Y and X axes, respectively). If the option
Homogeneous is selected, then the plate has only one layer. Otherwise, if
the Multilayer option is selected, then the plate may contain an arbitrary
number of layers with various depths and conductivities.
• Cylinder: In this the workpiece consists in a tube or a bar. It may contain
only one layer, but it can be ferromagnetic (with a relative magnetic
permeability that differs from 1).
• Bore: This special geometry concerns a multilayer medium that contains a
through-wall hole. This case is dedicated to configurations involving for
instance a fastener in a layered plate.
• 2D CAD / 3D CAD: The workpiece can also be defined with a CAD file
describing its geometry. It is important to note that in this case the model will
locally approximate the workpiece’s geometry with a plane or a cylindrical
one. If the approximation is not reasonable, then no calculation will be
performed.
Pick
« Plane »
Homogeneous Specimen
« Homogeneous Specimen»
configuration is pre-selected
Fill in :
Length (L),
Width (l),
Height / Thickness (h).
A two-layered specimen is
pre-selected
Fill in
Length (L),
Width (l)
Fill in
for each layer
Thickness
Fill in
for each layer
Thickness
For a cylindrical geometry, the required dimensions are outer diameter, tube
length (indicative value used for display purposes only), thickness or inner
radius.
Pick
« Cylinder »
Fill in :
Outer Diameter,
Length (L),
Thickness (e),
Inner Radius (Rint).
Pick
« 2D CAD »
Load a file
by clicking on
then
Select 3D extrusion
• Linear
• Circular
then
Fill in
3D extension (e).
Pick
« 3D CAD »
Load a file
by clicking on
then
Select or not
Display mesh
then
Fill in
X
Y
Z
Rotation /X
Rotation /Y
Rotation /Z
Pick
« Bore »
A two-layered structure is
pre-selected
Fill in :
« Characteristics »
Length (L),
Width (l)
Fill in :
« Rivet »
Head Diameter
Head Thickness
Body Diameter
Body Height
X Coordinate
Y Coordinate
(Rivet center coordinate)
Fill in
Thickness
Fill in
for each layer
Thickness
Electromagnetic parameters for the materials making up the piece are then
entered via the "Material" panel. A material can be selected from the Civa
materials base or keyed in by the user. A new material can also be defined and
saved to the materials base. The material for the case of a flat, CAD or bore
specimen is nonmagnetic. The cylindrical specimen, however, are allowed to
be also magnetic, i.e. their (relative) permeability can be greater than 1.
Fill in
for each layer
Conductivity
Permeability
Or
Clicking on
Fill in
« Name »
then Click on
Fill in
Samples along X
Samples along Z
3.1.2 Sensor
This panel contains all the geometric properties of the eddy current probe. The
probe is basically made up of a set of sensors such as the toroidal coil depicted in
Figure 506. Sensors shapes and positioning depend on the geometry of the
workpiece considered: for instance, in the case of a flat piece (see previous
section), sensors may include a ferrite core (with a constant magnetic
permeability), whereas in the case of a cylindrical piece, only punctual sensors
may have one. Available sensors configurations are detailed below in the case of
flat and cylindrical workpieces, respectively.
The different coil operating modes (absolute mode, separate T/R mode, etc.) and
type of driving current are selected via the Acquisition window. Their respective
positions and orientations are defined in the Test window.
Inner and Outer diameters
Height
Figure 506: Typical sensor (toroidal coil) with its geometric properties. This sensor geometry is available in both
geometries (flat and cylindrical workpieces).
A list of sensors (which are always toroidal coils in the case of flat test
workpieces) composing the probe is displayed on top of the window. The name
of the active sensor is displayed in red and the corresponding sensor is
highlighted in green in the Defect Response window. Blue buttons on the left
of the list are used to add or remove sensors, and modify their position in the
list. The sensor defining the probe position is the one located on top of this list
(see the INSPECTION window). Characteristics of the active sensor are
detailed below the sensors list.
Figure 508: Core geometries available in the Ferrite tab: cylindrical, C shaped and E shaped.
Width
Internal Angular
radius extension
External
radius
Height
Figure 509: Description of a sectorial coil (this sensor geometry is only available for the ECT of cylindrical
workpieces). For the sake of clarity, internal and external radii are represented instead of internal and external
diameters (see Figure 5).
WARNING: If one or more sensors have a ferrite core, the entire calculation will
be done in planar geometry, considering an equivalent ECT configuration. This
approximation is only valid if the sensors dimensions are small with respect to
those of the tube; see the Theory section for more details. Moreover,
limitations exist in this case considering the sensors positioning, see
INSPECTION window.
3.1.3 Inspection
3.1.3.1 Introduction
The Inspection window is dedicated to the definition of each sensor’s position
as well as the displacement of the probe. Probe’s displacement is used only in
the Defect Response module and is defined with respect to the position of the
first sensor (located on top of the sensor’s list, see SENSOR window). Each
sensor’s position is defined by its reference point in the workpiece reference
frame. This reference point is always the intersection between the bottom of the
coil and its axis.
Descriptions given here for the various tabs apply to the ECT Defect Response
module. Any differences for the ECT Field Computation module are also
indicated. This section covers the various flat and cylindrical piece geometries
and also includes a typical test configuration for a CAD piece.
Active sensor
Distance between
the bottom of
the coil and
the slab’s surface
Figure 511: Description of the Position tab in the case of the plane geometry.
The Probe Position tab is presented in Figure 511. A list of sensors composing
the EC probe is given on top of it: the probe’s position is determined by that of
the first sensor of this list, which may be modified in the SENSOR window. The
active sensor is highlighted in red, and its characteristics are detailed at the
bottom of the tab. These parameters are x and y coordinates of the active
sensor, as well as the distance between its bottom and the top surface of the
slab. The bottom of the sensor is defined as the minimum of its winding and its
ferrite core, if any. Figure 512 illustrates this with an example of two coils with
the same Lift-off Value (0.4 mm).
Moreover, a new development in CIVA 9 allows air cored coils to be tilted with
respect to the Y axis. An example of a tilted sensor is provided in Figure 512.
This functionality is only available in the Defect Response module.
Figure 512: Example of two sensors positioning. The active sensor (highlighted in green) is tilted with an angle of
15°. The other one contains a ferrite core, thus it cannot be tilted. Both sensors have a lift-off parameter of 0.4 mm
(see Figure 511).
If the user clicks the button at the bottom of the tab (Visualization of the probe’s
position), then these positions are displayed at the bottom of the tab and the
user can see on the Defect Response window the evolution of the probe’s
scanning by moving sliders, as shown in Figure 514. In this example 21
positions are defined in the X direction, and 33 positions are defined in the Y
direction. Current position coordinates, (7 ; 14) for seventh along the Y direction
and fourteenth along the X direction, are displayed on top of the sliders.
Figure 514: Visualization of the probe’s positions with the Probe Displacement tab.
WARNINGS:
• If one coil composing the probe contains a ferrite core, then all sensors
must have a punctual configuration, that is Parallel to the revolution axis or
Perpendicular to the revolution axis, see Figure 516. The reason of this
limitation is that the cylindrical model of CIVA 9 cannot up to now handle
sensors with ferrite cores. In this particular case, a warning window will
appear and an equivalent calculation will be performed in planar
configuration. This approximation is valid only if sensors sizes are small with
respect to the tube’s diameters.
• In the Field Computation module, only the axial Configuration is available.
Encircling
Axial
Sectorial
Figure 515: Presentation of the Configuration tab in the cylindrical geometry: case of the axial configuration,
corresponding to encircling, axial and sectorial coils.
Figure 516: Coils’ positioning as punctual sensors: the coil’s axis is perpendicular to the tube’s axis. The
position with respect to the tube’s wall is chosen with the Inner/Outer parameter.
Once sensors configurations have been determined, the user can switch to the
Probe position tab, displayed in Figure 517 for both axial and punctual
configuration (the term punctual corresponds to the two equivalent options
Parallel to the revolution axis and Perpendicular to the revolution axis). In the
case of axial coils (internal or encircling), an eccentricity of the coil may be
added by changing the values of parameters R (mm) in the frame Center of
sensor, or Value, corresponding to the smallest distance separating the coil
and the tube, in the frame Lift-off. These two parameters are linked to each
other (a modification in one of them is reported automatically in the other).
Figure 517: Presentation of the Probe position panel in the cylindrical geometry. Internal and external axial coils
may be off-centered in this panel.
Figure 518: "Along profile" configuration for a CAD piece. In this case, the probe axis remains normal to the
profile throughout displacement.
The coordinates of the probe starting point are then expressed in a Cartesian
reference frame.
Figure 520: Probe displacement on a CAD piece with or without display of successive probe positions.
Figure 521: Defect Response window, positioning of the defect and a 3D view of the NDT configuration.
For cylindrical test pieces, the shape of the flaw may be a notch defined in a
cylindrical coordinate system or a flat-bottom hole. A though-wall hole can
be considered if the height of the hole is equal to the thickness of the tube.
Figure 528 : Mesh panel for choosing the number of cells used to mesh flaws in flat (left panel) or cylindrical test
pieces (right panel).
The choice of the number of cells is left to the user, since automatic generation
of a suitable mesh scheme would be usually too complex. However, some
general rules are usually admitted for meshing flaws.
Height Height
NZ = ou (flat piece),
δ /4 δ /8
or
Thickness Thickness
Nr = ou (cylindrical piece).
δ /4 δ /8
For flat pieces, the ligament (in mm) corresponds to the distance from the flaw
to the selected reference surface, which may be the surface (surface button) or
the backwall (Backwall button). For tubes of finite thickness, the reference
surface may be the inner surface (Inner button) or the outer surface (Outer
button) of the tube.
Figure 529 : Positioning tab in a flat piece (left) or in a cylinder piece (right).
Constitutive parameters of the flaw are defined via the “Material” tab. Generally,
it is assumed that the flaw is constituted by air: the conductivity is null and the
relative magnetic permeability is equal to one. If the case of an inclusion, the
flaw is characterized by a non null conductivity (measured in MS.m-1) which
must be introduced by clicking on the “Inclusion” button. For this version of
CIVA, it is possible to consider an inclusion of magnetic material only for the
cylindrical geometry.
For usual materials, the value of the conductivity can be loaded by clicking on
the opening button. Then, it is possible to choose a specific material.
3.1.5 Acquisition
The Acquisition window is accessible by clicking the Acquisition button at the
bottom of the Field Computation or Defect Response window. Last parameters are
set up in this window, before the calculation is run. These parameters are the
frequency, the functioning mode of the probe, and in the case of a Field
Computation, the coordinates of the points where the field is computed.
The section Observation Points located at the end of the window defines
coordinates at which the field will be computed. These coordinates are
expressed in a cylindrical coordinate system which corresponds to the coil
symmetry. For a plane geometry, the position Z = 0 corresponds to the outer
surface of the piece and, for a cylindrical piece, to the center of the coil along
this axis, as shown in Figure 532. The user defines the minimum and maximum
limits, as well as the number of points along both directions R and Z.
Sensor Z
Plate R Sensor
Tube
Figure 532: Cylindrical coordinates system used for the definition of observation points in the case of a flat or a
cylindrical workpiece, respectively.
Figure 533: EC Acquisition window in the case of the calculation of a Defect Response. Operative modes
corresponding to the active channel (the second one) are displayed in the lower part of the window.
In this example the calculation will be carried out at the frequency of 500 kHz,
the channel title is “Absolute coil 0” and the only sensor is driven by a current
with an amplitude of 1 A, a phase of 0 degree and operates as an emitter and a
receiver (with a multiplicative reception coefficient of 1). This operating mode is
called the absolute mode. The flaw signal phase reference is determined by the
excitation current in the transmitting coil.
Figure 535: Second test example, with separate mode eddy current sensor.
The reference coil labeled sensor n°1 is the transmitting coil, which is supplied
with current in the same way as above (1 A, 0 degree). The receiving signal is
obtained by weighting the two observation signals supplied by each of the two
coils. The flaw signal for "separate function mode" is obtained by entering
coefficients 0 and 1, which correspond to having only sensor n°2 as a receiver.
This operating mode is called separate mode.
Figure 536: third test example: differential sensor with opposingly-wound coils.
introduce the conductivity which links the electric field with the conduction
current density.
J =σ E (7)
Conductivity σ is also a scalar parameter. Permeability and conductivity
characterize the homogeneous medium. These two constitutive parameters are
also linked in the definition of the standard skin depth:
1
δ= .
π f σμ
This parameter characterizes the penetration depth in the conductor. It is
defined as the distance through which the amplitude of a plane wave exciting a
semi-infinite planar conductor is attenuated to 1 of its original amplitude at
e
the surface of the plate. The skin depth is very useful in ECNDT since it defines
the range in which currents or fields are assumed to exist. In this particular
ideal case, the amplitude of eddy currents decrease exponentially and the lag
in phase varies linearly.
Normalized Amplitude Lag in phase
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
0 0
0.5 0.5
1 1
1.5 1.5
2 2
2.5 2.5
3 3
3.5 3.5
4 4
4.5 4.5
-5 5
Figure 537: variations in the amplitude and in the lag in phase of eddy currents.
When a flaw is present, both the conductivity and the magnetic permeability
may naturally vary according to the spatial coordinates. They are denoted by
σ (r ) and μ (r ) . In particular, an air region is not conductive and thus exhibits
zero conductivity. Once a suitable coordinate system has been selected for the
piece under test, Maxwell equations can be written as a system of differential
equations associated with boundary conditions according to the geometry of
the piece. CIVA software deals with 3D geometries because a 3D volumetric
defect is considered in the workpiece. However, in order to develop the
theoretical aspects in a progressive way, the specific case of 2D geometries is
firstly presented before the development of the complete 3D semi-analytical
approach, which is integrated into CIVA.
3.2.1.4 3D geometries
3.2.1.4.1 Introduction
If the eddy current sensor has a tilt angle, for example, or if the piece
contains a 3D flaw, the geometry corresponds to a 3D problem which also
implies solving the Maxwell equations in 3D.
These equations are valid regardless of the coordinate system selected.
The type of piece tested also determines the coordinate system, which is
Cartesian for a flat piece, cylindrical for a tube or a bar. The Maxwell
equations are thus transformed into a system of partial differential equations
associated with boundary conditions. The modeling problem then consists
in solving this system. Our semi-analytical approach derives first the
analytical expression of a specific solution for these partial differential
equations, and then it computes numerically a more general solution. This
approach is described in the following paragraphs.
Current source
(harmonic regime)
Pulsation ω
Target: Non homogeneous
medium
The electric field E(r) and the magnetic field are governed by a set of
equations:
∇ × E(r ) = j ω μ (r ) H (r )
∇ × H (r ) = σ (r ) E(r ) + J s (r )
This vectorial set of equations is naturally associated with boundary
conditions. In the case of interest here, the field must be canceled at infinity:
these are the radiation conditions at infinity.
For a homogeneous target which conductivity and permeability equal that of
the surrounding medium, a primary electric field E p (r ) , i.e. the field
produced by the same source within domain D and a primary magnetic
field H p (r ) , are defined by:
∇ × E p (r ) = j ω μ 0 H p (r )
∇ × H p (r ) = σ 0 E p (r ) + J s (r )
By subtracting the two sets of equations, one obtains the equations for the
perturbation field:
∇ × E s (r ) = j ω μ 0 H s (r ) + j ω [μ (r ) − μ 0 ]H (r )
∇ × H s (r ) = σ 0 E s (r ) + [σ (r ) − σ 0 ] E(r )
With:
E s (r ) = E(r ) − E p (r ) and H s (r ) = H (r ) − H p (r ) .
tensor is defined according the nature of the source term and the field to be
__ ( pq )
computed. The dyad G (r, r ' ) is introduced where p stands for the nature
of the field to be computed and q denotes the nature of the source term. p, q
may be equal to e for the electric field and m for the magnetic field.
In the particular case when the medium is non magnetic, this equation
becomes:
Figure 540: a NDT configuration implying an embedded flaw in a conductive media. The interface
air-conductor introduces new boundary conditions which must be satisfied.
This integral equation can only be solved numerically, since field E(r) is
located both inside and outside the integral. The result of the computation
process then also becomes numerical.
Three steps are thus required to solve the global modeling problem:
• Computation of primary field E p (r ) in a flaw free zone, with a domain D
considered homogeneous. This step depends on the piece geometry
and on the current sources,
__ ( pq )
• Computation of Green's tensor G (r, r ' ) . This step depends on the
piece geometry and boundary conditions at infinity.
• Numerical resolution of the integral volume equation with allowance for
local conductivity changes and/or local variations of the permeability in
the investigated domain D .
Js ( r )
Sources
E p (r)
Figure 541: computation of the incident field in a flaw zone assumed to be flaw free, in the
presence of a current source.
This step consists in computing the interaction of the flaw with the currents
induced by the probe’s excitation. It provides the electromagnetic state of
the flawed material, by determining the density of flaw-induced fictitious
currents, modeled as local changes in conductivity and/or permeability.
While of no real physical significance, the computed currents serve to
transform what was initially a physical problem into an auxiliary problem that
replaces both the sensor and the zone analyzed with a slab alone,
containing a fictitious current source. The particularity of fictitious currents is
that they are null in the homogeneous zone around the flaw and non null
within the flaw. This is why only the flaw zone needs to be meshed.
Receiving coils
OR
Figure 543: Computation of sensor response based on excitation coil terminal impedance or EMF
at receiving coil terminals
The trans-impedance is deduced from the formula:
I m I nδZ (ω ) = j ω μ 0 ∫ D E R primary (r ' ) [σ (r ' ) − σ 0 ] E(r ' ) d r '
Where E R primary (r ' ) stands for the primary field which would be generated by
the pick-up coil is considering that it is an emitting coil.
For a conductive media, considering that the flaw is detected by local variation
the conductivity, we define the conductivity contrast function:
σ − σ (r )
fσ (r ) = α (r ) 0 .
σ0
A permeability contrast function is also defined in the case of a magnetic
material:
μ − μ (r )
f μ (r ) = α (r ) 0 .
μ0
These functions, which are introduced in integral equations presented in
section 3.2.1.4.2, describe local variations of electrical conductivity and
magnetic permeability in the workpiece, and thus the flaw geometry. As the
flaw is meshed in discrete cells defined in the coordinate system associated to
the workpiece (cartesian system in the case of a flat piece, and cylindrical
system in the case of a cylindrical piece), their form are parallelepipedic or
cylindrical. Therefore, if the flaw is not a parallelepiped (case of a flat
workpiece) or a cylindrical notch (case of a cylindrical workpiece), see FLAW
window, the discrete zone D does not match exactly the flaw’s shape. In these
cases, contrast functions expressions are multiplied by a function α(r), taking
the flaw geometry into account. If the discrete zone D matches the flaw’s
shape, then α(r)=1.
3.2.1.6 General system of state equations to solve for the one layer case
Expressions of dyads used in these equations are given in the next section.
This system of two equations is solved using the Method of Moments and leads
to the determination of the electric and magnetic fields inside the meshed zone
D. The following paragraphs develop the specificities which are appropriated to
both NDT geometries addressed in CIVA. The first application concerns the
planar one.
3.2.2.1 Computation of the primary field for a single air-core coil and for
stratified medium
If the coil is not tilted, then the primary electric field is computed using
symmetry about the coil’s axis, as explained in section 3.2.1.3. When the coil is
tilted with respect to the slab, see Figure 544, a modal approach is used.
Z
Sensor
Plate R
Figure 544: Computation of the primary electric field emitted by a tilted coil.
considering three steps illustrated and described in the figure below (Figure
546) :
• The magnetic field in the ferrite core zone and the impedance of the coil itself
are first computed.
• As the ferrite core is an additional component that creates secondary
magnetic sources in a finite domain that is delimited by the volume of the
ferrite core, it induces a change in the magnetic field initially created by the
induction coil alone. Thus, an equivalent magnetic source M is introduced in
order to take into account the presence of the core.
• The primary electric field is computed in the slab or the flawed region
considering that the flaw is absent. The impedance of the ferrite core probe
over a homogeneous media is also available.
E p (r )
Figure 546: Different steps for computing the primary field due to a ferrite-core probe.
The source point is located in the source region j and the observation point is
located in the observation region i. Following boundary conditions are satisfied
at interfaces separating different regions:
__ __
z × G nm (r, r ' ) = z × G n −1,m (r, r ' ),
__ __
1 1
z × ∇ × G nm (r, r ' ) = z × ∇ × G n −1,m (r, r ' ),
μn μ n−1
__ __
σ n z ⋅ G nm (r, r ' ) = σ n −1 z ⋅ G n −1,m (r, r ' ),
__ __
z ⋅ ∇ × G nm (r, r ' ) = z ⋅ ∇ × G n −1,m (r, r ' ),
l =1 D
p
Where E k (r ) and E k (r ) stand for the primary electric field and the total electric
field in the layer k, respectively.
Moreover, available sensors are coils and sectorial coils, see SENSOR window. In
this geometry, sensors cannot have ferrite cores, unless they are punctual coils,
see INSPECTION window. This particular case will be developed in next sections.
Sensor
R
Sensor
Tube
Figure 547: Case of coils centered about the tube axis: in this case the primary fields’ calculations are very fast,
due to the symmetry about the tube’s axis.
Z
Sensor
Plate R EC probe
Tube
Figure 548: Test geometry with rotation symmetry: case of an infinite plate (left) and an infinite tube (right)
The theory underlying field computation is described under Civa ECT Defect
response – Computation theory.
Z0 = R0 + j L0 ω,
where R0 is the coil resistance in air and L0 its inductance. Given the very low
resistivity of the wire making up the coil, the R0 is usually neglected with
respect to L0 ω. Consequently, if normalized impedance is represented as:
R Lω
Zn = + j
L0ω L0ω
in the complex plane, along normalized x-axis R/(L0ω) and y-axis Lω/(L0ω) ,
Z
the point corresponding to Z 0 n = 0 ≈ j has the coordinates (0,1). If a
L0ω
conductive, magnetic or nonmagnetic plate of finite thickness is placed near the
coil of interest, the eddy currents induced by that coil produce a magnetic
reaction field that modifies the coil impedance Z n . In the case of a nonmagnetic
plate, for example, reactance Lω decreases due to the magnetic reaction field
and resistance R increases due to Joule effect losses in the plate. In a
normalized impedance diagram, this impedance change is represented in the
complex plane as a function of the working frequency f (and that frequency
only). Figure 550 shows the normalized impedance diagram corresponding to
the test configuration depicted in Figure 1, for frequencies ranging from 1 Hz to
500 MHz.
Note that where ω tends toward 0, i.e. in a steady state regime, the coil
induces no eddy currents in the piece and its impedance is then Z0. As is
evident from Figure 550, if f = 1 Hz, the coordinates of the point representing coil
impedance in the impedance plane are very close to (0,1) along axes R/X0 and
X/X0. In Figure 550, the maximum resistivity value is achieved at frequency f0 =
17 kHz. A final analysis of this diagram could enable definition of an optimum
operating frequency [MacMaster, 1986]
Figure 550: Normalized impedance diagram for the EC configuration shown in Figure 1.
By clicking the calculation button, the user initiates computation, then displays
results as a graph (shown for our example in Figure 549) and a six-column table
shown in Figure 552. For each of the different frequency values selected
(column 1), this table gives the reactance values (X0) of the coil in air (column
6). Note that its in-air resistance values are negligible. The table likewise shows
coil resistance R and reactance X for the configuration with a plate (columns 2
and 3 respectively), along with normalized values Rnorm = R/X0 and Xnorm =
X/X0, which correspond to the coordinates of computation points in the
complex plane depicted in Figure 550. These quantitative values can be
processed and saved in a file using the Command, Settings and Position
menus.
Figure 551: Computation of a normalized impedance diagram in the Field computation window.
Normalized impedance window (left panel) is displayed by clicking the Normalized Z button (right
panel).
Figure 552: Values of real and imaginary coil impedance components at different frequencies.
• directly, following model computation, by right clicking the "Results" icon. This
calls a [Display] button (Figure below) which the user clicks (with left or right
mouse button) to open the ECT analysis window.
Figure 553 - Opening the ECT analysis window directly (following a computation).
Figure 554 Opening the ECT analysis window from a previously saved result file or experimental file.
On opening, the window displays the first channel in the file. This is the default
display, before balancing, calibration (called "Normalization" here), extraction or
interpolation is applied.
The analysis window differs, depending on type of computation or acquisition:
• For a computation or acquisition involving two directions of displacement, data
are displayed in C-scan form (Figure 555) with two axes to represent these
displacements. The resulting image shows amplitude changes for the real
component identified as X (which is displayed by default when the window
opens), the imaginary component labeled Y, the phase or the modulus
Figure 555 - ECT analysis window – C-scan display (computation based on two directions of displacement).
3.3.2.1.2 Save:
3.3.2.1.4 Extraction:
Extraction submenus serve to view a submatrix of the displayed EC
channel. The user selects the zone to be extracted, either by defining a
rectangle with the mouse or by modifiying the Min and Max values on the X
and Y axes of the image. This operation amounts to zooming the image.
Extraction applies to all the channels loaded. Selection of a channel not
defined in the extracted zone results in an empty display area.
Figure 558 - Extraction window called via the keyboard (and displaying minimum and maximum C-scan values).
By modifying these values, the user can display the submatrix. Following
this operation, all the relevant channels are modified and are then
3.3.2.1.4.5 Extraction/Restore
Allows return to initial state.
3.3.2.1.5 Print
Prints the content of the main ECT analysis window.
3.3.2.1.6 Capture and Export:
Figure 561 - Channel selection menu for display in the main window.
3.3.2.1.8 Language:
Allows choice of a language for the GUI: English or French.
3.3.2.1.9 Log book:
Allows reloading one of the ten most recently loaded files.
3.3.2.1.10 Exit Analab
Allows user to exit the ECT analysis window.
Figure 562 - Dialog box for renaming one or more acquisition channels.
3.3.2.3.4.4 Filtering/Lowpass LP
Performs lowpass filtering of the two C-scan dimensions with a cutoff
frequency normalized relative to fe/2.
3.3.2.3.4.5 Filtering/Highpass HP
Performs highpass filtering of the two C-scan dimensions with a cutoff
frequency normalized relative to fe/2.
3.3.2.4.2 Balance :
Figure 565 - Menu for selection of channels to which normalization and balancing coefficients from the first
loaded file are applied.
SNRs in the same way as explained here, except that zone selection is
adapted to a temporal signal display.
The different steps in this computation are as follows:
• opt for display (or not) of results in a display ("graphic") window (Figure
566).
• select channels for which the operation is performed.
• use the mouse to select one or more noise zones on the C-scan.
• use the mouse to select a flaw zone on the C-scan.
• assign a name to this flaw and validate by clicking [OK].
If the user has opted to plot results in a "graphic" window, the relevant
window opens for each selected channel (Figure 567).
The computed SNR values are displayed in a final window (Figure 568).
The menus contained in this window enable printout of results, saving these
results to a file, adding them to another file or copying them to the clipboard.
Figure 566 SNR – dialog box for plotting results in a graphic window (see Figure 567).
Figure 567 - Graphic display of computed signal-to-noise ratio for a 2D signal (C-scan).
Figure 568 - Display of SNR values obtained by the phase rotation method for 2D-type signals.
The interface then asks the user whether he wishes to select another flaw.
If so, he must name the flaw; and new result windows appear. This process
is repeated until the user answers no.
3.3.2.4.6 Z-plane
There are three possible choices under this tab: line, row or line/row. The
last two apply only to C-scan or image-type files that imply a second
direction of displacement.
For files involving a single direction of displacement, a special button [Send
to Z-plane] is provided (see Figure 556) for requesting extraction of a Z-
plane/Line.
The user preselects the channels to which the extraction is applied.
After extraction, an "EC plot" window opens and displays EC plots for the
different selected channels. Several such displays, each showing an
extracted line or row can be opened at once in the ECT analysis window.
The EC plot window and its associated functionalities are described in
section 3 below.
3.3.2.4.6.1 Z-plane/Line
Horizontal extraction. This feature can also be accessed by right clicking
in the display window.
3.3.2.4.6.2 Z-plane/Row
Vertical extraction. This feature can also be accessed by right clicking in
the display window.
3.3.2.4.6.3 Z-plane/Line/Row
This menu opens the projection board, which is a module with two
operating modes:
• four-cursor (default) mode
• and two-cursor mode.
4 cursors :
The four-cursor mode projects a zone of the image as a 1D
representation. Only the zone delimited by the two horizontal and two
vertical cursors is included in the projection (Figure 569).
Figure 569 - Maximum-type projection in "four-cursor mode" for a Z-plane line/row extraction.
Figure 572 - Interface in which "Phase rotation" is requested (before choice of a rectangular zone).
Figure 573 - "Phase rotation" window after choice of the rectangular zone.
3.3.2.5.3 Interpolation
Interpolation is a graphic option; it does not affect channel data. The
user can opt to use the interpolation method (Figure 576). This
interpolation may be "linear" (default case), "spline" or "cubic".
Two types of parameters can be modified for interpolation purposes:
• Increment
• or number of points per line or row.
By modifying both these parameters, the user acts on the image and
makes the same changes to all the channels.
These parameters remain the same for any extractions performed.
To cancel an interpolation, simply reclick its menu.
By right clicking a channel in the main window, the user accesses a
menu for activating or deactivating the corresponding interpolation.
3.3.2.5.4 Axis
This function acts directly on the axis to:
• obtain equal axes
• reverse the X axis
• reverse the Y axis
• reverse the Z axis.
•
3.3.2.5.5 Parameter window visible
Disables or enables display of configuration parameters to the left of the
main ECT analysis window (Figure 556).
This information, which is displayed by default, gives a recap of test
configuration data defined in Civa ECT. It is not available for acquisition
files.
Figure 578 - C-scan display based on the 1D signal shown in Figure 25.
This window also gives access to various menus, the most important of which
are as follows:
Figure 580 - ASCII format of EC data saved via the "Export data -> txt" menu.
3.3.3.2.2 Unselect
Unselects all the displayed channels.
3.3.3.2.3 Representation/ X/Y Channel
Temporal signals (bottom display) corresponding to the change in real
(X) and imaginary (Y) components of the EC signal based on sensor
position (or on time, for experimental signals).
3.3.3.2.4 Representation/ Modulus/Phase Channel
Temporal signals corresponding to EC signal modulus and phase
changes.
Figure 585 – Delimiting of the flaw zone (and zones of noise) for 1D-type signal SNR measurement.
3.3.4.1 [Edit]
Selects, displays and modifies coefficients for a given combination. Under
this option, the user defines the amplification (A) and the phase rotation
(Phi) applicable to signals for a channel, or captures coefficients for a 2x2
transformation matrix.
3.3.4.2 [Delete]
Deletes a combination.
3.3.4.5 [Memorize]
Stores edited coefficients in the combination selected by the user.
3.3.4.6 [Apply]
The channel whose name is shown to the left of the button is created, and
the channel resulting from frequency combination appears in the main ECT
analysis window. If the combination coefficients are modified and
memorized ([Memorize] button), the image is updated to credit the new
equation for the combination. To "freeze" the combination in the main
analysis window, the user selects the [Finalize] button. If he does so,
subsequent changes in the combination will not affect the previously
created channel, and the user must actuate the [Apply] button to create a
new channel and overwrite the previous one.
Figure 590: Typical result of chaining the two methods for automatically determine the three-channel
combination coefficients.
3.4.2.2 Functionalities
Functionalities of the multitransformer module include:
• defining test pieces by geometry and type of constituent elements,
• defining test parameters and probe characteristics,
• visualizing test scenes,
• visualizing parameterization,
Z Z
R R
Z Z
R R
Z
Z
R
R
Inconel
Z
Copper
Aluminum
dZ
dR
R
Operating principle
Breakdown of continuous induced currents into discrete loops
2D
Current loops of
Known geometries
Current (I)
Z matrix
Probe
Calculation
kernel
Z
Conductor
Practical aspects
Note that, for the piece discretization phase, current is constant for each
cell. It is thus vital to finely discretize the piece in the vicinity of the probe
(sharp gradient zone), then to enlarge the mesh.
Since the calculation kernel solves a system of linear n x n equations,
computing time increases nonlinearly with the number of mesh points.
There are several mesh points in a cell. It is preferable for the
discretized piece to total less than 2000 points. Beyond this limit,
computation remains possible, but is heavily dependent on the amount
of available computer memory.
The various axial coil test parameters appearing in the "Simplified SAX
Case" window (see Figure 596: Quick definition window for a SAX
scenario) include:
Under the "Tube" option: parameters of the tube to be tested
• Inner Radius (mm): tube inside radius in mm
• Thickness (mm): tube wall thickness in mm
• Length (mm): tube length in mm
• Subdivisions for Z: number of Basic Elements (BEs) along the
longitudinal axis (Z), where a BE is the current loop used as the
basis for discretizing test configuration elements.
• Subdivisions for R: number of BEs along the radial axis (R)
• Conductivity: tube wall conductivity expressed in Siemens/m
• Permeability: relative magnetic permeability (µr) of the tube wall.
Permeability is set at 1; only nonmagnetic materials are processed
by the calculation kernel.
Under the "Flaw" option: description of tube flaw parameters
• Type: choice between a flaw initiated outside the tube (outer groove)
and one initiated inside the tube (inner groove).
• Depth (%): depth of flaw expressed in percentage of wall thickness
• Width (mm): width of groove expressed in mm.
CANCEL: cancels changes made in the fields and restores previous
values.
OK: validates the various Sensor tab parameters. Once it has been
clicked, the CANCEL action becomes inoperative.
and "Profile" tabs. The top figure shows impedance signal changes in
the complex plane. Each computation result is shown as a point. Signal
continuity is achieved by interpolation using cubic spline functions. The
two lower figures show changes in the real and imaginary components
of impedance as a function of probe displacement along the Z axis.
[Sensor]: This page enables definition of sensor characteristics (see
Figure 595: Main window with "Configuration and "Sensor" tabs)
Height (mm): height of coil in mm
Inner Radius (mm): coil inside radius in mm
Outer Radius (mm): coil outside radius in mm
Input (mA): coil current in mA. This value has no impact on the results
in the "impedance computation" mode, but will be taken into account in
future versions slated to include a "separate function" mode.
No. of turns: number of coil turns
Sensor Type: choice of differential or absolute. If the absolute type is
selected, the [Gap] button described below becomes inactive.
Gap (mm): in differential mode, gap in mm between the two coils
Subdivisions for Z: number of BE cells along the longitudinal axis (Z)
Subdivisions for R: number of BE cells along the radial axis(R)
CANCEL: The CANCEL button cancels changes made in the fields and
restores previous values.
OK: This button validates the various Sensor tab parameters. Once it
has been clicked, the CANCEL action becomes inoperative.
[Tube]: This page serves to define the characteristics of the various
elements (piece + flaws) of the test configuration (see Figure 598:
Multitransformer main window with "Impedance" and "Profile" tabs).
Each element is an axisymmetric shape (cylinder or toroid) with a given
set of electromagnetic properties.
Profile: Defines an element name. A dropdown list shows names of
already defined elements.
Add: Adds an element selected from the list.
Delete: Deletes an element.
Purge: Deletes all elements included on the list.
Position: Choice of the reference point for an element. The dropdown
menu offers the following choices:[Center, Right, Left, Top_Center,
Top_ Right, Top_ Left, Bottom_Center, Bottom_ Right, Bottom_ Left] .
Figure 597 shows the position of a selected reference point.
Origin Point Position for Z (mm): definition of the point of origin for
longitudinal axis Z.
Origin Point Position for R (mm): definition of the point of origin for
radial axis R
Dimension for Z (mm): height of the element in mm
Dimension for R (mm): width of the element in mm
Properties/List: The dropdown menu displays a list of available
materials (see Material tab)
When a material is selected from the list, the following fields are
displayed automatically:
Material: material label (e.g.: Inconel 600)
Conductivity: material conductivity in Siemens/m
Permeability: relative permeability of the material
Z
Top-Center Top-Right
Top-Left
1 2 3
Left 8 0 4 Right
7 6 5
Bottom-Left
Figure 598: Multitransformer main window with "Impedance" and "Profile" tabs.
The sensor is a differential axial coil (SAX) with the following dimensions
(see Figure 600: Example 1 configuration showing axial probe
characteristics):
Height: 2 mm
Inner radius: 7.83 mm
Outer radius: 9.25 mm
No. of turns: 70
Type: differential
Distance between coils: 0.5 mm
Subdivisions: 2 each for R and Z
Test frequencies are 25, 100, 240 and 500 kHz.
Proposed solution:
1. Use the menu [configuration/SAX case] to define the tube, the probe
and the outer, 40% deep groove. The recommended number of
subdivisions is 60 for Z and 10 for R. A practical rule for determining
whether a problem has been adequately discretized is to first
perform a coarse breakdown of the materials, then to gradually
refine this mesh and use it to converge the solution. The refinement
process stops once the required degree of precision has been
achieved.
To add a new material or flaw, the user enters a new label in the profile
field, then clicks [Add]. He then modifies the various fields (origins,
dimensions) to obtain the desired values. The new element is validated
by clicking the [OK] button.
4. Initiate computation using the [Solve] button and choose a file name
for saving results. At the start of operations, a graphic window
appears in which the test scene in 2 and 3D and the computation
results are subsequently displayed (on left and right of screen
respectively). The top right figure shows the EC signal in the
impedance plane for different frequencies. The first lobe is produced
when the front coil is opposite the outer groove; this is followed by a
signal reflecting the impact of both grooves. The last lobe is
produced when the back coil is opposite the inner groove. Phase lag
between the "inner groove" and "outer groove" lobes increases with
frequency and relative amplitude: This typical EC sensor behavior is
linked to the skin effect in metals (the higher the frequency, the
greater the density of currents near the conductor surface and the
lesser their density below this surface, with lag increasing again at a
given depth). Figures on the bottom right hand side show changes in
the real component (top figure) and the imaginary component
(bottom figure) of impedance as a function of sensor displacement
along the longitudinal (Z) axis.
Procedure
1. Define sensor: height 1 mm; inner radius 11.5 mm; outer radius: No.
of turns: 50; absolute mode; subdivisions : 2 each for R and Z
2. Define first plate element. Under the "tube" tab, use purge button to
delete all elements defined for a previous computation. material label
(e.g.: Choose name of first material (e.g. plate 1), define its
characteristics (Position/Origin Point Position = Top_left, Z = -0.5
mm, R= 0 mm , Dimension Z = 1 mm, R = 10 mm, Subdivisions Z =
4, R = 10, Properties List : Inconel); then use [Add] button to include
it on the list. Click the OK button to validate definition of this element.
4. Initiate computation.
5. Define a new material under the Material tab. Click [Add] button,
select new line on list, then click [modify] button. Choose label:
aluminum, conductivity: 18 MS/m, permeability: µr = 1 and color,
then save the complete list of materials to a file.
Figure 602: Example 2 configuration, showing characteristics of the Inconel plate element.
Proposed solution:
8. Define encircling coil: height 1 mm; inner radius 11.5 mm; outer
radius: No. of turns: 100; differential mode; gap: 1 mm; subdivisions:
2 each for R and Z.
9. Under the "tube" tab, use purge button to delete all elements defined
for a previous computation. Define tube characteristics
(Position/Origin Point Position = Left, Z = 0 mm, R= 10 mm ,
Dimension Z = 40 mm, R = 1 mm, Subdivisions Z = 40, R = 10,
Properties List: stainless steel – after definition of material); use
[Add] button to include it on the list. Click the OK button to validate
definition of this element.
4 CIVA XRAY
4.1 CIVA XRAY Module - Setup
4.1.1 Specimen
The "Specimen" window opened by clicking the "Specimen" button provides
separate tabs for definition of piece Geometry and Material. From the
dropdown File menu, it is possible to Load or to Save a piece description file
in XML format. The menu also permits loading of a parameter file from a
Recent Files list corresponding to the latest files of this type opened in the
Specimen window. The Close button closes the window.
4.1.1.1 Geometry
Except sphere and bore all the geometry available in UT module are
allowed in X-Ray module. To have a precise description of these complex
geometries please refer to the corresponding UT Module.
4.1.1.2.2 Alloy
In the X-Ray material library some alloys are also available (as Stainless
steel 304, Inconel600, air, NaI, CsI, AgBr…).
It is also possible to create alloys. To create an alloy, the user must, first
of all, select “alloy” in “type” option.
For an alloy, the user must define the different components composing
the alloy.
To do so, he simply selects the different components by clicking on
bottom and defines the desired materials in the X-Ray material data
base for each component.
For a compound, the user will have to define the number of atoms for
each element while for a mixture he will have to define the percentage
of each element.
Once define all the elements and their contributions on the creation of
the predefined alloy the user have to enter the density of the new
defined material and have to homogenize the predefined material.
Note:
• Data of the different coefficients of attenuation are obtained in the
Storm and Israël tables published in Nuclear Data Tables.
• The density results come from “Photcoef” software tables and have
been compared with several sources from literature.
• Atomics weight come from “I.U.P.A.C Commission on atomic weight
and isotopic abundance”.
4.1.2 Source
The user opens the "Source" window by clicking the display panel Source
button from the X-Ray module.
Note that the position and the orientation of the source are described in the
chapter “inspection”.
A conical source is described by the angle α on the top of the cone and
by the vector director S of the emission.
Note that the angle defined by the user is the complete angle and not
the half angle at the top.
The cylindrical coordinates Rc= (F, uc, vc, wc) are defined by:
wc is headed according to the opposite direction of the emitting vector S.
vc is along the cylindrical axis.
uc is the third vector as (uc, vc, wc) define a direct trihedral.
will have to choose the type of edition the source, manual or modelling
(Accessible via the button at the bottom of the window)
• Modelling mode:
• Manual mode:
In this mode all the values available in “parameters” panel are just
informative and the user will be able to change the values manually. The
computation will not take into account those values.
In manual mode the user has to define the different parameters in
“spectral repartition”.
The user will have to choose the energy step type: The 3 types of
available energy types are the following:
Regular: Parameters to be defined:
• The first channel energy (keV)
• The energy step (keV)
• The number of channels
• Logarithmic:
• The first channel energy (keV)
• The number of channels per decade
• The number of channels
• User:
• The number of channels
Note that due to the lack of pair production handling, sources of higher
energy than Co60 should not be defined.
The source spectra contain for each discrete energy the number of
photons produced per radioactive decay. This information can be found
in physics reference tables.
Please note that the source activity is a parameter only required for
direct radiation image calculations, and that the value indicated here is
only a default value.
4.1.3 Detector
The user opens the "Detector" window by clicking the display panel Detector
button from the X-Ray module.
Note that the position and the orientation of the source and detector are
described in the chapter “inspection”.
Each type of sources (X-Ray sources generated by continuous spectrum or
Gamma sources using discrete spectra) has its own characteristic for the
detector. Therefore, the user will find two chapters dedicated for the “CIVA X-
Ray” detectors and for the “Gamma-Ray detectors.
(a) Inspection with a curve detector, (b) inspection with a planar detector.
The specific parameters for each detector are presented in the buttom
of the tab features.
• The first step is common to each kind of detector; it deals with the
calculation of deposited energy inside the sensitive layer of the
detector.
For that, we first compute the probability for each photon reaching the
front side of the detector to interact in the sensitive layer of the detector.
(
- μ .L
)
probint = e filt filt 1 − e - μdet .Ldet
Note that the incidence of the photon on the detector is taken into
account in the length of both filters and detectors. In analytical mode,
this probability is interpreted in a deterministic way as the ratio of
σ signal
2
= G.( Eabs + G.σ E2 ) abs
DQE
As the DQE takes into account all phenomenons (photonic noise and
noise of the detection of the radiographic inspection parameters) the
computation of the absorption photonic noise should not be asked.
⎝ λ λ ( λ) ⎠
• The Tape-film detector is modelled with measured data which are
contained in a calibration file (sensitometry curve), with the maximal
optical density (DOmax) of the film, with a correlation factor β between
grains (typically 1.33) and the number N0 of grains by pixel. The
calibration file is an ASCII file with 3 columns: the absorbed doses by
the film in Gy, the optical density DO and the standard deviation σDO
of the noise over the DO. The signal in optical density results of an
signal = DO(dosis(Gy))
The conversion of the absorbed energy in keV toward doses in Gray is
done by:
Edep (keV ) × e ×1e3
dosis (Gy ) =
ρ ( g / cm ) ×1e − 3 × vol _ pixel (cm3 )
3
1 β
σ signal = D 2− β ( Dmax − D β ) (Gaussian noise)
β N0
Model 3: This model uses also a Gaussian noise whose standard
deviation is computed by interpolation of data σDO given in the
calibration file (3rd column)
σ signal = σ DO (dosis (Gy ))
As this noise is directly measured on the film image, it takes into
account of all phenomenon (photonic noise, acquisition,
development…); the computation of the absorption photonic noise
should not be asked.
films to obtain a given optical density, but you can not study the impact of a
thickness variation of the amplification foil of your film.
In its most simply form, the film is considered to be perfectly linear, and a
single value is sufficient to convert radiation dose absorbed in air,
measured in milligray (mGy), to optical density; The CEN ISO speed value
is defined as 1/Ks, Ks being the radiation dose (absorbed in air) in mGy
required to obtain optical density 2 over fog. The ISO speed value should
be provided by the film manufacturer. It is often a sufficient approximation
to the real film characteristics, since radiographic films are quite linear.
4.1.4 Inspection
4.1.4.1 Description of the inspection panel
The inspection window (Figure below) is used to define the relative
positions of the source and the detector to the part for which preliminary
definitions were entered via the two windows source and Detector. The
Inspection window, which appears when the Inspection button is clicked,
also serves to define the different orientation of those two parameters.
The “Default position” option can be used in order to position both detector
and source in the centre of the geometric scene.
• Flat piece:
The Piece reference frame is Cartesian. Its origin O is located on the piece
surface, which is the plane (O, X, Y), and its Z axis is directed toward the
inside of the piece (Figure below).
• Cylindrical piece:
The coordinate system is cylindrical. Origin Ο of the piece reference frame
(O, R, θ, Y) is located on the axis of revolution, which is the Y axis: and
angle θ is defined by the conventions shown in Figure below. X and Z axes
of the associated Cartesian coordinate system are defined as shown in
Figure below.
• Conical piece:
A cylindrical coordinate system is adopted. Origin Ο of the piece reference
frame (O, R, θ, Y) is located on the revolution axis, which is the Y axis; and
angle θ is defined by the conventions shown in Figure below. X and Z axes
of the associated Cartesian coordinate system are defined as shown in
Figure below.
• Elbow:
As indicated earlier, an elbow defined in the Specimen window, is made up
of two cylindrical segments and a toroïdal segment. Its origin lies on the
revolution axis of the cylinder numbered 1 in the Specimen window, which
coincides with the Y axis.
The curve formed by joining the all centers of elbow segments (i.e. the
revolution axes of the two cylinders and the equator circle of the torus) is
called the "Generatrix curve"). The Piece reference frame (O, R, θ, U) used
to position the detector and source include a curvilinear coordinate U along
the generatrix curve. Figure below shows the conventions used to define an
elbow.
• 3D CAD piece:
The reference frame (O, X, Y, Z) used for UT simulation is normally the
(ΩCAD, XCAD,YCAD, ZCAD) frame read from the CAD file. The user can,
however, modify the axes and the point of origin of a CAD 3D piece (see
Using CAD Pieces – 3D CAD pieces).
• Nozzle:
As indicated earlier, a nozzle defined in the Specimen window is made up
of two figures of revolution (two cylinders or a cylinder + a cone), a so-
called Main (or "Principal") figure to which a Secondary figure is connected.
Two Piece reference frames are defined: (Oprinc, Rprinc, θprinc, Yprinc) for the
Main cylinder; and (Osec, Rsec, θsec, Ysec), for the Secondary cylinder. The
conventions applicable to these two frames are similar to those for a
cylindrical piece.
4.1.5 Flaws
A defect or a flaw quite often is just a small cavity, such as a fine crack or a
pore, located somewhere within another geometry. In CIVA X-Ray the flaws
can be planar, spherical, ellipsoidal, straight or curved trapezoid, the user can
also create a side drilled-hole, flat or hemispherical-bottomed hole, 3D CAD.
The flaws are considered as inclusion inside of the part geometry that the user
will inspected. In that sense all the types of photons-matter interaction will be
taking into account into the flaws geometry.
The flaw properties panel (Figure 1) comprises three main zones: the top zone,
which is always visible and serves to create, duplicate or delete all or part of a
list of flaws. It includes three tabs. Under the first tab, the user defines the type
of flaw and its dimensions; under the second, he defines the flaw’s material,
and in the third one he positions the flaw in the piece.
The list of flaws is initially empty. By clicking the add button, the user creates a
rectangular flaw numbered 1. The operator can then duplicate (or delete) this
flaw by clicking (or ) button.
Flaw geometry menu
Under this tab, a dropdown menu gives access to different flaw options: plane,
spherical, side-drilled-hole, flat-bottomed-hole, ellipsoidal, straight or curved
trapezoid, flat or hemispherical-bottomed hole, 3D CAD.
Choice of one of the types listed above displays a set of fields for specifying
flaw dimensions. The number and contents of these fields obviously depend on
the selected flaw type. Definitions of the different dimensions are intuitive
enough to not require further explanation.
Flaw material
The definition of the flaw’s material type is exactly the same as the part
geometry (see “X-Ray specimen” option chapter).
Flaw positioning menu
One means for determining the location of a flaw in the piece is to select a
Reference point, then to orient the flaw relative to this point.
To get detail explanation about The Reference point please refer to the “CIVA
UT Setup-Flaw” chapter
• The parameter Detector noise (associated tab) and the photonic noise
are the two types of noise which can be taken into account in the
radiological picture. The photonic noise has to be defined by the user
only for the analytic computation model (the Monte-Carlo computation
model generates automatically the photonic noise). The mathematical
formulas used to simulate the noise are accurately described in the
detector specifications.
•
Three types of detector noise model can be defined for each detector
types.
The computation of the blurring dues to the focus size corresponds to the
convolution of a Gaussian function for each energy image computed for
one energy channel of the specter. The typical dimension of the Gaussian
function corresponds to the multiplication of the typical dimension of the
source by a medium magnification of the scene. Precisely, the focus size
defined in the “source” option corresponds to the width of the Gaussian
function measured at the half height. The user can chose between the
automatic mode, where the enlarging coefficient is automatically computed
considering the middle point of the crossed thickness along the central ray,
and the manual mode, where they have to determine the enlarging
coefficient. The computation of the blurring dues to the focus needs a long
computation time, because a convolution is carried out for each spectrum’s
energy.
When the option Global MTF Blurring is selected, two new parameters have
to be defined: the number of point of the MTF curve, and the filename
containing the curve. The file containing the curve has to be an ASCII file,
with two columns. The first one refers to the frequency in cm-1, and the
second one refers to the value of the normalized MTF. The first value of the
MTF function (for the frequency equals 0) has to be equal 1, and the last
value has to be equal 0. The computation points have to be regularly
distributed. If the frequency for which the MTF function equals 0 is upper
than the cut off frequency determined by the sampling, the user is informed
by a warning message (the Shannon criteria is not satisfied).
The geometric blurring, due to the focal size of the source, is taken into
account in the energy computation image. The analytic computation of the
geometric blurring corresponds to the convolution of a Gaussian curve for
each type of energy computed for an energy channel of the spectrum. This
Gaussian has the source size characteristic multiplied by an average of the
magnification. In the automatic mode the magnification is automatically
computed considering the middle point of the thickness in which the central
radius pass throw.
σ abs . the energy absorption coefficient coming from Strom Israel tables.
This ratio takes into account the loss of energy in the detecting material.
• The number of photons simulated during a Monte-Carlo computation.
Note that is not always easy to know how many events need to be
simulated to converge towards a correct result. Typical values start at 10
million for small wall thicknesses and little scattering, and can exceed 10
billion for thick components.
An expert mode is available when entering the parameters for a Monte-
Carlo computation. The different expert options are:
NOTE: Those files are available in the temporary files. Those files have a
sdt format and can be read with different images format.
The combine method takes the direct radiation result obtained by the
straight line attenuation method, the direct radiation obtained by the Monte-
Carlo method and the scattered radiation obtained by the Monte-Carlo
method and produces a combine result which is scaled for a user-defined
target density for a given pixel. Since the target density is imposed, it
does not depend on exposure time or source activity, which means that the
user can not use this method to determine exposure time for combined
image.
• The fog option corresponds to the natural fog of the film. Typically for a
C1 film the fog value is around 0.13.
BU=1+ (scatter/direct).
This simply equation illustrate not only why the build-up factor is a very
handy definition, but also hints at how the straight line attenuation method
and the Monte-Carlo method need to be combined to obtain the desired
result: the straight line attenuation method is a very fast procedure to obtain
the direct radiation intensity, while the Monte-Carlo method only needs to
produce the build-up factor, which when multiplied with the direct radiation
intensity yields the total radiation intensity.
Note: in order to got a low variation of the build-up factor, and so to obtain a
good interpolation the user should define a relative small detector lighted on
its full parts (and so to define a large angle aperture of the source).
CIVA X-Ray provides different images depending on whether the user has
computed an analytical computation, a Monte-Carlo computation or a combination
of both. Once the computation finished the image viewer is automatically activated
and the image appears in a “tree” representation of the Civa Manager Window as
illustrated on the screenshot hereafter. A double click on any “Image” listed in this
“tree” representation will display the corresponding image. It is also possible to call
any image by right clicking on it and selecting the “Display”. This chapter
describes the imaging system used to display X-Ray computation results.
By default, the result of an X-Ray computation is displayed in an independent
window.
• Color map option: the “Color map” menu allows the user to change the
color bar of the image. Refer to section “Color map” in chapter “Beam
Computation Imaging” for details.
• Cursor: the cursor menu provides measurements (coordinates,
amplitude) at cursors position. Refer to section “Colors” in chapter
“Beam Computation Imaging” for detailed description of cursors.
When moving the cursor on the image a pink ray appears on the 3D GUI
and moves. When a cursor is moved along the axis, its movement is
automatically reproduced in the 3D GUI view.
• Material: The link cursor to material option traces a ray from the source
to the film pixel selected by the mouse in the image viewer. This allows
to see all the thickness (in mm) of the materials in which the define ray
paths through.
• Images options: By clicking on “image” option on the resulting image, the
user has access to different options.
With this in mind, CIVA operates two models of computation to simulate direct
and scattered radiation.