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Hoe I. Ling
Columbia University, New York, New York, U.S.A.
1 INTRODUCTION
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the standards relevant to their applications. The American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM) is one developer of standardized testing procedures for
different geosynthetics. Most testing standards adopted or developed in other
countries are outgrowths of ASTM standards. The Geosynthetic Research
Institute (GRI) also provides testing standards to serve industrial needs,
especially when related ASTM standards have not been developed. GRI
standards are usually removed as related ASTM standards become available.
ASTM standards, developed under Committee D35 for Geosynthetics, are
listed in the Appendix. These standards were developed under several
subcommittees: terminology, mechanical properties, endurance properties,
permeability and filtration, geosynthetic clay liners, geosynthetic erosion
control, and geomembranes. New standards are constantly being developed.
Details of test standards are published in ASTM (2000).
While ASTM standards are index tests, many civil engineering designs and
applications require the geosynthetic materials to be tested with site-specific
soils, with the testing conditions representing those in the field. These kinds of
tests are known as performance tests.
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Civil Applications of Geosynthetics 3
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Civil Applications of Geosynthetics 5
Both geotextiles and geogrids are used to reinforce steep slopes and
retaining walls. For applications where large tensile stiffness and strength of
reinforcement are required, geogrids should be used. A large shear box is
required to determine the frictional properties of the geogrid because the aperture
size is large relative to the geotextile. Unlike geotextiles, where frictional
behavior dominates the interaction with soil, the junction of some geogrids may
provide interlocking. As geotextiles are very flexible, they are typically wrapped
around the face of the slope or retaining wall and protected by vegetation, gunite,
timber face, or concrete panels to prevent degradation by ultraviolet rays and
vandalism.
Geogrids are increasingly used with modular blocks to provide an
aesthetically pleasant wall appearance. As such, the connection between the
blocks and geogrids plays an important role in design. The creep and stress
relaxation behavior of geogrids are also studied in conjunction with wall design.
In the design of reinforced slopes and walls, a limit equilibrium approach is used.
The structure is checked for internal and external stabilities. In the internal
stability analysis, a failure wedge is postulated and it is tied back into the stable
soil zone. An adequate strength and length of reinforcement are secured. The
external stability is evaluated in a manner similar to conventional gravity/-
cantilever wall design. In the external stability analysis, possible modes of
failure, such as direct sliding, overturning, and bearing capacity, are evaluated.
The seismic design of reinforced slopes and retaining walls has also received
wide attention in recent years.
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Figure 2 Geotextile as drainage layer or filter: (a) chimney drain in earth dam; (b) drain
behind retaining wall; (c) underdrain; (d) drainage layer in tunnel.
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Civil Applications of Geosynthetics 7
Figure 3 Geocomposite.
hydraulic conductivity to account for the turbulent flow. Because of the large
normal stress acting on the plane of geonet/geocomposites, the crushing strength
of the core has to be assessed. Geocomposites are sometimes tested with site-
specific soils and liquid. A reduction in the flow rate is expected because of the
intrusion of the geotextiles into the core. It is also important to ensure that
geotextile sheets, if installed along the slope, do not delaminate from the geonets
due to shear stress, because geocomposites are installed at a gradient to allow for
gravity flow. The drainage systems of a geocomposite are usually constructed for
allowance of cleaning by flushing because they are normally subject to biological
action.
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Civil Applications of Geosynthetics 9
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Civil Applications of Geosynthetics 13
normally swells in the presence of liquid, but if the use with hydrocarbons and
nonpolar fluids is expected, prehydration with water is required before the
containment is put into service. The permeability of GCLs is also affected by the
type of permeant; therefore, the expected leachate should be used in the
permeability tests.
The shear strength is an issue of concern, especially when GCLs are used as
liners along the slope. The shear strength of GCLs is the largest under dry
conditions. It is reduced by hydration and is affected by the hydrating liquid as
well. Mechanical bonding by needle punching and stitching renders a higher
shear strength of GCLs compared to chemical bonding or adhesive.
5 REMARKS
Terminology
D4439-00 Standard Terminology for Geosynthetics
Mechanical Properties
D4354-99 Standard Practice for Sampling of Geosynthetics for Testing
D4533-91(1996) Standard Test Method for Trapezoid Tearing Strength of
Geotextiles
D4595-86(1994) Standard Test Method for Tensile Properties of
Geotextiles by the Wide-Width Strip Method
D4632-91(1996) Standard Test Method for Grab Breaking Load and
Elongation of Geotextiles
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Endurance Properties
D1987-95 Standard Test Method for Biological Clogging of Geotextile or
Soil/Geotextile Filters
D4355-99 Standard Test Method for Deterioration of Geotextiles from
Exposure to Ultraviolet Light and Water (Xenon-Arc Type Apparatus)
D4594-96 Standard Test Method for Effects of Temperature on Stability of
Geotextiles
D4873-01 Standard Guide for Identification, Storage, and Handling of
Geosynthetic Rolls and Samples
D4886-88(1995)el Standard Test Method for Abrasion Resistance of
Geotextiles (Sand Paper/Sliding Block Method)
D5262-97 Standard Test Method for Evaluating the Unconfined Tension
Creep Behavior of Geosynthetics
D5322-98 Standard Practice for Immersion Procedures for Evaluating the
Chemical Resistance of Geosynthetics to Liquids
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Geomembranes
D4437-99 Standard Practice for Determining the Integrity of Field Seams Used in
Joining Flexible Polymeric Sheet Geomembranes
D4545-86(1999) Standard Practice for Determining the Integrity of Factory
Seams Used in Joining Manufactured Flexible Sheet Geomembranes
D4885-88(1995) Standard Test Method for Determining Performance
Strength of Geomembranes by the Wide Strip Tensile Method
D5323-92(1999) Standard Practice for Determination of 2% Secant
Modulus for Polyethylene Geomembranes
D5494-93(1999) Standard Test Method for the Determination of Pyramid
Puncture Resistance of Unprotected and Protected Geomembranes
D5514-94 Standard Test Method for Large-Scale Hydrostatic Puncture
Testing of Geosynthetics
D5617-99 Standard Test Method for Multi-Axial Tension Test for
Geosynthetics
D5641-94c1 Standard Practice for Geomembrane Seam Evaluation by
Vacuum Chamber
D5820-95 Standard Practice for Pressurized Air Channel Evaluation of
Dual Seamed Geomembranes
D5884-99 Standard Test Method for Determining Tearing Strength of
Internally Reinforced Geomembranes
D5886-95 Standard Guide for Selection of Test Methods to Determine Rate
of Fluid Permeation Through Geomembranes for Specific Applications
D5994-98 Standard Test Method for Measuring Core Thickness of
Textured Geomembrane
D6214-98 Standard Test Method for Determining the Integrity of Field
Seams Used in Joining Geomembranes by Chemical Fusion Methods
D6365-99 Standard Practice for the Nondestructive Testing of Geomem-
brane Seams Using the Spark Test
D6434-99 Standard Guide for the Selection of Test Methods for Flexible
Polypropylene (fPP) Geomembranes
D6455-99 Standard Guide for the Selection of Test Methods for
Prefabricated Bituminous Geomembranes (PBGM)
D6497-00 Standard Guide for Mechanical Attachment of Geomembrane to
Penetrations or Structures
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REFERENCES
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