Living in the Coast Series 5

Living in the Coast

PEOPLE AND INSTITUTIONS
Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh
Ministry of Water Resources
Water Resources Planning Organization (WARPO)

Living in the Coast

PEOPLE AND INSTITUTIONS

Mohiuddin Ahmad

September 2005

Program Development Office

Integrated Coastal Zone Management Plan
Living in the Coast
PEOPLE AND INSTITUTIONS

Date of publication
September 2005

Published by
PDO-ICZMP
Saimon Center (5th Floor)
House 4A, Road 22
Gulshan 1, Dhaka 1212
Bangladesh

Tel: (880—2) 9892787, 8826614

Fax: (880-2) 8826614
E-mail: pdo@iczmpbd.org
Web: www.iczmpbangladesh.org

Cover and layout

Rounakul Islam

PDO-ICZMP (Program Development Office for

Integrated Coastal Zone Management Plan)
Water Resources Planning Organization (WARPO)
Ministry of Water Resources
Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh

PDO-ICZMP project is jointly financed by the governments of

Bangladesh, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom

ISBN: 984 8540 040

PDO-ICZMP project has initiated a series
titled Living in the Coast to enhance
knowledge base on communities, issues,
processes and dynamics in the coastal zone
of Bangladesh. So far four documents have
been published on People and Livelihoods,
Problems, Opportunities and Challenges,
Measuring Quality of Life and
Urbanization. This document is fifth in the
series with focus on institutions.
Mohiuddin Ahmad has prepared the
document. WARPO and PDO
professionals reviewed the draft and gave
suggestions for improvement.
 PREFACE
The people have intricate relationship with institutions. The situation is perhaps
more complex at the local level. People are utilizing services provided by the
government, like, physical infrastructures, health and educational services, relief
and rehabilitation services for the destitute and extension services for farmers and
fishers. Accessing the services is often constrained by institutional bottlenecks. In
some sectors the institutions play a more facilitating role and in some other
spheres they have negative image. On an average, the role played by the
institutions is very important.
The goal of ICZM is to promote sustainable livelihoods of coastal communities
in harmony with nature. Livelihoods differ in different social, ecological and
institutional settings. One important task of the ICZMP project is to improve the
understanding of the micro level institutional arrangements in the coastal zone,
which the people face in their day-to-day life. This is essential for the
development of a meaningful coastal zone strategy. The underlying objective is
to find a mechanism that strengthens community capacity to enhance livelihoods
and thereby well-being of households.
From the outset attempt has been made by PDO-ICZMP to grasp a local level
perspective of institutions that influence life and livelihoods of the communities
living in vulnerable areas. People’s point of view in this regard was largely
captured through a perception survey in 2002 (WP004). Three separate case
studies on local level institutional arrangements under project conditions were
done in 2003, one for KJDRP in Khulna-Jessore (WP013), one for CDSP in
Noakhali (WP019) and one for ECFC in Cox’s Bazar (WP023). A review of
local institutional environment was done in the same year (WP018). A study on
the role and coverage of NGOs has been done in 2004 (WP022). Besides, there is
a large reservoir of documents that has touched upon the issue. The present
document is an attempt to synthesize some of the observations, findings and
experiences.
The core objective of this exercise is to understand and conceptualize
institutional environment as experienced by the coastal people in their everyday
life. The analysis is likely to broaden the discourse on institutional aspects from a
grassroots perspective under concrete realities of coastal Bangladesh.
Living in the Coast People and Institutions

CONTENTS

GLOSSARY .......................................................................................................... III

ACRONYMS..........................................................................................................IV
1 INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................. 1
Perspective ....................................................................................................... 1
Resource management ..................................................................................... 1
Access to resources.......................................................................................... 2
Conceptual framework..................................................................................... 2
Present context................................................................................................. 4
2 WORLD OF INSTITUTIONS ............................................................................ 5
Social capital.................................................................................................... 5
Life in the periphery ........................................................................................ 6
Domains......................................................................................................... 17
3 GOVERNANCE.............................................................................................. 19
Enabling environment.................................................................................... 19
Good governance ........................................................................................... 19
Development administration.......................................................................... 19
NGOs ............................................................................................................. 21
Desire and despair.......................................................................................... 23
Vision for local governance........................................................................... 25
Perspective from below ................................................................................. 26
Household well-being .................................................................................... 30
Synthesis ........................................................................................................ 31
4 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................... 33
REFERENCES ..................................................................................................... 35

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Living in the Coast People and Institutions

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GLOSSARY

Andolon Movement
Aratder Commission agent, whole seller
Bagda Brackish water shrimp
Bari House, group of kinship-based households
Bawalee Tree feller in the forest
Bazaar Market place
Beel Perennial water body in the floodplain
Beri bundh Dyke
Borka Women’s outfit for veil
Bundh Dyke
Denmohor Emolument
Gher Shrimp field
Ghush Bribe
Golda Freshwater prawn
Gram Sarkar Village government
Guchhchhagram Cluster village
Gushti Kinship group
Imam One who leads prayer in the mosque
Kabinnama Contract for Muslim marriage
Kacha Earthen, shanty
Khas Undisposed government (land)
LG Local Government
Macha Bamboo-made platform inside the house
Mama Maternal uncle, patron
Masjid Mosque
Mastan Muscleman
Mawalee Honey collector
Mohajan Moneylender
Noubahini Navy
Para Neighborhood
Paribarik Adalat Family Court
Pona Fry (fish)
Porda Veil
Salish Traditional court for arbitration
Samaj Village or neighborhood based informal social institution
Samity Association, cooperative
Shutki Dry fish
Taka Bangladesh currency

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Union Geographic-administrative unit under an upazila comprising

some villages
Union Parishad Local government at the union level
Upazila Geographic-administrative unit under a district comprising
several unions
Wapda Popular name for Bangladesh Water Development Board
(erstwhile Water and Power Development Authority)

ACRONYMS

BDR Bangladesh Rifles

BIDS Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies
BRDB Bangladesh Rural Development Board
CBA Collective Bargaining Agent
CBO Community-based Organization
CDSP Char Development and Settlement Project
DAE Department of Agriculture Extension
DCR Duplicate Carbon Receipt
DFID Department for International Development
DoF Department of Fisheries
ECFC Empowerment of Coastal Fisherfolk Community
EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone
FWA Family Welfare Assistant
ICZM Integrated Coastal Zone Management
KJDRP Khulna-Jessore Drainage Rehabilitation Project
LGED Local Government Engineering Department
NGO Non-government Organization
PDO-ICZMP Program Development Office-Integrated Coastal Zone
Management Plan
PDSCL Perception of Direct Stakeholders on Coastal Livelihoods
SMC School Management Committee
UNDCC Union Development Coordination Committee
UNO Upazila Nirbahi Officer (upazila executive officer)
UP Union Parishad
VDP Village Defense Police

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1 INTRODUCTION

Perspective

People mainly remain within their own community and learn to undertake the
same activities from their parents. Members of these communities become
disadvantaged and marginalized over time because of three main reasons:
◊ there is a decline in the demand for their services;
◊ they are faced with the problem of occupational mobility; and
◊ the mainstream population also treats them as social outcast.
These communities are deprived of education, knowledge and know-how to
change their realities. These people are surviving at the margin mostly in
miserable situations, endure sub-human living conditions, ill health and high rate
of mortality, and are subject to social and physical insecurities (Planning
Commission, 2004).
There are two axioms. First, poverty is all encompassing. So it has to be reduced.
Secondly, the natural resource base supporting livelihoods is dwindling and
degrading. Hence this resource base needs conservation and sustainable
management. The linkage between poverty and conservation of the natural
resources is a mutually reinforcing process. Poverty perpetuates environmental
degradation as the poor are compelled to ‘mine’ natural capital for survival
beyond the sustainable limit, and this leads to depletion and degradation of the
resource base and deterioration of the quality of life (Planning Commission,
2004). Any strategy for sustainable environmental management has to address
the core issue of alternative livelihoods, as the poor won’t swallow conservation
messages in empty stomach. This is a challenge in a society with scanty
resources and casual approaches.

Resource management

There are too many issues, while resources are scarce. Every bit of resource, be it
money or idea or knowledge or technology or linkage or patronage, needs to be
utilized in a context of competing and often conflicting demand, in a manner that
optimizes its utility. In a situation where plans are of ad hoc nature designed in
accordance with availability of funds and short-term project objectives, it is
almost impossible to achieve the long-term goal of sustainability. In fact,
sustainability is something, which perhaps is not attainable, in a sense the society
confronts new issues and challenges once the old ones are resolved. One can only

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endeavor to identify and innovate good practices that would contribute to

enhancement of livelihoods. The constant search for a self-propelled mechanism
to attain this goal continues.
Conservation and sustainable management of critical ecosystems can only be
convincing and successful if the people, particularly the poor, can find alternative
livelihoods. The most contributing elements in a program toward attaining such a
difficult goal is to believe in the people as vehicle of development and enhancing
their capacity to cope, as well as to overcome the barriers. This needs continuous
support from all endogenous and exogenous entities and processes. They together
constitute the institutional environment that either promotes or inhibits people’s
initiatives.

Access to resources

Discussion of resource management without addressing the access issue is

putting a cart before the horse. In the backdrop of increasing population, growing
urbanization, competing and conflicting demand for resources, ascendancy of the
market and the emerging tenets of globalization, norms and values corresponding
to the access issue have also undergone changes. Hence the need for a framework
and mechanism that takes into consideration such changes cannot be
exaggerated. Often it is attempted to analyze the issue and to suggest
interventions from a governance point of view that emanates from the
conventional notion of looking from above and treating the people as recipients.
The alternative notion is to view access not as a privilege but as a right that has
shrunk over time due to many factors. This calls for a conceptual framework that
views people as active participants and owners of the process that set in motion
their advancement.

Conceptual framework

People live on a set of assets. Using the assets, people undertake a series of
activities, which generate income (goods, services and cash). This line of
thinking focuses on the household as a decision-making unit. Members within a
household relate to each other in an intricate manner. The local environment
influences household attitudes, assets and activities. There is a local resource
base to which a household has access or not. Increasing opportunities refer to
both availability of and access to local resource base.
Access to local resource base, nevertheless, is influenced by several conditions
that include, among others, socio-cultural norms and values, power relations,
legal settings and administrative arrangements. While socio-cultural aspects are
the domains of the individuals and groups that evolve over the centuries, legal

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and administrative matters conventionally correspond to institutional framework

which functions under the aegis of the state and personified through the
government bureaucracy. These two are inter-related in a sense that they depend
on and/or contribute to each other. Together they define the context for
institutional environment that affects access to resources positively or negatively
in a given time.
Enabling institutional environment essentially corresponds to a setting, which
encourages participation of all stakeholders and stake losers to achieve the
desired goals in all stages of resource management, from design to
implementation. This notion transcends beyond a formal and hierarchical
structure with rigid delineation of tasks, and encompasses a multitude of factors
including attitude and value with respect to participation. How does it work? This
has been dealt with in the following chapters.
Government mainly deals with two areas: public administration and
development. With the passage of time, the role of the government has
undergone significant changes and a host of other institutions have emerged to
cater the needs of the people. Development is no more an exclusive domain of
the public sector. Under changed circumstances, different formations belonging
to the national government, local government, private sector and a wide range of
NGOs and civil society organizations have developed with competing and
complementary roles. Besides, there are formal and informal functional groups
and coalitions of the people at the bottom who are increasingly being
acknowledged as focus of all development efforts. This has replaced the earlier
notion that the people are mere recipients and objects of development services
and governance. All these social
and institutional entities, Box 1: Good governance
however, operate under a nexus
of power relations and linkages, Good governance is defined as “harmony
between performance of the state and aspiration
which frames the overall
of the society”. And the gap between these two is
institutional environment. the absence of good governance. Lack of good
The institutional environment governance produces disparity, injustice,
includes a set of conditions that deprivation and lawlessness in the society in
facilitates or impedes the general and for the poor in particular. In order
to attain a higher rate of poverty reduction there
performance of certain
is no escape from ensuring good governance.
individuals or social groups and
thus affect positively or Planning Commission, 2004.
negatively livelihoods of the people. If institutional arrangements work well,
people tend to believe that “good governance” prevails (see Box 1).
This is invariably linked to the wider aspect of how resources are managed and
how access to these resources is regulated. The functioning of this framework is

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the consequence, as well as reflection, of certain processes. These processes

either accelerate the pace of enhancement, or hold back the development process.
Any change in these processes will change the institutional environment and will
thereby affect the livelihoods of the people and vice versa.

Present context

Creating an enabling institutional environment is believed to be instrumental for

all stakeholders involved in the Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)
process. More specifically these include: (i) the organizations with their
mandates, capacities and capabilities; (ii) arrangements and procedures for such
issues as: communication and coordination; financing; monitoring and
evaluation; and (iii) tools that enable and support ICZM. These relate to all levels
of government including local government and to all functions of management:
policymaking, planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation.
The coastal zone of Bangladesh1 is disadvantaged in many respects. The
vulnerability of the people is often amplified because of physical conditions and
isolation. Density of local government institutions (UP), growth centers and
NGOs is lower in the exposed coast than other parts of the country (PDO-
ICZMP, 2003a). All these factors contribute to accessing services negatively.
Local level institutional arrangements had always been a gray area. The
government and corporate attitude has undergone significant change in recent
years as the need for a bottom-up and participatory approach with meaningful
partnership is increasingly being acknowledged in government policy documents
and pursued in development initiatives.
In order to conceptualize issues of governance at the local level and to evolve a
workable mechanism to steer the process of development for those who matters,
it is indeed necessary to have a deeper understanding of the issues and processes
at the ground level. The key words are: local level, institution, participation and
well-being.

1
Coastal zone of Bangladesh includes 19 districts facing the sea and the estuary and the EEZ. The
districts are Bagerhat, Barguna, Barisal, Bhola, Chandpur, Chittagong, Cox’s Bazar, Feni,
Gopalganj, Jessore, Jhalokati, Khulna, Lokkhipur, Narail, Noakhali, Patuakhali, Pirojpur, Satkhira
and Shariatpur

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2 WORLD OF INSTITUTIONS

Social capital

Institutional possessions upon which people draw in pursuit of their livelihood

objectives broadly constitute “social capital”. These are developed through:
◊ networks and connections, either vertical (patron/client) or horizontal
(between individuals with shared or competing interests) that increase
people’s trust and ability to work together and expand their access to
wider institutions, such as political or civic bodies;
◊ membership of formalized groups or traditional social entities, which
often entails adherence to
mutually-agreed or Table 1: Social capital
commonly accepted rules, Household status Social capital
norms and sanctions; and Poor • NGO
• Marriage
◊ relationship or trust, • Relation with neighbors
reciprocity and exchange • Nuclear family
that facilitate cooperation, • Samity
reduce transaction cost and • Relief
provide the basis for • Leadership
informal safety nets. Medium • Marriage
• NGO
Access to and linkage with • Samity
institutions are social capital from a • Training
household perspective. People draw • Nuclear family
strength from certain institutions that • Club
are in close proximity of their • CBA
existence and are accessible. Many Rich • Marriage
of these are membership • Samity
organizations. According to a PDO- • NGO
ICZMP survey, respondents • Relation with neighbors
indicated several of them (see Table • Local committee
1). • Union Parishad
• Political party
Among social capitals are various
Source: PDO-ICZMP, 2002
formal and informal associations and
coalitions from which an individual or a household derives certain benefit,
privilege or power. This may not be an exhaustive list. However, marriage is
considered an important asset among all socio-economic strata, while poorer
households consider living juda or niribili (nuclear family) as an asset. ‘Relief’

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(dole) is vital for the poor. The rich considers membership with Union Parishad
(UP) and political party as asset.
Ownership of or access to social capital by households broadly determines their
capability, scope and survival strategy. Together these resources provide a
household with an enabling environment on which its members operate. For
example, dowry related problems are one of the main reasons for worsening of
women’s social capital, while for men, discontinuation of membership of NGO-
group or samity is a major ‘disinvestment’. Marriage of son or daughter and
related matrimonial connections are perceived as a way of improving social
capital (PDO-ICZMP, 2002).
In the coastal zone of Bangladesh, people live in a complex network of
institutions that influence their lives and livelihoods. Some are endemic and some
are induced from above. Some are regulatory in nature and some are service
providers. Some can be ignored and some cannot be. A host of such institutions
can be revealed from life in the periphery.

Life in the periphery

As soon as a farmer or a fisher or a day laborer or an artisan, female or male,

walks out of the home, s/he interacts with or confronts institutions of various
magnitude and shade. People feel them even when they stay at home. Institutions
do not necessarily exist according to their liking. People have to face them, deal
with them and play around them. Grassroots understandings and experiences
around these institutions are indeed diverse. These may be exposed from
following life stories based on in-depth interview.2

2
For details, see Perceptions of Direct Stakeholders on Coastal Livelihoods, PDO-ICZMP, 2002

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Rabeya (Moheshkhali)
We do not have a radio or any other means to know weather forecast.
Government should supply radio to the villagers. We have to go a
long distance to see the flag, which is the only signal we can see
about weather. I have to wear borka (women’s outfit covering body
and face) many times to go and see the flag, as other male members
of the family leave in the early morning for work and return in the
evening.
With assistance from the government we built a new house four
months after the 1991 cyclone. My eldest son took the main
responsibility for all arrangements to start a new life. He became a
marine fisher like his father. He is with a big group of 50 members
with a big boat. They all work for a mohajan (proprietor, owner of
boat and gear) and stay for a long period in the sea. It is a regular
source of income for my family though my present husband has a dry
fish business from the beginning. He is involved in fish drying and
selling shutki (dry fish) in the local bazaar (market) or to the aratder
(wholesaler).

Women are to follow the norms of porda (veil) that often create
social seclusion and reduce social mobility. An age-old
perception is that borka is an outfit that protects women from
degeneration. Traditional social norms constitute a powerful
institutional domain in a micro setting.
Mohajan is a private moneylender who lends money, though at
exorbitant rate of interest, but also gives an image of a benefactor
to the clientele he serves. Mohajan is an institution that combines
the roles of a landowner, a financier, a creditor and a patron.
Aratder is a dominant actor in the local market. He connects the
buyer and the seller, negotiates price of a commodity and
maintains stock for speculative purpose. He maintains backward
(producer/retailer) and forward (buyer from the city, other areas)
linkage. Often the aratdar and the mohajan are the same person
and the local bazaar rotates round him.

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Shanoda (Noakhali)
I have seven daughters, five are married, two are school going. One studies
in class III and another in class II, and a son has dropped out after class VI.
He now works with his father in fishing.
I never went to school because my father died when I was a child. My
mother raised us with much hardship. We were two brothers and two sisters.
My mother is still alive
Our Union Parishad Chairman rehabilitated us in this Guchchhagram
(cluster village). I came to this Guchchhagram along with eight families of
my gushti (kinship group). I got a plot of homestead, which was registered in
my name, and a tin-roof house.
I have been a member of samity (cooperative society) and my wife is a
member of another women’s group. We have saved taka 12,000. But this
money is lying with a NGO. We wanted to withdraw this money but the
NGO is not giving our money back. We do not know the reasons.

There is a school in almost all neighborhoods. The

government runs some and some are privately operated.
Government schools are accessible to all.
The government from time to time rehabilitates landless
households in cluster villages. Union Parishad (UP) usually
nominates candidates for settlement.
Villagers belong to particular gushti (kinship groups). Often
dwellings evolve or are arranged in a village following
kinship lineage. Kinship is seemingly a traditional informal
institution, but often very influential and irrefutable.
Many women are member of samity or NGO-sponsored
groups, and so also their husbands. These groups deliver
certain services to respective members and are perceived as
patrons in a local context.
Non-government organizations, popularly known as NGO,
operate in many villages. They are involved in social
mobilization among poor women and men, encourage
people to save money (often the NGO keeps the money) and
provide credit and other services.

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Krishna (Khulna city)

I got a work through a contractor in a sea-fish processing
factory. I thought my new work would fetch a higher income, a
regular income, a fulltime job and other job benefits. But it is a
work on a daily basis: no work, no pay. I go to work early
morning and work till the evening. I work very hard, but wage
is not enough. The contractor decides rate of payment. There is
no work if there is not enough supply of fish to the factory. My
work depends on the wish of the contractor. If he does not want
me, I do not have work and income on that day. I go to work at
6 o’ clock in the morning and continue till 6 in the evening.
Many days I work without lunch.

In a private sector factory (manufacturing

or processing enterprise), many workers
are employed casually, on a day-to-day
basis. There is no formal service rule for
them.
Between the employer and the worker
stands a contractor or a broker who
decides the fate of the worker.

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Nurul Huq (Moheshkhali)

We go to the government hospital but we are to pay the doctor, 40
taka each time. He writes prescription only. He never gives medicine.
If I say, “I am poor, I do not have money or I have only 15 taka,” then
he says, “Take a part of the prescription, buy only that part of the
prescribed medicines, and die.” I do not understand why the people do
not protest this. Because, the doctors are paid by the government. But
this doctor is taking money from us.
I had stock of shutki worth 200,000 taka in which a mohajan invested
56,000 taka. The rest I borrowed. The tornado of 1997 ruined the total
stock. I became almost mad because of this heavy loss. My house was
blown away, and I got nothing of my house back. Our life was saved,
because we took shelter in upazila office. The Red Crescent Society
made us aware about the cyclone signal. If it is Signal No. 5, the Red
Crescent hoists the flag and they also make announcements using
loudspeakers. Their staff visits each house and asks the people to go to
the cyclone shelter and other safe places. People go to cyclone shelter
and to upazila buildings. We take our family members, cattle and
chicken to safe places. We keep valuable things underground. If there
is foodstuff at home we take it with us when we go to a safe place.

Hospital or a health center is a much-coveted

institution. People have high expectations and
mixed experiences. People visit the hospital and
are often denied of services.
Red Crescent Society is a quasi-government
institution involved in disaster management. It
has a regular program on cyclone preparedness.

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Sabekunnahar (Chakaria)
We are many in the family. So my husband has to work as a day laborer.
But he never allows me to do work as laborer. I am always busy for
housework and looking after children. Though we are not rich but we have a
social status. As a Muslim woman, we cannot go out even with borka. My
husband, until my sons grew up, was the only earning member of the family.
As a result we had problems of providing sufficient food for all. We give
priority to rice and vegetables or shutki. We do not buy meat or fish, as we
are poor.
I do not know how to read and write. But I learned to put signature. I am a
member of a NGO and I have 1,500 taka savings. I took loan from the NGO
thrice. Once I bought a sewing machine for my son and he now works as a
tailor. Next time I used the loan for salt farming. Recently I used the loan for
rice cultivation. My husband spends money for all purposes and I never
spend cash for myself. But my husband always discusses with me and he
tells me in details how he spends money.

Customs and traditions often influence choice of

occupation and social mobility. In many areas, a
dominant perception is that women should not
work outside the home.
Family is a core institution where wife and
husband jointly take decision. Nature and extent of
participation and involvement in decision-making
may vary from family to family.

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Saleha (Chittagong city)

When I was 16, I was wedded to a rich fisherman. But I noticed that he wants to
marry again and again. He had his first wife with many children. I had a son too.
Though I was his wife but I had to stay with my parents and I had to work for
them. He was reluctant to provide expenses for my son and I was upset with
him. So I wanted divorce and filed a case against him in the paribarik adalat
(family court). He went to a village leader who arranged a salish (arbitration).
The verdict was that I would get 20,000 taka as denmohor (emolument), though
an amount of 60,000 taka was written in the kabinnama (contract document for
Muslim marriage). I sacrificed bulk of the money in order to have custody of my
son. Because he gave me the condition, “If you want son, I will pay you only
20,000 taka, and if you want all the money then you will not get son.” So I have
a feeling that I bought my son from him at 40,000 taka. I also put a condition
that he would never come to claim my son and he agreed. My son is 12 years
old and he (former husband) never came to see him (son). I used the money to
arrange wedding of my two sisters. I also spent some money for my son and
brother as well.

Marriage is a traditional institution through which a family gets

legal entity, as well as social recognition. Registration of
marriage is mandatory and both the parties (wife and husband)
are to agree on a set of rights and obligations enunciated in the
kabinnama.
Paribarik adalat is a legal arrangement where a woman can seek
justice in matters within the family that deprive her of legitimate
rights and entitlements. This arrangement has helped the
judiciary to reach doorsteps of the people.
Salish is also a sort of a traditional court. However, it is very
local, often based in the bari (conglomerate of several
households belonging to a kinship group), or in the para
(neighborhood), or in the village, or within the gushti. Local
leaders resolve disputes amicably before they go out of control.

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Habibur (Chittagong city)

I need at least 100 taka per day for food for my
family. My two children go to the school. I have to
spend 500 taka for children’s education and another
200 taka per month for paper and pen. I earn 4,000
taka per month. I get bonus twice a year, each time
2,500 taka. I am a permanent employee in a textile
mill. If the government pay scale is implemented in
our mill, my monthly salary would have been higher.
The union has been trying to negotiate with the
owners, through andolan (movement), but they are
not yet successful. The union leaders are working
against the laborers, because they are getting salary
as per the government pay scale. There are 1,100
permanent and 600 casual laborers in this mill. My
wife is a casual laborer in this mill. She earns 1,500-
2,000 taka a month.

Workers often join a labor union to negotiate

or bargain with the management authority. At
the enterprise-level union, there is a collective
bargaining agent (CBA), which represents
workers’ interests. Sometimes CBA leaders
covertly work for the management against the
interest of the workers.

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Sayera (Lokkhipur)
We have borrowed 13,000 taka from Krishi
Bank. During flood, our house was inundated
and there was no work. So my husband had to
take loan. We actually survived with this
money immediately after flood. We did not
get any support from the government or any
other agency.

Krishi Bank is a specialized financial

institution in the public sector that mainly
provides credit to farmers. It has branches
all over the country.
Government is the ultimate institution
people depend on. It is often perceived as
something abstract, something distant.

14
Living in the Coast People and Institutions

Dulal Gazi (Kalapara)

We are not allowed to catch fish in the river for three months, April to
June. This is a Government law. If anybody catches fish during this
period, police will take away his net. But some do fishing during this
time, because they have other ways. If you pay 50 taka to police, you
have no problem.
I did not receive any help from the government in the past and I do not
expect any. People have lost confidence. If government allocates 10
taka for me, it will be lost on the way before reaching me. Rather it is a
big loss for the government if it allocates something for me. So, I don’t
want any help from the government.

There is a fishing law banning catch of certain

fish species below a minimum size. This law has
been enacted for the purpose of conservation of
open water fish resources and for sustainable
harvest of fish. Poor fishers in some areas
sometimes suffer because of this law, as they do
not have any alternative source of gainful
employment.
Police is the principal law-enforcing agency in
the country. Unlawful activities are sometimes
performed by a section of the people in
conjunction with a section of the policemen.

15
Living in the Coast People and Institutions

Abdus Sattar (Shyamnagar)

We do not have borshar panir bonna (monsoon flood). The Wapda bundh (BWDB dyke)
protects us from flood. But if there is a big flood, then it cannot protect us. Usually there
is no flood in this area. If there is heavy rain, then there is flood inside the bundh. Flood
caused by breach in the dyke is very dangerous. It comes all on a sudden and takes away
everything. Bundh has benefited the rich. They can make chingri gher (shrimp field). But
the poor are not benefited from the bundh. There is no agriculture and the poor cannot
sell labor. Chingri gher requires less labor.
My house is on khas land (government land). This plot is allotted in my mama’s
(maternal uncle) name. But I have to give money for DCR (paper for lease) once in every
five years. I am living on this plot for last 20 years.
I collect honey from Sundarban. Chaitra-Baishakh (mid-March to Mid-May) is the best
season for honey collection. I can earn 60-70 taka per day. We 8-9 persons in a group go
to the forest with a boat, which we hire from a mohajan. Mohajan gives us capital, say
20,000 taka. We are to sell honey to the mohajan. If the market price of honey is 3,000
taka per maund, we are to sell it for 2,000 taka. Every time we go to the forest, we risk
our life. We pay ghush (bribe) to the forester every time we go. Otherwise they threaten
us to arrest. Since we pay ghush, we cut tree and sell it in the market. It would be a great
help if the government protects us from the torture of the forester. We have to pay 200-
300 taka every time to BDR. Ghush o debo, abar nao o khali anbo, ta hoi na (since we
pay bribe, we cannot return with empty boat). We must cut tree to manage money to pay
the forester and the BDR, and for ourselves too. Sometimes the dacoits snatch everything
from us. I was victimized more than hundred times in my life. But I have to go to the
forest, because honey collection is my main source of income.

BWDB (erstwhile WAPDA) is a mandated agency for flood control

and drainage. It has a network of defensive dikes to protect land from
saline intrusion, as well as monsoon flood.
Khas land is an important public resource, which is leased out to
individual farmers on a temporary basis by the Union Bhumi Office
(erstwhile Tahsil office). A farmer has to pay a certain amount of lease
money and receives a paper (DCR) entitling him/her to use the land.
People around forests, particularly adjoining Sundarban, collect forest
resources for their livelihood. The honey collectors, locally known as
mawalee, do it legally by obtaining ‘permit’ from the Forest
Department. Sometimes forest guards harass them. Sometimes
mawalees unlawfully encroach in the forest. Payment of kickback is a
common practice.
BDR is a law-enforcing agency particularly in border areas. They are
very much visible in some parts of Sundarban. Bawalees (wood cutters)
and mawalees (honey collectors) deal with a section of BDR personnel
in the same manner as that of the forest guards.

16
Living in the Coast People and Institutions

Domains

Members of a household interact with, submit to and served by multifarious

institutions or social formations as outlined in the preceding section. These are of
different types based on their nature and purpose. The nature and extent of
relationship with these depend on the local context, need and convenience.
Institutions experienced and perceived in a micro setting are summarized in
Table 2. This is mere an indicative list and does not necessarily exhaustive.

Table 2: Household’s world of institutions

Nature Purpose Type Example
Ownership Service Public Krishi Bank
Private Micro-credit NGO
Authority Sanction Legislative Fisheries
Department
Social norm Porda
Temporal Legal framework Customary Salish
Contemporary Paribarik Adalat
Composition Employment Personified Contractor
Collective Labor Union
Identity Governance Concrete Union Parishad
Abstract Government
Membership Security Autonomous Samity
Induced Political Party
Belongingness Well-being Neighborhood Samaj
Kinship Gushti

All these institutions may be grouped into three broad domains (see Figure 1).
The corresponding domains are: community, market and state.
Community
Community level institutions are those, which directly deal with households and
individuals within households. Institutions are obviously very local, traditional
and are often based on broad social consensus. Many of these are of informal
nature, but are not necessarily less authoritative. Some are essentially a set of
norms and values that has evolved over centuries. Among these is marriage,
family, tradition, porda, salish, samaj, gushti, etc.

17
Living in the Coast People and Institutions

Market
Market institutions obviously follow the norms of the market, be it of crops or
craft products, or labor or services. Market institutions cater the need of both the
groups, people with surplus or deficit, producer or consumer, employer or
worker. Typical market institutions in a micro setting are bank, aratdar,
contractor, bazaar, micro-credit NGO, etc.

S T AT E
H ospital
Fo rest D e partm ent
K rishi B a nk
P olice
BDR
Fishing la w
P arib arik A dala t
U nion P arisha d
U nion B hum i O ffic e
G ove rnm e nt
C O M M U N ITY

M arria ge
Fam ily
P ord a
S alish
G ush ti M AR K E T
S am aj
S am ity A ratd ar
CBA H O U S E H O LD C ontractor
C lub B a zaa r
S chool C redit N G O
M oh aja n

Figure 1: Household’s world of institutions

State
Institutions that are embodied in the state or offshoot of the state are perceived as
exogenous formations from a grassroots perspective. Among these are service
providers, regulatory bodies and law-enforcing agencies. A major point of
departure of many institutions in this category is their role in ‘development’.
These institutions operate through a command structure with a chain of
operational points connecting from the macro to the micro level. Visible among
them are Forest Department, Police Department, BDR, Fisheries Department,
Paribarik Adalat, Union Parishad, Union Bhumi Office, etc. The notion of the
overall ‘Government’ exists at the top in abstraction.

18
Living in the Coast People and Institutions

3 GOVERNANCE

Enabling environment

One major reason and manifestation of poverty is limited access to public

services. There are a number of government agencies for service delivery at
various tiers of local government (district, upazila and union). But in the absence
of effective ‘clientele’ organizations, the delivery structure had remained
somewhat inaccessible and inefficient. In particular, this system did not reach the
poor and the disadvantaged in all cases (Planning Commission, 1998). Benefit of
expenditures in social sectors generally trickles down to the poor people but since
the level of expenditure is not high, benefit is limited. An enabling institutional
environment for enhancement of livelihoods of the poor therefore necessitates a
reorientation of these organizations with a pro-poor functional approach.
An enabling institutional environment thus essentially envisages a need-based
approach and a broad social consensus, which together make it functional and
enduring. Institutions include norms and values, rules and organizations, both
formal and informal, which influence human behavior in a particular setting. If
institutions are discriminatory, authoritarian and unjust, they do not work. Large
sections of people feel alienated if institutions do not cater their needs and
aspirations.

Good governance

Good governance is considered to be a sine qua non for development (Planning

Commission, 2004). The issue of governance has seldom been addressed in
conventional development literature, though fruits of development are often lost
due to lack of Good governance. This is manifested through corruption,
harassment, humiliation and deliberate wastage of time, lack of respect for
common people, unfriendly attitude, negligence to duties, faulty land record and
land administration system leading to perpetual land-related disputes, plundering
of government-sponsored relief and stipend-related assistance, nepotism,
violence against women and children, terrorism and extortion. Women continue
to face entrenched barriers and insecurities in deepening their gains achieved in
social and economic fronts. Governance weaknesses stand in the way of
acceleration in the growth process (ibid).

Development administration

An overview of the existing planning and implementation process in the local

level shows that though it is meant for the people, the people are seldom visible.

19
Living in the Coast People and Institutions

A major weakness in the process is lack of public participation, which is in-built

in public institutions dealing with development projects. The government is
aware of this fact as it admits in a document (see Box 2).
The local level units of line ministries/departments have both the mandate and
the authority to steer the process of development at the local level. This has never
been a smooth process. There are problems inherent in the institutional structure
and mechanism through which the government operates, as well as there are
constraints that emanate from the overall social context. The main constraints as
envisaged by the government are outlined below.
• Although “village” is the basic
geographic unit in Bangladesh Box 2: Institutions: for what, for
and constitutes the bottom-most whom
entity for identification of
development needs in rural In most cases, rural institutions were
developed as extension of government
areas, there is hardly any
bureaucracy rather than people’s
“effective development organization with lack of awareness and
organization” in it. Frequently, it information on the part of the poor.
is held that an average village in
Bangladesh is too small to be The institutions, largely, were
regarded as a formal controlled by the rich/influential classes
organizational unit. On the other without much provision to protect the
interests of weaker sections of the
hand, without such an
community.
organization, the villagers,
particularly the rural poor, find it In most of these institutions,
difficult to effectively people’s participation and control were
participate in the development lacking resulting in a failure to provide
process. forum for collective decision-making.

• There are a number of The major objectives of such

institutions were seen as
government agencies for service
distribution/utilizing resources injected
delivery at various tiers of local from outside rather than mobilizing local
government. But in the absence resources.
of effective ‘clientele’
organizations, the delivery (Planning Commission, 1991)
structure remains rather inaccessible and inefficient. In particular, this system
does not reach the poor and the disadvantaged in most cases.
• Various efforts to organize the people at the grassroots level through local
government bodies also did not succeed. In the absence of a democratically
elected government, these bodies are used to serve political interest of the
power in the central government. As a result, local government bodies in
Bangladesh are an extended arm of the Ministry of Local Government and

20
Living in the Coast People and Institutions

Rural Development and Co-operative and, as such, they could not grow on
their own. In particular, they remained heavily dependent on the government
for their resources and initiatives.
• The government personnel who were sent to the rural areas to work for the
poor, largely proved to be inadequately motivated for participatory local
level development (for various reasons such as inadequate training, incentive
structure, logistics, colonial legacy, etc.).
• The understanding of the decision makers of the need for and effectiveness
of “participatory local level planning” was rather poor. Most development
planners thought that such participation was unnecessary mainly because of
“ignorance and illiteracy” of the poor. The usual emphasis was on the need
for “educating the poor” before they could effectively participate. For the
intervening period, therefore, the preference was for a top down decision-
making process (Planning Commission, 1998).

NGOs

NGOs are the most organized civil society organizations that operate almost in
every nook and corner. Their main thrusts are advocacy, social mobilization,
human development and poverty alleviation. They mostly work with a target
group approach, addressing most of their programs to the poor and women. There
is a wide range of CBOs operating at the grass roots level. Among these are
landless groups, women’s groups, farmers’ cooperatives, fishers’ cooperatives,
etc., that are organized at a micro level. These are mostly village-based. In the
development literature, these are often termed as NGO groups, which is
indicative of their respective promoter. In that sense, CBOs in most cases are
extended arm of the NGOs.
The banking system expanded in the rural areas quite rapidly in the 1970s and
1980s. Yet heavy dependence of the rural poor on the informal sector
moneylenders who charge high interest rates has continued strangulating their
creative potential to contribute more to the national growth (Planning
Commission, 1998). During this period, NGOs have emerged as a major source
of micro credit that overwhelmed other community development programs in
many respects.
NGOs also function as advocacy groups, and mainly in an ad hoc manner. People
often view NGOs as alternative service providers. But everything with NGOs
does not necessarily glitter. However, people have mixed feelings about them
(see Box 3).

21
Living in the Coast People and Institutions

There seems to exist a widespread opinion that NGOs play a more efficient and
effective role as partner in
the social and economic Box 3: People and NGOs
development. Recognizing I do not know how to read and write. But I learned
the deficiency of public to put signature. I am a member of a NGO and I have
delivery system, NGOs 1500 taka savings. I took loan from the NGO thrice.
have been promoted as an Once I bought a sewing machine for my son and he now
alternative institution for works as a tailor. Next time I used their loan for salt
delivery of social services farming. Recently I invested the loan for rice
(Planning Commission, cultivation.
2004). However, it is far If cyclone occurs again, Allah banchabe (God will
from clear how far such help us). NGO and Government must help us. Otherwise
partnerships should go and there will be kiamat (doomsday) and we all will die. But
how they should be if there is scope, we shall try to survive. We shall take
structured. Experiences are shelter in the neighboring buildings built by a NGO. We
limited to project-oriented will not go to the cyclone shelter that is located one and
cooperation, where NGOs a half kilometer far from our village.
deliver services under a I have 15 katha land that was mortgage out when
contract and the key my husband was sick. I became member of two NGOs. I
question remains: how to took loan from both NGOs to get back my land. Then I
incorporate NGOs in started shrimp culture in my own land. It was
partnerships that go beyond profitable. But bad kismat (fate) runs after me. My 12
year old son had TB. After prolonged treatment he was
project implementation.
cured. Then the same affected younger daughter. So I
The following are few had to spend a lot of money for their treatment. I sold
general observations that all shrimp from my farm. As a result I had no income
may be taken into account except day labor. But I had to repay the loan. Both the
while further exploring NGOs became wild to get their money back within the
such partnerships. given time. They did not agree to extend time for me
though I was in trouble. Finally I had to mortgage out
• NGOs are a fact of life the land again and repaid the loan. After that I lost
in Bangladesh’s socio- interest to continue membership with any NGO. They
economic development are not friends of the people.
and a widely accepted
(PDO-ICZMP, 2002)
vehicle to channel
donor contributions to grassroots development processes. Their focus on
social and environmental issues rather gives them the status of “action
groups” than representatives of the public in general. In other words, they are
fundamentally not democratic in the sense of being accountable to a general
electorate.
• NGOs have slowly changed their working scope and working areas. From
“organized philanthropy” they now provide alternatives to government
services, such as primary education and public healthcare. They are

22
Living in the Coast People and Institutions

increasingly being acknowledged as “service providers”. This shift was

basically need-based and not guided by the government.
Center for Applied Policy Research interviewed 347 villagers in 20 unions. The
survey looked into the collaboration between the UPs and NGOs. UP officials
would like to share in using the resources mobilized by NGOs, while NGOs want
more help from UP officials in implementing their projects (The World Bank,
2002). Nonetheless, there is considerable space for mutually satisfying
cooperation (see Figure 2).
Respondents favoring cooperation (%)

60
48
50

40
33
30 27 27
20
20
10 11 9
10 6 5
1 3
0 0
0
g

ng
n

t
e

er
r
in
tio

in

nc

po

th
ni
et

ar
ta

ta

ai

O
up
rg

sh
en

Tr
is

s
Ta

ss
em

fo

al
la

er
In
pl

en
ia
Im

G
an
f in
&
ch

NGO UP
Te

Figure 2 Perception on UP-NGO cooperation

Desire and despair

People are in dire need of certain amenities and services. Some services they
desire to make life a bit more comfortable, and some are needed for defense
against anomalies. Though the government is more of an outlying entity from a
plebeian point of view, it is omnipresent in people’s imagination. People tend to
perceive the government as something they can depend on. At the same time, it is
also true that people are troubled, or are disenchanted, or are skeptical because of
lack of and/or denial of service and security. Desire, expectation, anguish and
despair, as expressed in the PDSCL survey are recapitulated below (PDO-
ICZMP, 2002).

23
Living in the Coast People and Institutions

◊ The government should build more cyclone shelters in our area.

◊ Government must build one warehouse in our market, so that we can
store shutki.
◊ Government must protect us from the forester mastan.
◊ Government should install more deep tube wells.
◊ If there is a source then I shall borrow money to buy land.
◊ Government should set up mills and factories in our area to create jobs
for our children.
◊ I never went to a hospital, because I am a poor man.
◊ Goriber jonne kono sarker nai (there is no Government for the poor). If
the MP allocates wheat for us, his local men just eat it; they never give it
to us. There is a pond for common use, but it is not deep. We demanded
for the re-excavation, but until now nothing happened.
◊ We do not have a radio or any other means to know weather forecast.
Government should supply radio to the villagers.
◊ I wish the government should allocate land in my name so that my
children can live on that.
◊ Government should bring sweet water back so that we can grow crop.
Nothing grows due to salinity. Government should close down the gher.
Then sweet water will flow into the area. We shall also be able to grow
crops, trees and vegetables. We shall have more work.
◊ Government can protect us from dacoits by providing the noubahini
(navy). If they patrol, it would be enough for security. Then the bawalee
would be able to go to the forest for honey collection without any fear.

24
Living in the Coast
Vision for local governance
Development of local
government in Bangladesh
brings in the concept of
‘devolution’ vis-à-vis
‘deconcentraiton’ of decision-
making power into sharp
focus. Under a system of
‘decentralization’ based on
deconcentration, the central
government retains the
decision-making powers; only
some responsibilities for
implementation of the central
decisions are given to the local
authorities. In contrast, under a
system of decentralization that
is based on devolution, it is the
‘decision making power’ that
is handed over to the local
government institutions by the
central government.
Devolution establishes
reciprocal and mutually
benefiting relationships
between central and local
government implying that the
local governments are not
subordinate administrative
units but exclusive authorities
in their areas to be able to
interact reciprocally with other
units of government in the
political system of which they
are integral parts. In this
context, the government
sketched out a radical vision
for a participatory, effective
and meaningful mechanism for
local governance (see Box 4).
People and Institutions
Box 4: Devolution not deconcentration
Genuine devolution must vest in various
tiers/spheres of local government clearly following
delineated administrative, judicial, financial and
developmental roles as envisaged in Article 59 of
the Constitution. Such devolution will not only
contribute to good governance through rational
sharing of powers and responsibilities between the
central government and the local government
bodies, but also lead to greater success in the
management of development programs/projects
and better delivery of services through more
efficient discharge of respective functions.
Moreover, people’s vote will be seen to be bearing
fruits and democracy will be seen to be
functioning at the doorsteps of the voters when
they will witness that the representatives elected
by them to the various tiers of local government
are in fact contribution to the enlistment of their
lot. Needless to say, such visibility is very vital for
democratic culture to take desirably deep roots.
Local level participatory planning, therefore, will
start with building a mechanism where people, at
large, specially in the vast expanse of the rural
areas, will provide inputs to the planning process
of the country; and people at the grassroots level,
through conscientization, consultation and
participation, will get the scope to determine the
local needs and priorities and integrate them into
an overall planning exercise of the country
through their elected local bodies.
Local government bodies, therefore, will be vested
with roles and responsibilities with particular
focus on (a) how these institutions can be made
participatory so that they will enable the people in
the local areas to provide inputs for planning; and
(b) how through a process of bottom up planning
the development programs/projects of various
tiers of local government as well as of the central
government will be integrated.
(Planning Commission, 1998).
25
Living in the Coast People and Institutions

The role of the central government is increasingly being perceived as a promoter

and catalyst of development at the local level. The art of the development
promoter thus demands the highest form of consciousness for it involves the
balance of the polarities of intervention into people’s lives on the one hand, and
respect for the integrity and freedom of these same people on the other. The
promoter is involved not primarily with product delivery but with process
facilitation (BRDB, 2000).

Perspective from below

The very connotation of governance is power and authority and, as a colonial

legacy, it is top-down. In contrast, the concept of good governance is being
promoted with undertones of a bottom-up, decentralized and participatory
arrangement. How the people feel, perceive and comprehend issues and act
locally is to be taken into cognizance in understanding the local perspective on
governance. Based on a stakeholder consultation in a remote coastal union, some
observations and lessons have been drawn.3 Among the participants were
Chairman and Members of the UP, members of CBOs, field level staff of
government service agencies and members of different professional groups
including farmers, fishers, teachers, traders and so forth. They discussed issues in
six thematic groups. Their deliberations are cited below as down to earth
testimony.
Partnership, transparency and accountability
The UP Chairman has been vocal about reasonable share of the budget. “If you
talk about partnership, you need to enhance budgetary allocation for UP” (UP
Chairman). Presently annual tax of taka 30 is levied for a house with c.i. sheet
roof. Many people do not pay tax.”
Common people have different perceptions. One view is: “We do not have any
knowledge of the UP budget. Whatever amount is allocated, the Chairman and
the Members bhag korey nei (appropriate it among themselves).”
Family Welfare Assistant (FWA) is a para-professional of the Ministry of Health
& Family Welfare based in the union. She is also not happy with the state of
affairs. “There is no union level meeting with us. Sometimes Chairman
discusses about my work. But when they have meeting, they ask me to leave.
They discuss among themselves. Keo tader bhalo paina (nobody is happy with
them).”

3
A series of stakeholder consultations were organized by BIDS under a contract from WARPO to
explore ideas on local level institutional arrangements for ICZM. Findings are based on one such
consultation held in May 2005 at Dokkhin Bedkashi union of Koyra upazila in Khulna.

26
Living in the Coast People and Institutions

Enabling bureaucracy and capacity building of LG

A woman UP Member said, “There are 13 Standing Committees. We do not
know in which committees we are. There is no delineation of tasks. Some
Chairman is fair. They distribute tasks. Some does not. I am the Shabhapoti
(chairperson) of the committee for listing candidates for bidhoba bhata
(allowance for widow) and Shaha-shabhapoti (co-chairperson) for that of the
boyoshko bhata (allowance for the old). But the lists were prepared and
submitted without my knowledge. Then I informed the UNO and got the lists
cancelled.
“If there is training, women can culture fish in derelict tanks with the help of
Matsya Bibhag (DoF), Jubo Unnayan (Youth Development Department) and
NGO. Aquaculture is a predominant livelihood here. But we do not get any
service from the Department of Fisheries.
“We have a Mohila (women) Members Forum. We have monthly meetings. We
meet on 18th of each month. UNO helps us. We also get support from NGOs.
“We need awareness on legal aspects.”
One participant commented, “Ashot kaj bandha korte hobey (corruption is to be
stopped). Upazila Fisheries Officer should sit at UP office at least once a week.
“There is a Krishi Bank. Loan cannot be obtained without bribe. Besides, the
process of getting loan is a long one.
“Police harassment is rampant Forest guards put up false cases of deer hunting
and logging against innocent people. None should be arrested without the
consent of UP.
“Wapda’s quality of work is low. They work in the wrong season (monsoon).
This is waste of resource.”
Participants identified some limitations of UP. These are:
◊ lack of fund;
◊ UP members are not efficient; and
◊ women Members do not get resource.
Disaster management
One farmer observed, “Coastal zone is a zone of recurrent disasters. So disaster
management is a key issue for the coastal people. Bank erosion is a major
concern. We expect protection by Wapda. Protection from erosion is
responsibility of Wapda and NGOs. When there is a disaster, NGOs are more
visible. They work more. They are more people-oriented.”

27
Living in the Coast People and Institutions

Main problems are identified as:

◊ bank erosion;
◊ lack of adequate cyclone shelter;
◊ lack of awareness about disaster;
◊ lack of proper cyclone warning; and
◊ lack of security.
“We do not have any confidence in samabay samity (cooperative society). They
run away with our money. Government has to take initiative and NGOs have to
collaborate”, commented a member of a CBO.
For disaster management, participants identified the following institutions as
important and relevant:
◊ Wapda (BWDB)
◊ NGO
◊ Union Parishad
◊ masjid (Imam); and
◊ gram police (VDP).
“UP and service agencies, particularly Wapda, should meet regularly. They
should have monthly meetings”, was the suggestion from all participants.
Farmer
Farmer participants expressed specific concerns and suggested
recommendations. These are as follows.
For a small farmer, agriculture is more profitable. For a large farmer, bagda
(brackish water shrimp) culture is more profitable. Small farmers are often
intimidated by large farmers to culture shrimp. Shrimp culture should be banned,
or ghers should be under strict government guideline.
To discourage bagda culture, bagda farmers should be taxed. There is a need for
poribesh kar (environmental tax).
We should go for integrated farming system including food, fruit and fodder.
Farmers, with recommendation from UP, should get credit from the bank.
Many women do not have property right. They cannot inherit land. There should
be common law for all women.

28
Living in the Coast People and Institutions

Accountability of Wapda in maintenance of beri bund (embankment) should be

ensured.
Those who destroy natural resources should be brought to book. Salary of Forest
Guard should be enhanced so that they protect the forest and do not sell tree
illegally.
Fisher
Participants addressing the issue of fishing (including shrimp culture) suggested
the following.
There is lack of service from Department of Fisheries. Everybody cultures
shrimp. There is need for more inlets and outlets for saline water.
People hardly get credit from bank. There is no bank branch in the union. Local
moneylenders charge high interest. Monthly interest rate is ten percent.
Ninety percent people buy pona (fry) from the hatchery. Virus affects shrimp.
Most of the pona is normal (virus-affected). We want rogmukto (virus-free)
pona.
We have no knowledge of any Block Supervisor working in the union. He
doesn’t come to us. We don’t know where is his office.
Integrated rice-shrimp-vegetables should be promoted. Golda (freshwater prawn)
should be promoted instead of bagda.
Participation and coordination
Participants had been able to articulate an institutional structure for addressing
local issues and concerns. They emphasized the need for rejuvenating a Union
Development Coordination Committee, as well as introducing a monitoring
committee. Recommendations are summarized below.
A union level planning and monitoring mechanism is undeniably an imperative.
There should be a todaroki (supervision) committee to monitor activities of
service agencies. The committee should be constituted with the UP Chairman,
UP Members and some members of the ‘elite’. The elite is defined as
‘knowledgeable persons’, such as, teacher, social worker, member of cooperative
society and member of Gram Sarkar. The committee is to meet once a month.
Main tasks of the committee would be:
◊ supervision of road maintenance and roadside plantation; and
◊ monitoring of the functioning of schools, as many students and teachers
are found absent and the SMC (School Monitoring Committee) is not
active.

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There is lack of coordination. There are conflicts between different agencies. The
conflicts are:
◊ DoF versus DAE;
◊ UP versus NGO; and
◊ Forest Department versus UP.
As a consequence, development is hampered; agriculture and fish production is
low; salinity is increasing; land fertility is decreasing; and natural beauty is lost.
There should be a Union Development Coordination Committee (UNDCC).4 The
committee should have 30 members. Composition of the committee should be:
◊ UP Chairman (1);
◊ UP (13);
◊ Education/teacher (3);
◊ DAE (1);
◊ DoF (1);
◊ LGED (1);
◊ Gram Sarkar (1);
◊ Ansar/VDP (1);
◊ Health (1);
◊ NGO (2);
◊ Cooperative (2);
◊ Club (1); and
◊ Elite (2).
The empowerment of elected representatives is of vital importance.

Household well-being

Vulnerability corresponds to the capacity to cope with phenomena beyond

control. At the household level, the coping capacity largely depends on the asset
base including social capital, that is, enabling institutional environment in terms
of favorable cultural norms and efficacy of service provider institutions, and the
state of governance. The poor are more vulnerable, as their access to resource

4
This has been attempted in few areas by the government under project condition.

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Living in the Coast People and Institutions

providers is weak. If their social capital improves, their coping capacity in terms
of resilience would increase.
Households have an array of institutional linkages at their disposal that
determines their overall status in a particular point of time. This status changes
with a change in the household’s endowment of social capital. Sometimes they
feel good when such linkages improve, and sometimes they are in a state of
dismay when these worsen. In their life cycle, people have some ‘good time’ that
reflects their state of enhancement, and there are ‘bad periods’ which indicate a
state of deterioration. Such a state of enhancement or deterioration is directly
related with accumulation or loss of linkages.
The level of the well-being of Y
households, thus, has direct
correlation with these phenomena.
The well-being frontier of a
B
household puffs up with increasing
income (purchasing power) and

Income
enabling environment in terms of
A
enhancement in social capital (good Wellbeing frontier
governance). Reverse development
increases the vulnerability of a
household. This has been shown with X
the help of a two-dimensional O Enabling environment
diagram (Figure 3). The well-being
frontier (A or B) is the locus of points, Figure 3: Household well-being
each of which represents a combination of income and enabling environment A
change in the two determinants of household well-being (enabling environment
and income) moves the well-being frontier in upward (B) or downward (A)
direction.
Improvement in enabling environment in terms social capital is a necessary
condition for enhancement of people’s livelihoods. This necessitates a change in
the mind-set of the people (often personified in institutions) and effectiveness of
service proving organizations.

Synthesis

UP is the lowest level local government institution, which is the nucleus of local
governance. A UNDCC is an extended local government that can plan and
facilitate development functions including planning, implementation, monitoring
and conflict resolution. Service providing agencies, both government and non-
government, need to have operational linkage, as well as accountability to the

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Living in the Coast People and Institutions

local government. Good governance at the local level presumes higher allocation
of resources, as well as enhancement of capacity.
The National Strategy for Accelerated Poverty Reduction identifies and
acknowledges “Excessive central government control over the local government
institutions” as a major constraint to good governance. Some of the important
recommendations to ensure good governance are:
◊ enhancing transparency, accountability and efficiency of the public
offices;
◊ encouraging people’s involvement in the design and implementation of
development activities;
◊ emphasizing women’s participation and empowerment; and
◊ lessening central government control on local institutions (Planning
Commission. 2004).
The crux of the problem is to promote community-driven development. This can
be divided into following practice areas:
Enabling institutional environment: Development of policy and
institutional reforms oriented toward increased participation in decision-
making and control of resources by communities through elected and
functional local governments.
Participatory local governance: Elected local government makes
decision on planning, implementation, operation and maintenance in
partnership with all stakeholders in the community.
Community control and management of investment funds:
Community groups make decisions on planning, implementation,
monitoring and maintenance, and also manage investment funds.
While UP is the nucleus, there are other actors, such as, NGO, CBO and, not the
least, the market. Informal institutions and social norms also yield considerable
impact. The relationship between these varied actors are a potential entry point
for change. It is not just a question of who does what, but, what is needed is,
building on institutional synergies and maximizing the value added by particular
actors (Thornton, 2002).

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Living in the Coast People and Institutions

4 CONCLUSION

In Bangladesh, it appears that the state is weak in its engagement in service

delivery. The central government remains strong, vis-a-vis the local government,
in decision-making and resource control (Planning Commission, 2004). People
want a strong government in terms of services it delivers. Most of the people are
poor and they want a government that can make resources available at an
affordable cost.
The next important question is where the government should be located. It is now
being widely agreed that people should be empowered at the local level to plan
and manage their own affairs. At the higher level (i.e. the central level), the role
of the government can be rationalized in terms of its facilitating role and the
central government (in whatever form one conceives) need not be the central
focus in the chain of governance. The central focus on local government and
community management based on the principle of stakeholder participation is
increasingly becoming a dominant vocabulary in official literature. The central
government is deemed as a catalyst to create an enabling environment where
local level stakeholders can play their role without any stumbling block.
In the art of governance, the notion of authority has increasingly being replaced
by the concept of participation. People’s participation has become a buzzword.
Its connotation goes beyond consultation process, and it also incorporates within
its domain the role in decision-making in all stages of an intervention that affect
livelihoods. Here the key word is partnership that steers the wheel of progress.
This partnership evolves through meaningful interaction and convergence of
interests. Such partnership requires a facilitating mechanism that would ensure
critical balance among different stakeholders.
It is also important to note that there are different interest groups or
stakeholders with competing and conflicting objectives and strategies. In the
context of enabling institutional environment, conflict management and
consensus building are two critical areas that need special attention.
Participatory development embodies collective effort by the people who are the
beneficiaries of development. In a well-defined framework the people pool their
efforts and whatever other resources they decide to bring together to attain the
objectives they set for themselves. Participation is an active process through
which stakeholders influence development initiatives and take action that is
stimulated by their own thinking and deliberation, and over which they can exert
effective control. Participation, thus, may be viewed as the exercise of people’s
power in thinking and acting and, thereby, realizing the essence of democracy in
conformity with the constitutional dictum that all power belong to the people.

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Living in the Coast People and Institutions

This is the cornerstone of enabling environment for local governance that

facilitates participation and contributes to enhancement of livelihoods.
At the bottom, the Union Parishad with all its limitations has historically evolved
as a representative forum for all stakeholders. People have high expectations, as
well as concerns, about its modus operandy, mandate, authority and functioning.
With necessary forward and backward linkages and through broadening the
mandate, its scope and efficacy can be multiplied manifold. This also fits in the
government’s current policy of decentralization and democratization.

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