General Chemistry (Chem 1)

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Brief History of Chemistry
EARLIEST GREEK BELIEFS
 Anaximenes (545 BCE) believe that air is the fundamental element
 Thales and Miletus (6th century BCE) believe that water is the fundamental element
 Heraclitus (540-480 BCE) believed that fire is the fundamental element
 Empedocles (490-430 BCE) using the former ideas proposed that all matter is made up of four
fundamental elements: earth, air, fire & water. The varying proportions of this materials
supossedly rendered different characteristics and behavior of the materials. This idea intoduced an
important concept now known as the law of constant proportions (all things of the same type have
the same proportions of the elements that compose them).
 Leucippus (5th century BCE) & Democritus (460-370 BCE) introduced atomos meaning
“uncuttable”.
Theorized 5 main principles:
1. All matter is made up of atoms that are too tiny to be seen by the naked eyes. They cannot be
broken down further into smaller portions. All forms of matter result from the coming together or
breaking apart of atoms.
2. Atoms are in constant motion around an empty space called void
3. Atoms are completely solid
4. Atoms are uniform, with no internal structure
5. Atoms come in different shapes and sizes
 Epirucus of Samos (314-270 BCE) supported the idea of Leucippus and Democritus by
introducing atomism (the philosophy that matter is made up of atoms).
Further enhanced the theory by proposing that:
1. Different types of atoms have different weights
2. All atoms have the same speed regardless of size
-this idea was highly opposed by famous philisophers including Plato & Aristotle
 Aristotle agreed with Empedocles that all matter was made up of the four fundamental elements
varying proportions
-also added the element aether (made up matter found outside earth and the moon)
-further suggested that one element could be transformed to another [a pioneer idea to alchemy]
-proposed the continous theory which asserted that matter can be divided indefinitely without
changing the fundamental characteristics of the material

Different theories of philosophers are based from logics, debate towards this claims are invetible but
due to the development of new scientific experimental methods discoveries flourished and claims are
proven.

Classical Chemistry
 Robert Boyle (1627-1691) studied the behavior of gases and discovered the inverse relationship
between volume and pressure of a gas. He also stated that “all reality and change can be described
in terms of elementary particles and their motion,” an early understanding of atomic theory. In
1661, he wrote the first chemistry textbook, “The Sceptical Cymist,” which moved the study of
substances away from mystical associations with alchemy and toward scientific investigation.

 Joseph Priestley (1733-1804) disproved the idea that air was an indivisible element. He showed
that it was, instead, a combination of gases when he isolated oxygen and went on to discover
seven other discreet gases.

 Jacques Charles continued Boyles’ work and is known for stating the direct relationship between
temperature and pressure of gases.

 In 1794, Joseph Proust studied pure chemical compounds and stated the Law of Definite
Proportions — a chemical compound will always have its own characteristic ratio of elemental
components. Water, for instance, always has a two-to-one ratio of hydrogen to oxygen.

1
 General Chemistry (Chem 1)
 Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794) was a French chemist helped to develop the metric system in
order to insure uniform weights and measures.

 Amedeo Avogadro (1776-1856) Expanded on the work of Boyle and Charles, he clarified the
difference between atoms and molecules. He went on to state that equal volumes of gas at the
same temperature and pressure have the same number of molecules. The number of molecules in a
1gram molecular weight (1 mole) sample of a pure substance is called Avogadro’s Constant in his
honor. It has been experimentally determined to be 6.023 x 1023 molecules and is an important
conversion factor used to determine the mass of reactants and products in chemical reactions.

 John Dalton (1766-1844) Using his own data and the Law of Definite Proportions, he determined
the relative masses of particles for six of the known elements: hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon,
sulfur and phosphorous. Dalton explained his findings by stating the principles of the first atomic
theory of matter.

1. Elements are composed of extremely small particles called atoms.

2. Atoms of the same element are identical in size, mass and other properties. Atoms of different
elements have different properties.
3. Atoms cannot be created, subdivided or destroyed.
4. Atoms of different elements combine in simple whole number ratios to form chemical
compounds.
5. In chemical reactions atoms are combined, separated or rearranged to form new compounds.

 Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907) was a Russian chemist known for developing the first Periodic
Table of the Elements. He listed the 63 known elements and their properties on cards. When he
arranged the elements in order of increasing atomic mass, he could group elements with similar
properties. With a few exceptions, every seventh element had similar properties (The eighth
chemical group — the Noble Gases — had not been discovered yet). Mendeleev realized that if he
left spaces for the places where no known element fit into the pattern that it was even more exact.
Using the blank spaces in his table, he was able to predict the properties of elements that had yet
to be discovered. Mendeleev’s original table has been updated to include the 92 naturally
occurring elements and 26 synthesized elements.

 In 1896, Henri Becquerel discovered radiation. Along with Pierre and Marie Curie, he showed
that certain elements emit energy at fixed rates. In 1903, Becquerel shared a Nobel Prize with the
Curies for the discovery of radioactivity.

 In 1900, Max Planck discovered that energy must be emitted in discreet units that he called
“quanta” (since named photons) not in continuous waves. It appeared that atoms were made up of
still smaller particles, some of which could move away.

 In 1911, Ernst Rutherford demonstrated that atoms consisted of a tiny dense positively charged
region surrounded by relatively large areas of empty space in which still smaller, negatively
charged particles (electrons) move. Rutherford assumed that the electrons orbit the nucleus in
separate neat orbits, just as the planets orbit the sun. However, because the nucleus is larger and
denser than the electrons, he could not explain why the electrons were not simply pulled into the
nucleus thus destroying the atom.

 Niels Bohr’s (1885-1962) atomic model solved this problem by using Planck’s information.
Photons are emitted from an electrically stimulated atom only at certain frequencies. He
hypothesized that electrons inhabit distinct energy levels and light is only emitted when an
electrically “excited” electron is forced to change energy levels.

 In 1935, James Chadwick was awarded the Nobel Prize for his discovery that there are an equal
number of electrically neutral particles in the nucleus of an atom. Since neutrons are electrically
neutral, they are not deflected by either electrons or protons. Furthermore, neutrons have more
mass than protons. These facts combine to make it possible for neutrons to penetrate atoms and
break apart the nucleus, releasing vast amounts of energy.

2
 General Chemistry (Chem 1)
Chemistry in Modern World

Various Applications of Chemistry

 Geologist who wants to locate new mineral or oil deposits use chemical techniques to analyze and
identify rock samples
 Oceanographers use chemistry to track ocean currents, determine the flux of nutrients into sea,
and measure the rate of nutrients between ocean layers.
 Engineers consider the relationships between the structures and the properties of substances when
they specify materials for various uses
 Physicist take advantage of the properties of substances to detect new subatomic particles.
 Astronomers use chemical signatures to determine the age and distance of stars and thus answer
questions about how stars form anad how old the universe is.
 The entire subject of environmental science depends on chemistry to explain the origin and
impacts of phenomena such as air pollution, ozone layer depletion, and global warming.
 The disciplines that focus on living organisms and their interactions with the physical world rely
heavily on biochemistry, the application of chemistry to the study of biological processes. A
living cell contains a large collection of complex molecules that carry out thousands of chemical
reactions, including those that are necessary for the cell to reproduce. Biological phenomena such
as vision, taste, smell, and movement result from numerous chemical reactions.
 Fields such as medicine, pharmacology, nutrition, and toxicology focus specifically on how the
chemical substances that enter our bodies interact with the chemical components of the body to
maintain our health and well being
 Archeology and paleontology rely on chemical techniques to date bones and artifacts and
identify their origins.
 Forensic scientist use chemical methods to analyzed blood, fibers and other evidence as they
investigate crimes.

DESCRIPTION OF MATTER
Definitions
What is Chemistry?
 Chemistry is the study of matter ( composition, structure and properties) and the changes that
material substance undergo.

What is matter?
 Matter is anything that have mass and takes space
 Matter is made of particles that give its mass and volume

What is Mass?
 Mass is a measure of the quantity of matter
 Mass is usually measured in grams (g) or kilograms (kg).
 Mass measures the quantity of matter regardless of both its location in the universe and the
gravitational force applied to it.
 An object's mass is constant in all circumstances; contrast this with its weight.

What is Weight?
 Weights is interaction of mass with gravity
 The force of gravity

Nature of Matter
Matter is everywhere. All things, living and non living, are made up of matter, which can be
characterized using different senses.
All matter is made up of atoms, which are in turn made up of protons, neutrons and electrons.

Atoms come together to form molecules, which are the building blocks for all types of matter,
according to Washington State University.

Both atoms and molecules are held together by a form of potential energy called chemical energy.
Unlike kinetic energy, which is the energy of an object in motion, potential energy is the energy stored
in an object.

3
 General Chemistry (Chem 1)
State of Matter

1. Solids
-are relatively rigid and have fixed shapes and volumes
-the volumes of solids are virtually independent of temperature and pressure
-solids cannot be compressed because its particles are arranged in a tightly packed, highly ordered structure that
does not include much free space into which they might be squeezed

2. Liquids
-have fixed volumes but flow to assume the shape of their containers
-the volumes of liquids are virtually independent of temperature and pressure
-the particles in a liquid are not arranged in ordered structures like those solids; the are free to move past one
another

3. Gases
-have neither fixed shapes nor fixed volumes and expand to completely fill their containers
- the volume of gases strongly depends on their temperature and pressure (the amount of force exerted on a given
area)
-Particles of gas are widely seperated with much empty space between them
-when gas is compressed, the amount of space between particles is reduced
-when gases cool sufficiently, they become liquid or even solids

Characteristics of the Physical State of Matter

Solid Liquid Gas
Fixed shape Shape of the container (May or may Shape of the container (Fills it)
not fill it)
Its own volume Its own volume Volume of the container
No volume change under pressure Slight volume change under Large volume change under
pressure pressure
Particles are fixed in place and tend Particles are randomly arranged and Particles are widely separated and
to be in a regular (cyrstalline) array free to move about until they bump move independently of one another
into one another

4. Plasma
-consists of highly charged particles with extremely high kinetic energy.
- have no fixed shape or volume, and are less dense than solids or liquids.
-are made up of atoms in which some or all of the electrons have been stripped away and positively
charged nuclei, called ions, roam freely.
-is a hot ionized gas consisting of approximately equal numbers of positively charged ions and
negatively charged electrons.
-are made up of electrically charged particles, they are strongly influenced by electric and magnetic
fields while neutral gases are not.

5. Bose-Einstein Condensate
-produced when a cloud of bosons (a type of elementary particle of matter) is cooled to temperatures
very close to absolute zero (T= O K or -273.15 degrees Celsius, or at -460 degrees Fahrenheit) such
that a large fraction of the bosons condense

4
 General Chemistry (Chem 1)
-include superfluids like cold liquid helium, and superconductors like the nucleons inside a neutro star

Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter

Physical Properties
-properties od matter that can be measured and observed without changing the material’s chemical
composition
-Includes properties that you easily identify just by mere observation such as: appearance, color, texture, and
odor of the materials
-Other physical properties are melting point, boiling point, solubility and density of the material
Classification of Physical Property
1. Intensive Properties or Intrinsic Properties
-are substance-specific properties that do not depend on the amount of a substance
-examples are color, luster, malleability, conductivity, hardness, melting point, freezing point, and boiling
point of the material

2. Extensive Properties or Extrinsic Properties

-Properties that depend on the amount of substance of material
-examples are mass, weight, volume, and length

Chemical Properties
-describe a material’s possibility to undergo chemical change in its composition
-examples are flammability, toxicity, reactivity to water and oxygen, heat combustion, pH, enthalpy of
formation, oxidation states, chemical stability, salt formation, and types of chemical bonds a material forms

Physical and Chemical Changes

Physical Change
-Process where matter can change from one physical state to another without changing its chemical
composition
-For example, liquid water can be heated to form a gas called steam, or steam can be cooled to form
liquid water.
-However, such changes of state do not affect the chemical composition of the substance.
Examples
1. Crushing a can
2. Melting an ice cube
3. Boiling water
4. Mixing sand and water
5. Breaking a glass
6. Dissolving sugar and water
7. Shredding paper
8. Chopping wood

Chemical Changes
-Process in which one or more substances are converted into one or more new substances
-the compounds are chemically different from either of the elements that formed them
-often called a Chemical Reaction
Examples
1. The rusting of iron
2. Combustion (burning) of wood
3. The metabolism of food in the body
4. Digesting sugar with the amylase in saliva
5. Mixing baking soda and vinegar to produce carbon dioxide gas
6. The explosion of fireworks
7. Rotting bananas
8. Milk going sour

5
 General Chemistry (Chem 1)
Classification of Matter

A. Pure Substance
-types of matter always have the same chemical composition, no matter what their origin
-anything which components cannot be broken down trhough physical means

2 types of Pure Substances

1. Element
-is a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances even by a chemical reaction
-are the building block of all matter
Categories of Elements:
 Metals
 Nonmetals
 Mettaloids
 Noble gases

2. Compounds
-sometimes called chemical compounds
-a substance composed of two or more elements combined in definite proportion
-pure substance that can be broken down into simpler forms using chemical means
-is made up of elements that are chemically bonded in fixed ratios
Example
Water (H2O)
Rock salt (NaCl)
Methane (CH4)
Sugar (C12H22O11)
Carbon monoxide (CO)

B. Mixture
-Forms of matter which do not have the same composition in every sample
-consists of two or more elements or compounds with no new chemical bond formed
-possible to seperate mixtures into their component pure substances, separation can be done physically,
using procedures such as grinding, dissolving, or filtering
-chemical process are not needed to separate mixtures

2 Types of Mixture
1. Homogenous mixture
-has uniform composition throughout
-often called a solution
-all components are in a single phase
-mixture is simply any mixture that is uniform in composition throughout. As long as each substance is
mixed in enough to be indistinguishable from the others

6
 General Chemistry (Chem 1)

Solid Homogeneous Mixtures

 Bitumen, the solid form of petroleum and source of gasoline, diesel and other fossil fuels, is a
homogeneous mixture of complex hydrocarbon chemicals.
 Cement is a solid homogeneous mixture of calcium compounds. Mixed with sand, gravel and
water, it becomes concrete, one of the most important building materials in the world.
 Many alloys are homogeneous mixtures of metals, or of a metal and a nonmetallic substance.
Bronze, which is made from copper and tin, is an example of the first kind of alloy. Steel, made
from iron and carbon, is an example of the second.
 Plastics are some of the world's most important homogeneous mixtures. The discovery that certain
mixtures of synthetic organic compounds could be made into solid objects changed the entire
manufacturing industry.
 Wood is a homogeneous mixture. The components that make up living wood are solid, liquid and
gaseous, but all are metabolized by the tree into solid wood.

Liquid Homogeneous Mixtures

 In the human body, blood plasma is an example of a homogeneous mixture. The colorless fluid
holds blood cells in suspension. It makes up a little more than half of the volume of human blood.
 Milk is a homogeneous colloid. Colloids are mixtures that consist of tiny, insoluble droplets
floating in a solvent. Some sources say that colloids are by definition heterogeneous, but by the
naked eye test, milk is a homogeneous liquid suspension of fats in water.
 Most wines and liquors are homogeneous mixtures. The science of making wine and liquor is
based on employing ethanol and/or water as a solvent on various substances - charred oak for
bourbon whiskey, for example, or juniper in gin - to create unique flavors.
 Water itself is an example of a homogeneous mixture. All but the purest water contains dissolved
minerals and gases. These are dissolved throughout the water, so the mixture presents in the same
phase and is homogeneous.
 Liquid laundry detergent is another example of a homogeneous mixture of various soaps and
chemicals for washing clothes.

Gaseous Homogeneous Mixtures

 The air that you breathe is a homogeneous mixture of oxygen, nitrogen, argon, and carbon dioxide,
along with other elements in smaller amounts. Because each layer of the Earth's atmosphere has a
different density, each layer of air is its own homogeneous mixture.
 Natural gas is a gaseous heterogeneous mixture of methane and other hydrocarbons used as a fuel.
 So-called "neon signs" actually use a number of different elemental gases and homogeneous
gaseous mixtures to create their trademark glow. Argon and mercury vapor, for example, create a
vibrant blue.
 Nitrous oxide is one of many gaseous homogeneous mixtures used for anesthesia. As an
anesthesia, nitrous oxide is used in a 50/50 solution with oxygen. In fact, doctors colloquially
refer to nitrous oxide as "gas and air!"
 Several homogeneous mixtures of gases, such as heliox and trimix, are used in SCUBA diving.

7
 General Chemistry (Chem 1)

2. Heterogenous mixture
-a mixture that is not uniform throughout
-different samples have their components present in different proportions
-In chemistry, it is the same. On the macroscopic scale, a mixture may appear homogeneous, yet
become heterogeneous as you compare the composition of smaller and smaller samples
-heterogeneous mixture contains components in different phases

Examples of Heterogeneous Mixtures

 Concrete is a heterogeneous mixture of an aggregate, cement, and water.

 Sugar and sand form a heterogeneous mixture. If you look closely, you can identify tiny sugar
crystals and particles of sand.
 Ice cubes in cola form a heterogeneous mixture. The ice and the soda are two distinct phases
of matter (solid and liquid).
 Salt and pepper form a heterogeneous mixture.
 Chocolate chip cookies are a heterogeneous mixture. If you take a bite from a cookie, you
may not get the same number of chips as you get in another bite.
 Soda is considered a heterogeneous mixture. It contains water, sugar, and carbon dioxide,
which forms bubbles. While the sugar, water, and flavorings may form a chemical solution,
the carbon dioxide bubbles are not uniformly distributed throughout the liquid.

How to Differentiate Between Matters