Ham Radio in Plain English

HA M RA DI O IN P L AIN ENG LI SH
A Step-By-Step Guide For Regular Peopl"

by Randy Pryor
Ham Radio In Plain English
1
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tion, neither the author nor the publisher assumes any responsibility for errors
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er wants to stress that the information contained herein may be subject to varyi
ng state and/or local laws or regulations. All users are advised to retain compe
tent counsel to determine what state and/or local laws or regulations may apply
to the user’s particular operation. The purchaser or reader of this publication as
sumes responsibility for the use of these materials and information. Adherence t
o all applicable laws and regulations, both federal and state and local, governi
ng professional licensing, operation practices, and all other aspects of operati
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the purchaser or reader. The publisher and author assume no responsibility or li
ability whatsoever on the behalf of any purchaser or reader of these materials.
Any perceived slights of specific people or organizations is unintentional.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction
Meet the Gang 11 14 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 15! 15! 16! 16! 17! 17! 17! 17! 17! 17! 18! 18! 18! 19
! 20! 21! 21! 21! 21! 22! 22! 22! 22! 23! 23! 23 24! 24!
CHAPTER 1 - THE WORLD OF AMATEUR RADIO! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Purpose of Amateur Radio !
! ! ! Operating a Ham Radio: Making Contacts! Ragchews! ! ! ! ! ! ! Nets! ! ! !
! ! ! ! Traffic Nets ! ! ! ! ! ! Emergency Service Nets! ! ! ! ALE Mailboxes an
d Bulletin Boards ! ! Full Duplex Operation! ! ! ! ! Swap Nets! ! ! ! ! ! ! DX-i
ng, Contests, and Awards! ! ! Ham Radio and Ordinary Radio! ! ! Transceiver! ! !
! ! ! Cost of Equipment! ! ! ! ! Setting Up Ham Radio Equipment! ! ! Bandwidth
Selection! ! ! ! ! Some Points for Beginners! ! ! ! ‘To Listen’ is the Phrase! ! ! !
Contacting Your Nearest Club! ! ! Finding One in the Same Boat ! ! ! Know Your
Equipment! ! ! ! ! Use All Resources ! ! ! ! ! Practice Courtesy! ! ! ! ! Be Coo
l ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Ham and Phonetics! ! ! ! ! Operation Using Computers ! ! ! ! Sat
ellites! ! ! ! ! ! ! Amateur Radio on Boats! ! ! !
3
! !
Signal Reports (the RST code)! ! ! ! ! International Q-Code (Extract)! ! ! ! ! C
ontinuous Wave Transmitter Web Sites for Buying Equipment and Electronic Circuit
s Buying Old Equipment The Statistics of Ham Radio Users Making of a Simple QRP
Rig !
!
25! 26 27 27 27 30 30 31 31 31 32 33 33 34 34 35 36
CHAPTER 2 - BASICS OF RADIO WAVE TRANSMISSION
Mode of Radio Wave Transmission Propagation of VHF Signal Reflection of VHF/UHF
Signals The Process of Ionization in the Ionosphere The Ionosphere Layers The F
Layer The E Layer The D Layer Critical Frequency
CHAPTER 3 - FACTORS AFFECTING RADIO WAVE TRANSMISSION 37
Factors Affecting Radio Waves Absorption Fading Losses Due to Ground Reflection
Free Space Loss Electromagnetic Interference Radio Waves and Weather Ducting Ear
th Moon Earth Satellite Sunspots 37 37 37 38 38 39 39 39 40 40 40 41 41 42
CHAPTER 4 - TRANSMISSION THEORY
Transfer of Radio Waves from the Transmitter to the Antenna Transmission Line Th
eory
4
Lumped Constants Distributed Constants Inductance of a Transmission Line Capacit
ance of a Transmission Line Resistance of a Transmission Line DC Applied to a Tr
ansmission Line AC Applied to a Transmission Line
42 43 43 44 44 45 46 47 47 48 49 49 49 50 51 52 52 52 52 52 53 54 54 55 55 55 56
56 57 57 58 59 59 59 59 ! ! !
5
CHAPTER 5 - ANTENNA
Antennas The Basic Antenna Energy Distribution on an Antenna Radio Wave Modulati
on Morse Code Modulation Radiation of Electromagnetic Energy Antenna Gain Antenn
a Reciprocity Radiation Resistance Isotropic Radiation Anisotropic Radiation Ant
enna Loading Antenna Positioning Types of Different Antennas Half –wave Antennas!
! ! ! Quarter –wave Antennas! ! ! Horizontal Dipole Inverted V Folded Dipole Direc
tional Antennas Parasitic Antenna Yagi Antenna One Antenna for Different Bands T
erminology Used in Array Antennas Driven Element Parasitic Element Driven Array
! ! ! ! !
!
!
Bi-directional Array Unidirectional Array
59 59 60 60 60 60 60 61 61 62 63 64 64 64 65 65 65 65 66 66 66 66 66 67 69 69 70
70 70 72 73 74 75 75
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CHAPTER 6 - HAM RADIO LICENSE
FCC Control Operator Amateur Radio License License Classes Renewal of the Licens
e Changes Made by the FCC in 2000 Expired License VHF/UHF Bands VHF Bands Image
Transmissions Station Licensee Identification Third Party Communications Frequen
cy Sharing Power Limits Language Beacons Distress Transmission and Dummy Load Re
peaters Station License Required Control Operator Required Operator License Stat
ions aboard Ships or Aircraft Restrictions on Station Locations Station Antenna
Structures Application for New License or Reciprocal Permit for Alien Amateur Li
censee Application for a Modified or Renewed License Mailing Address License Ter
m FCC Modification of Station License
Replacement License Document 76 Subpart B--Station Operation Standards 76 Genera
l Standards 76 Station Licensee Responsibilities 76 Control Operator Duties 77 A
lien Control Operator Privileges 77 Station Control 78 Authorized Transmissions
79 Prohibited Transmissions 80 Third Party Communications 81 International Commu
nications 82 Station Identification 83 Restricted Operation 84 Subpart C--Specia
l Operations 85 Auxiliary Station 85 Beacon Station 86 Repeater Station 87 Space
Station 88 Earth Station 89 Space Telecommand Station 90 Telecommand of an Amat
eur Station 90 Telecommand of Model Craft 91 Telemetry 91 Message Forwarding Sys
tem 91 Subpart D--Technical Standards 92 Frequency Sharing Requirements 92 Emiss
ion Standards 97 RTTY and Data Emission Codes 100 SS Emission Types 101 Transmit
ter Power Standards 103 Type Acceptance of External RF Power Amplifiers 104 Stan
dards for Type Acceptance of External RF Power Amplifiers 105
CHAPTER 7 - AMATEUR RADIO PRACTICE
Safety Lightning Damage
108 108 108
7
!
Safety of the Station Grounding What is a Ground? ! ! ! ! Power Line Ground DC G
round (Safety Ground) RF Ground High Voltage Power Supplies Antenna Safety Safet
y of the Equipment Hazardous Voltages Standing Wave Ratio (SWR) SWR Readings - H
ow Are They Rated? Fixing a Bad SWR Reading Lengthening Shortening Meters and Me
asurements Voltmeter Ammeter Multimeter RF Wattmeter Directional Wattmeter Peak
Reading Wattmeter Oscilloscope Audio Wave Modulation Morse Code Modulation !
!
!
!
108 108 108 108 108 109 109 109 109 110 110 110 110 110 111 111 111 111 111 111
112 112 112 112 112 113
Chapter 8 - ELEMENTARY ELECTRICITY
! ‘God of Small Things’! ! ! Points to Remember Cells Connected in Series Cells Conn
ected in Parallel The Direction of Current Flow What is Electric Current? Proper
ties of Electric Current Conductors
!
!
!
!
!
113 114 114 115 115 116 116 117
8
!
Extrinsic Semiconductors – P and N Type! Pn Junction Diodes Pn Junctions Formation
of Pn Junction Properties of Pn Junction Transistors Base Emitter and Collector
Layers Vacuum Tubes
!
!
!
118 119 119 119 120 121 121 121 121 123 123 123 123 124 126 126 126 128 129 130
130 131 131 132 132 135 135 135 136 138 139 142 142 143
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Chapter 9 - MAGNETISM AND BASIC ELECTRIC DEVICES
Electric Potential Potential Difference Resistance Capacitors Schematic Symbol f
or a Capacitor Equivalent Series Resistance of a Capacitor (ESR) Film Capacitors
Electrolytic Capacitors Capacitor and Voltage Electric Field Alternating Curren
t Magnetism Types of Magnets Magnetic Poles and Forces Magnetic Fields Circuit T
heory Types of Circuits Circuit Components The Objective of a Resistor Light Dep
endent Resistor Capacitor Temperature Sensors Microphone Switch
Fuse Voltmeter Ammeter Multimeter Circuit Equations
144 144 144 144 146 148 148 150 150 151 151 151 151 152 152 152 152 153 154 155
155 155 156 156 157
Chapter 10 - TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICITY
Structure of Electric Power Systems Distribution Transmission and Distribution
Chapter 11 - ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND RADIO WAVES
Electromagnetic Waves Basics of Wave Motion Wavelength Amplitude Frequency Radio
Waves Units of Frequency Bandwidth The Factors Affecting Radio Waves
Chapter 12 - A PEEP INTO THE ATMOSPHERE
What Is Atmosphere? Troposphere Stratosphere Ionosphere Conclusion
10
HA M RA DI O IN P L AIN ENG LI SH
A Step-By-Step Guide For Regular Peopl"
Introduction
“The radio has no future.” ~ Lord Kelvin, British mathematician 1897 People’s interest
s range from the fun to the weird to the downright bizarre. Some jog, others col
lect porcelain knickknacks, while still others investigate the paranormal. A hob
by is a reflection of a person’s character. Since humans are the most social of al
l animals, there is an inherent desire to establish contact and maintain relatio
nships with others. When these two elements are joined together, they create the
perfect hobby amateur radio.
What exactly explains the popular, cult-like following to ham radio? Perhaps it’s
the unique mix of fun entertainment, public service, and convenience. It could b
e the satisfaction and accomplishment that arises when a person establishes cont
act with a fellow human being on the other side of the world with a gadget that
seems much less Ham Radio In Plain English 11
sophisticated than the Internet. There are various reasons why hams get involved
in amateur radio, but they all have a basic knowledge of the technology, regula
tions, and operating principles that apply to radio in the first place. The Inte
rnet has greatly impacted the world with a new level of technology, but that doe
s not take away the irresistible and timeless appeal of amateur radio. Perhaps i
t’s the idea of something old-fashioned in a modern world of high tech or maybe it’s
the efficiency and simplicity that go hand in hand with the operation of amateu
r radio, but the appeal certainly has stood the test of time and space. Amateur
radio is as old as the history of radio itself but the reason why amateur radio
operators are called “hams” is rather obscure. Hams are a very mixed bunch. The two
common things that hams share is the interest of what is happening in the world
around them and using a radio to reach out. Some people prefer Morse code on an
old brass telegraph via a low power transmitter, others opt for voice communicat
ion on a hand-held radio, and still others get their kicks from computer message
s transmitted through satellites. These individuals come from all walks of life.
They’re students, movie stars, truck drivers, sailors, and every profession imagi
nable. Their ages and interests are as varied as their careers.
A set of Antennas - The whole world within your reach
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It may sound like all fun and games, but the amateur radio set up is a very seri
ous business. The radio has the ability to transmit life saving messages globall
y. In 1912, Congress passed the first laws regulating radio transmissions in the
U.S. By 1914, amateur experimenters were up to their ears in this hobby and wer
e communicating nationwide, so setting up a system to relay messages from coast
to coast had become a necessity. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) was
created by Congress in 1927, and consequently, specific frequencies were assign
ed for various uses, including ham bands. The FCC created the Amateur Radio Serv
ice to lend a serious side to the hobby. Amateur radio could offer a pool of exp
erts providing backup emergency communications in the face of critical times. In
addition, the FCC acknowledged that amateur radio had the ability to enhance co
mmunication, improve the technical skills of radio, and boost international good
will. This philosophy has definitely paid off. Countless lives have been saved b
ecause skilled hobbyists have acted as emergency communicators to render aid dur
ing earthquakes in Japan, floods in Indonesia, and epidemics in Africa. Most rec
ently, Ham radio operators all over India became a lifeline as they helped locat
e and reunite countless families and assist in relief operations in the wake of
the tsunami disaster.
Imagine yourself by the side of one of these.
If you’re wondering how hard is it to learn amateur radio, you may be relieved to
know that just about anyone can learn enough to acquire a license easily. Only b
asic electronics and basic knowledge of radio operations are required.
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Over the years, three basic license classes have evolved. The higher the class l
icense you have, the more privileges and modes of operation you receive. But eac
h higher-class license requires extensive knowledge of technology, rules and reg
ulations, as well as higher Morse code proficiency. So, you can learn the basics
or you can become an expert and still enjoy the hobby.
Meet the Gang Here is a sampling of the individuals involved with amateur radio.
Although hams usually consider it to be a hobby, amateur radio can be more than
that – it can prove to be a life altering experience. This is Rose Robin; she was
a witness to a motor accident along one of the national highways of our country
. While driving to her parents’ home, she witnessed a horrific scene. She watched
another car lose control, break the barricade, and speed off a cliff. Rose stopp
ed her car and dashed to the scene of the accident. The car was overturned, its
wheels spinning wildly. She raced to the car but found it impossible to yank the
doors open to rescue the hapless mother and child trapped inside. Both were ble
eding and unconscious. Rose’s quick thinking and critical desire to save a human l
ife sent her dashing back to her car where she picked up her pocket-sized hand-h
eld radio and radioed for help. Within minutes, police and an ambulance had arri
ved at the spot and could rescue the victims. Meet Josephine Williams, a lonely
widow of 46. She lost her husband to cancer a year ago, and since then she has b
een living a rather cloistered life. No friends, no visitors, nothing. Mrs. Will
iams had not been very social when her husband was alive, but lately her lonelin
ess had been eating into the very vitals of her existence. Being lonely is a thi
ng of the past now, thanks to her radio. She has found two new friends who are f
ellow hams. One is a 23 year old martial arts student in Japan, and the other is
an Indian male nurse working in Canada.
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Chapter 1 The World of Amateur Radio
“Radio is just a fashion contrivance that will soon die out. It is obvious that th
ere never will be invented a proper receiver!” ~ Thomas Edison Amateur radio has o
vercome many obstacles since its invention. Advances in technology have never hi
ndered its path. In fact, the system has learned to cope with the technologies.
A fine example is the contact made by two stations assisted by computers. The co
mmercialization that has overtaken many other fields has not affected the hams.
This is the sole reason why it is free for two hams to talk to each other, even
across the globe. Also, if a disaster like an earthquake occurs, hams can provid
e critical help when most communication facilities are destroyed. Purpose of Ama
teur Radio Amateur radio stations’ key functions include self-training in radio co
mmunications, intercommunication, and investigations in radio communications. Th
e individuals taking part in these activities should only get involved for perso
nal reasons and not do it with any monetary interests in mind. The attitude or t
he essence of the amateur radio is the grouping together of people from differen
t walks of life towards a common goal without any financial aims. This is a very
important aspect since most people will do just about anything for money. We ca
n state the purpose of ham radio in simple terms as to increase the number of tr
ained radio operators and electronic experts by encouraging experimentation and
enhance international goodwill. One with an interest in electronics and technolo
gy can really indulge in the realms of technical wizardry. When opening the hood
of a ham radio, there is basic and there is innovative. The basic involves dire
ct current electronics while the innovative concerns cutting edge radio frequenc
y techniques. Ham Radio In Plain English 15
Technical doctors can dissect the equipment, make amends with many things, and b
arge into the nuances of radio operations. With the help of some types of softwa
re, they can use the Internet along with radios to create hi-tech hybrid systems
. Voice and Morse code communication are still the most used routes, but compute
r-based digital operation is gaining momentum. Today’s popular home station config
uration is a hybrid of the computer and radio. The communication can be done bet
ween continents. This is one of the intriguing factors of ham radio. Man’s desire
to learn is another aspect, which facilitates the progression of this hobby. Age
is not a barrier since many familiarize themselves with antennas, propagation o
f radio waves, solar cycles, sunspots, and similar activities. Antennas have bec
ome a real obsession for people who love to invent. New designs are created ever
y day and hams have contributed many new variations to the antenna designer s ar
t. All that is required is some wire, a feed line, and a soldering iron. Hams ar
e also helpful in supporting other areas such as radio control (R/C), model rock
etry, and meteorology. Miniature ham radio video transmitters are flown in model
aircraft, rockets, and balloons, beaming back pictures from heights of hundreds
and even thousands of feet. Ham radio data links also lend a helping hand in th
e fields of astronomy, aviation, auto racing, and rallies.
Operating a Ham Radio: Making Contacts If you can tune to a radio across the ham
bands, you will understand the activities of hams. It can vary from a simple co
nversation to contesting. Ragchews Hams mostly engage in conversation. This is c
alled “chewing the rag.” Contacts are named ragchews. Ragchews can happen between co
ntinents or just across town.
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Nets “Nets” is an abbreviation for networks. They are the organized air meetings, sc
heduled for hams with similar interests or purposes. Traffic Nets This is the sy
stem that passes text messages or traffic, through ham radio. Operators exchange
messages, which can range from the mundane to the most urgent.
Emergency Service Nets When disaster strikes, hams who are trained for these pur
poses organize and provide decisive communications into and out of the affected
areas until normality is restored.
ALE Mailboxes and Bulletin Boards ALE is the abbreviation for Automatic Link Est
ablishment. Here a computer system monitors a frequency all the time so that oth
ers can connect to it and send or retrieve messages.
Full Duplex Operation Full duplex is a communication mode in which a radio can t
ransmit and receive at the same time by using two different frequencies.
Swap Nets Like flea markets, a weekly swap net allows hams to list items for sal
e or things they need. A net control station overlooks and moderates the process
, and business is generally conducted over the phone once the parties have been
put in contact with each other.
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DX-ing, Contests, and Awards DX is short for distance. The thrill of making cont
acts at a very long distance from home has lured many a ham. Competitions are or
ganized for hams, in which they compete to contact faraway stations and to log c
ontacts with every country. Ham radio contests are events in which one earns poi
nts for each contact made. Through these exchanges, hams often contact a specifi
c area, use a certain band, find a special station and try to communicate with a
s many stations as possible. When two hams make contact, they usually confirm co
ntact by using QSL cards. A ham collects all of the QSL cards received from time
to time. Those who make maximum numbers of contacts are given awards in the com
petitions. Ham fests are often conducted by Amateur Radio Clubs. At a ham fest,
one can buy or sell radio equipment and meet people in person after having commu
nicated with them on the air.
Ham Radio and Ordinary Radio Ordinary radio sets are designed to receive either
Amplitude Modulated (AM) or Frequency Modulated (FM) broadcast. Ham radio operat
ors use Single Side Band (SSB) transmission for their communication requirements
. Ham radio stations use very low power, less than 100 watts. But a broadcast st
ation uses power in the kilowatts range. Many broadcast band radio receivers cov
er some of the frequencies earmarked for the ham radio stations. A four band rad
io set usually covers some popular ham radio frequencies like 7 to 7.1 MHz (i.e.
7000 to 7100 kHz), 14 to 14.350 MHz (i.e. 14,000 to 14,350 kHz) and 21 to 21.45
0 MHz (i.e. 21,000 to 21,450 kHz). This kind of receiver can be improvised to re
ceive ham radio transmissions with very little effort. While hearing ham radio s
tations in ordinary radio sets, the sound will resemble a duck quacking. Transce
iver The term transceiver is used to identify the equipment. Both transmitters a
nd receivers are assembled in one unit to perform two basic roles. The transmitt
er generates a radio frequency signal of required power at the desired frequency
. It should have Ham Radio In Plain English 18
some means of changing or modulating the basic frequency, so that it can carry a
feasible signal. The receiver must be able to select the required frequency, re
jecting all unwanted frequencies. Also, the receiver should have the capacity to
amplify the weak incoming signal to prevail over the losses the signal suffers
in its journey through space. In a radio receiver, the modulated signal is recei
ved after the conversion of the original modulated carrier signal into another c
arrier modulated by the same modulation waveform but at a much lower frequency.
This mixing is done with another locally generated sine wave signal. At the outp
ut of the non-linear mixet, the difference frequency, called intermediate freque
ncy, is selected by a tuned circuit. (If this sounds like gobbledygook, don’t worr
y, keep reading!)
Transceiver
Cost of Equipment An endearing factor for an aspiring ham is that the necessary
equipment needed to get started in this field should not cost an arm and a leg.
Start up can begin with less than $200. Depending on your pocketbook, you can se
lect a wide range of equipment which varies from $100 to $2,000. You can easily
shop from e-shops on the Internet or from some of the ham stores in town.
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Setting Up Ham Radio Equipment
Though there are no special rules regarding the mode of equipment for starting,
it’s better to begin with the base station rather than going for mobile or handhel
d. This way, you will have the opportunity to judge the niceties of a station op
eration. To start the hobby, a simple short wave radio and a QRP transmitter are
all that are required. If everything is available, it will only take a few hour
s to get set up. Initially, most ham operators begin with a simple station. An H
F radio, microphone, Morse code key, and a simple wire dipole antenna are all th
at are required for your cruise on air. The step by step process is given below.
1. First, locate the place where you are going to keep the equipment. It is bet
ter to keep the length of the coaxial cable to a minimum. Take special care whil
e deciding the location, in order to bring the coaxial and ground wire in easily
. 2. A desk or computer credenza is a perfect place for the equipment. 3. Instal
l an eight foot copper ground wire into the ground. Lay a heavy wire from the gr
ound rod to the grounding post on the ham radio. 4. Lay an antenna coax from the
antenna to the radio shack. 5. Proper clearance should be kept on the rear side
of the radio for air circulation. 6. Place an electrical surge protector betwee
n the equipment and outlet. 7. Place an antenna lead to a switch enabling the sh
unting circuit to ground. 8. Cover the radio to protect it from dust.
20
Bandwidth Selection The transceiver is equipped with a function key. As you oper
ate the function key, you can select the desired bandwidth. Before you start, ta
ke these precautions: 1. Ensure that power supply connections are securely made
and proper polarity is available. 2. Make sure that the antennas are connected t
o the correct pigtails on the transceiver (mostly on the rear). The basic steps
required to begin an operation are: 1. Turn the transceiver on. 2. Set the band
on which you want to operate. 3. Adjust the volume level of the audio. 4. Adjust
the operating frequency.
Some Points for Beginners
“Nothing worth knowing can be understood with the mind.” ~ Woody Allen ‘To Listen’ Is th
e Phrase As in intrapersonal communications, listening is the most powerful and
important way for a beginner to start. This way, one can learn the techniques of
many hardcore amateurs. Listening to air contacts is called “reading the mail.” The
re is no secrecy in ham communications - they are open and public. Contacting Yo
ur Nearest Club Once you decide to join this hobby, take full advantage of the o
pportunities it offers. Meet as many people as possible in the nearest club. The
y will certainly help you.
21
Hams often find great joy in helping the beginners. Such people are known as “Elme
rs.” An Elmer knows the stuff required to pass the test and will often help you to
prepare.
Finding One in the Same Boat Find a friend who is just like you, at the bottom o
f the learning curve. Meet them on air and enjoy the proceedings together. If yo
u do not have a club near you (to take the test or meet an Elmer), contact the A
RRL Development office at www.arrl.org/development. They will have the informati
on you need.
Know Your Equipment A lot of equipment is available on the market. Depending on
the price, such equipment differs from one another on performance and capabiliti
es. It’s always best to consult with your elmer, regarding the purchase of any adv
anced equipment. Equipment manuals can assist with the understanding of your ins
trument. Demos or tutorials are available so do not hesitate to check them out.
Keep the manual ready for any quick reference.
Use All Resources Internet forums are available. Just join the forum and you can
get many valuable tips. One such help group is http://groups.yahoo.com/group/ha
mradiohelpgroup/
Practice Courtesy Accustom yourself with the practice of saying polite words lik
e "Please," "Thanks," "Excuse me,” and "Sorry." This way you can earn the goodwill
of your cooperators.
22
Be Cool Of course, it’s possible that, no one responds to your CQ (general call se
nt by one station to any other station). Relax and try again. Also some technica
l hiccups can occur. Through practice you will be able to rectify minor issues.
You can almost always get help from your buddies regarding these.
Ham and Phonetics During radio operations, at times the signals may be weak. Thi
s makes it difficult for the person to comprehend the words completely. This pro
blem sometimes necessitates hams to spell out certain words, for example, a name
. If you try this using the English alphabet, it can cause greater confusion. If
you try to spell your name using the letters alone, a listener may misinterpret
one letter for another. So instead of spelling out with letters, use words know
n as phonetics, which have been chosen specially for serving our purpose. The st
andard alphabet is: Alpha, Bravo, Charlie, Delta, Echo, Foxtrot, Golf, Hotel, In
dia, Juliet, Kilo, Lima, Mike, November, Oscar, Papa, Quebec, Romeo, Sierra, Tan
go, Uniform, Victor, Whiskey, X-ray, Yankee, Zulu. There are also some standards
for the pronunciation of numbers and numerals. In order to avoid confusion with
numbers such as 50 and 15, you have to speak each digit separately. According t
o standards, you should spell decimal to represent decimal point. If you want to
say 15.100 MHz, you should say the words, “one five decimal one zero zero.”
Operation Using Computers The use of computers in ham radio operations have enth
used the younger generation. A computer is connected to a terminal node controll
er and a transceiver for a packet radio operation. The terminal node controller
has a modem similar to the modem used for Internet connections. The TNC also uti
lizes firmware. It is this firmware that
23
converts computer data into packets of digital information, which is then sent a
cross the packet radio network. This firmware is called PAD or packet assembler.
This unit captures incoming and outgoing data and encapsulates it into packets
of data. This data can be sent to and from a data radio or transceiver. The ente
r key of the keyboard can also function as the push to talk facility in the norm
al ham radio operation.
Satellites This is an area which excites many hams. There are many small satelli
tes orbiting the earth, which are made and operated by radio amateurs worldwide.
AMSAT is the global organization, which organizes satellite construction and lo
bbies for spare space on commercial launch vehicles. Communication can be made b
y Morse code, voice, or pocket radio over very large distances with the help of
these satellites. The easiest satellites to use are the low orbit ones as they c
an be availed with low power and modest antennas. Russian RS series and South Af
rica’s Sunsat (SO-35) are low orbited satellites. As the sensitivity of these sate
llites is superior, even operation from buses, trains and trams becomes possible
! These low orbit satellites have short pass-times and they are quite good for c
ommunication up to a few thousand kilometers while the other satellites would re
quire more powerful and bigger antennas. But they offer worldwide communication.
Amateur Radio on Boats "My mom said she learned how to swim when someone took h
er out in the lake and threw her off the boat. I said, Mom, they weren t trying
to teach you how to swim. " ~ Paula Poundstone, comedian Amateur radio is quite
popular among the yachting and small boat community. It is used to provide gene
ral communications and for receiving weather information. However certain restri
ctions may exist when operating within the territorial limits of another country
.
24
Hams also operate a lot of “maritime nets" through which information of common int
erest to mariners, such as weather, is exchanged. Different digital modes like S
ITOR/ AMTOR, radio teletype (RTTY), PACTOR I, PACTOR II, PACTOR III, PSK31 are n
ormally used. Here’s a quick glance at some of the terms used for propagation on a
boat. Pactor -- It is a mode that uses both upper and lower case characters and
teleprints over radio with the help of a code. Pactor is a combination of amtor
(amateur teleprinting over radio) and packet. Common modes are Pactor I and Pac
tor II. TNC -- TNC is the short form for terminal node controller. It is compara
ble to a radio modem. PTT -- PTT stands for push to talk. It is what makes your
radio transmit. SOFTWARE -- A type of software is used to make a cruising e-mail
work. This is freely available on the Internet. ISP/RADIO E-MAIL PROVIDER -- It
is with the help of a radio e-mail provider that actual access takes place.
Signal Reports (the RST code)
Signal reports are used for gauging the strength of the receiving signals. Codes
as given in the table are utilized for conveying the strength of the signal.
R EADABILITY
R1 Unreadable R2 R3 Readable with difficulty R4 R5 Perfectly readable
SIGNAL STRENGTH
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 Extremely strong signals Moderately strong signals Fa
irly good signals Weak signals Faint signals
TONE
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 Pure note Slight ripple Modulated (warble) Rough Extr
emely rough
25
International Q-Code (Extract)
QRG QRH QRI QRK QRL QRM QRN QRO QRP QRQ QRS QRT QRU QRV QRX QRZ QSA QSB QSD QSL
QSO QSP QSV QSY QSZ QTH QTR What is my exact frequency? Does my frequency vary?
What is the tone of my transmission? What is the readability of my signals? Are
you busy? Are you being interfered with? Are you troubled by static? Shall I inc
rease power? Shall I decrease power? Shall I send faster? Shall I send more slow
ly? Shall I stop sending? Have you anything for me? Are you ready? When will you
call me again? Who is calling me? What is the strength of my signals? Are my si
gnals fading? Is my keying defective? Can you give me acknowledgment of receipt?
Can you communicate with..... direct (or by relay) ? Will you relay to....? Sha
ll I send a series of V s ? Shall I change to another frequency? Shall I send ea
ch word more than once? What is your location? What is the correct time?
26
Continuous Wave Transmitter The continuous wave is used for the transmission of
pulses of RF energy for creating Morse code characters. This type of transmissio
n is also called interrupted continuous wave transmission. The advantage of cw t
ransmission is that it requires a narrow bandwidth and less output power. Even s
evere noise conditions will not hamper the transmission. A cw transmitter facili
tates the transmission with the help of a generator, amplifier, keyer, and anten
na. RF oscillations are generated and are then amplified. The oscillator generat
es the RF carrier at a specified frequency. The oscillator outputs are then ampl
ified many times in order to equip them to radiate over long distances.
Web Sites for Buying Equipment and Electronic Circuits www.hamradio.com www.disc
ountfamilyradios.com www.unadilla.com http://www.advancedspecialties.net http://
www.burnabyradio.com http://www.comdac.com http://www.hamtronics.com
Buying Old Equipment ‘Old is gold’ goes the saying. Many people prefer to go for old
and used equipment. The following web sites offer details of used ham radio equ
ipment suppliers. http://hometown.aol.co.uk/oldradioparts/front.htm http://www.a
c6v.com/components.htm http://archives.radioattic.com/features/started.htm
27
The following list provides some of the addresses of old equipment and spare par
t dealers. They carry a variety of merchandise for collectors and restorers of v
intage radio/phono/TV/jukeboxes. Catalogs or inventory lists are available from
all of them. Following this list is a directory of commonly needed items, with a
dditional sources:
Antique Electronic Supply 6221 S. Maple Ave Tempe, AZ 85283 Tel: 480-820-5411 Co
ntact Daily Electronics P.O. Box 5029 Compton, CA 90224 Tel: 800-346-6667 (Order
s) Tel: 213-774-1255 (Tech) Don Diers 4276 North 50 Street #SC3 Milwaukee, WI 53
216-1313 DNF 6690 7 Mile Road South Lyon, MI 48178 Electron Tube Enterprises Box
8311 Essex, VT 05451 Tel: 802-879-1844 Fax: 802-879-7764 Fair Radio Sales Milit
ary Surplus Electronics 2395 St Johns Rd PO Box 1105 Lima, OH 45802 Phone: 419-2
27-6573, 419-223-2196 Fax: 419-227-1313 www.fairradio.com Ham Radio In Plain Eng
lish 28
Kirby 298 West Carmel Drive Carmel, IN 46032
Lippert N61W 15889 Edgemont Meno Fls, WI 53051
New Tube Co. P.O. Box 202 Middle Village, NY 11379 Tel: 718-894-2131
Quest Electronics, Inc. 5715 W. 11th Avenue Denver, CO 80214 303-274-7545 Voice
303-274-2317 Fax questusa@ix.netcom.com email Steinmetz Electronics 7519 Maplewo
od Avenue, Hammond, IN 46324 Tel: 219-931-9316 Michael C. Marx SND Tube Sales 90
8 Caulks Hill Road St. Charles, MO 63304 Phone 636-939-9190 24 Hour Fax 636-922-
0601 E-mail: sndtubes@vacuumtubes.com
29
Sometimes it happens that one may inherit all of this equipment. But it will not
be of any use unless it is fully operational. In such cases, you may be able to
get help from the local radio club.
The Statistics of Ham Radio Users “I think there is a world market for maybe five
computers.” ~ Thomas Watson, IBM chairman, 1943 Statistics relating to the number
of users in the U.S. can be found at: http://www.users.crosspaths.net/wallio/LIC
ENSE.html
Making of a Simple QRP Rig Many free resources are available on the Net for thos
e who want to experience the thrill of making their own QRP rigs. One such site
is: http://www.geocities.com/pa2ohh/index.html, which gives a complete explanati
on for making it very simple. Those who want to go mobile can have a look at htt
p://www.installer.com/pics/instpics.html for more information.
30
Chapter 2 Basics of Radio Wave Transmission
Mode of Radio Wave Transmission "The wireless music box has no imaginable commer
cial value. Who would pay for a message sent to nobody in particular?" ~ David S
arnoff s associates in response to his urgings for investment in the radio in th
e 1920s The electromagnetic energy mainly takes two forms to reach a receiving a
ntenna. It either takes the shape of the ground waves or it navigates as sky wav
es. Ground waves travel near the surface of the earth. Radio waves that are refl
ected back to the earth’s surface from the ionosphere are known as sky waves. To p
ut it simply, the surface wave travels along the surface of the earth, while the
space wave travels over the surface. A surface wave is not affected by the shap
e of the land, thanks to the phenomenon of diffraction. As described elsewhere,
it takes a bend, when hindered by an obstacle. The surface wave along its journe
y over the surface induces a voltage in the earth. This causes a loss of energy
of the wave. This loss of energy is reduced by polarizing the wave before transm
ission. The space wave has two ways to reach its destination. The first route is
through the direct journey through the air from the transmitting antenna to the
receiving antenna. The second way is through the reflection from the ground to
the receiving antenna. This is demonstrated in the figure below. As the space wa
ve takes two paths of different lengths reaching the receiving site, there is a
possibility that the signal will fade. If the waves reach out of phase, the sign
al may also fade. On the other hand, if they reach in phase, the signal will be
a strong one.
Propagation of VHF Signal
VHF and UHF radio signals often travel in straight lines to all possible directi
ons. If there are no obstructions on its path, the signal can travel very long d
istances. But presence of obstructions may weaken the signals. Since the earth’s s
urface is curved, there are some limitations for these waves. They will not bend
around the curvature of the earth and will get lost in space, due to its propag
ation in straight lines. Because of Ham Radio In Plain English 31
this characteristic, VHF/UHF propagation is described as line of sight propagati
on. They can travel as far as human eye can see the horizon.
Reflection of VHF/UHF Signals
These signals are reflected when they are obstructed by metal objects. Depending
upon the area of the objecting surface, the amount of reflection also varies. L
arge metal objects such as an aircraft or a large metal building reflect these w
aves significantly. The property of these signals is considered an advantage in
large cities, where some other signals would have been blocked.
32
The Process of Ionization in the Ionosphere The region of atmosphere that extend
s from 30 miles to about 250 miles is rightly called ionosphere due to the prese
nce of electrically charged gas atoms called ions. The ultraviolet rays from the
sun collide with gas atoms and hurl an electron from the atom. This gives the a
tom a positive charge and it then coexists with the negative charged free electr
on in space. This process is known as ionization. The presence of many such free
ions and electrons leads to the formation of an ionized layer. An exact reverse
happens thereafter, which reinstates the old position again. The positive ion a
nd the electron collide with each other thus giving the old neutral status to th
e positive ions. Depending upon the time of the day, these combination and recom
bination processes compete against each other. Whenever the rate of ionization e
xceeds the recombination process, the density of the ionized layers increases, g
reatly affecting the radio waves.
"Everything that can be invented has been invented." ~ Charles H. Duell, Commiss
ioner, U.S. Office of Patents, 1899
The Ionosphere Layers
The charged particles in the ionosphere create four distinct layers, within the
ionosphere. These groups are again classified into two categories. One is presen
t when the earth’s surface is bright and the other in darkness (when the earth’s sur
face is hidden from the sun). The four layers are F1, F2, E and D. During the ni
ght, the two F layers combine to form one layer. The E and D layers are absent d
uring night hours.
33
The F Layer Worldwide amateur radiations are possible, thanks to the F layer. As
the radio signal strikes this layer, it is bent back at an angle towards the ea
rth without any significant energy loss. The F layer splits into two layers, F1
and F2, during daytime. F1 is the inner one and F2 is the outer one. Much of the
refraction during daytime happens in F2 layer.
The E Layer
The E layer exists only during the daylight and is found between the F and D lay
ers. At very high frequencies, some refraction occurs in the E layer. As this is
sporadic in nature, this phenomenon is known as sporadic-E.
34
The D Layer This layer, which is closest to the earth, is found only during dayt
ime. The main characteristic of this layer is that it absorbs both medium and hi
gh frequency radio waves instead of refracting them. Sometimes the level of abso
rption is too large and the communication of radio waves may not happen for a sh
ort period. This ionization affects another phenomenon in the ionosphere called
refraction. Refraction is affected when there is an abrupt change of velocity of
the upper part of the radio wave as it enters a new medium. The factors, such a
s the frequency of the radio waves, the density of the ionization of the layer,
and the angle at which the wave enters the layer, decide the quantum of refracti
on. The figure depicts the effect of ionization densities on refraction. An ioni
zed layer itself is divided into different regions according to densities. We wi
ll dissect the three layers one by one.
As the wave enters the bottom layer, it is entering a region of high degree ioni
zation. The sudden change in the velocity of the upper part causes it to bend to
wards the earth. At the center portion, as the density of ionization is uniform,
the refraction effects Ham Radio In Plain English 35
are less. As it again enters the area of lesser density, the wave is bent away f
rom the earth.
Critical Frequency As the wave enters an ionospheric layer, there is a possibili
ty for the wave to get refracted or to get lost in space. For a given layer, the
re is a maximum frequency at which the radio waves can be transmitted vertically
and get returned to earth. This frequency is termed as critical frequency.
The waves with higher frequencies than the critical frequency will be lost in sp
ace. From the figure, we can observe that for lower frequencies the waves get re
fracted more sharply. The highest frequency wave, which is of higher frequency t
han the critical frequency of the ionized layer, gets lost in space.
36
Chapter 3
The Factors Affecting Radio Wave Transmission
“640K ought to be enough for anybody.” ~ Bill Gates, 1981 Factors Affecting Radio Wa
ves The radio waves along their journey from the transmitting antenna to the rec
eiving antenna are affected by a lot of factors. Absorption As the radio waves t
ravel through the ionosphere, the current conditions greatly influence the radio
waves. The absorption causes a lot of energy drain and makes the signal weak. A
bsorption occurs predominantly in the region of higher ionization density. The r
adio waves entering into the ionosphere lose some of their energy to the free el
ectrons and ions. When these ions and free electrons collide with other particle
s much of the energy is lost into the atmosphere. Fading Another factor that hin
ders the flow of radio waves is fading. This is due to many conditions. One of t
hem is refraction. Refraction causes polarization of the wave and this in turn c
auses fading. Absorption of energy in the ionosphere is another reason. The figu
re below explains the process of multi-path fading.
37
Due to various atmospheric properties, radio waves may reach the same destinatio
n in different paths. These paths can be ground waves, waves affected due to ion
ospheric refraction, reflected waves from the ionosphere, and so on. The figure
describes the different possibilities by which a radio wave can reach destinatio
n A. Here, the end result is that the waves can reach out of phase at the receiv
er thus causing weak signals. This is known as multi-path fading.
Losses Due to Ground Reflection
If a radio wave along its passage gets reflected from the earth’s surface, then so
me amount of energy may be lost. Factors such as frequency of the wave and groun
d irregularities determine the extent of loss.
Free Space Loss When waves are transmitted, the wave front starts spreading out.
When the distance of travel increases, the spreading of the wave front also inc
reases. This means Ham Radio In Plain English 38
that the amount of energy in a fixed area also reduces. As the wave front reache
s the receiving antenna, only a small area of the wave front is covered by the a
ntenna.
Electromagnetic Interference The electromagnetic interferences also can create h
avoc in radio communications. These are due to either man made interference or n
atural interference. Man made interference can happen from a variety of reasons.
Some are related to devices, which generate radio frequency energy. The extent
of man made interference may vary largely throughout the day and may be reduced
at night. If a lot of devices are used in areas such as industrial estates, the
signals absorbed by a receiver at that particular location may become very feebl
e. Natural interferences are caused by natural phenomena, such as thunderstorms,
cosmic sources, snowstorms, and the sun. All of these can cause energy radiatio
ns and may propagate almost in manner similar to radio waves. The reception of t
hese radiations in the receiving antenna can cause distraction to the radio wave
s. As this does not affect above the frequency of 30 MHz, this will have little
effect on amateur bands. The electromagnetic interference can be controlled or e
liminated by various methods such as the use of directional antennas.
Radio Waves and Weather Weather changes can affect the radio propagation to a ce
rtain extent by leading to the weakening or attenuation of the radio waves. Rain
drops are capable of absorbing some power from the radio waves and this power is
then scattered away in the form of heat. Fog can also cause problems to the rad
io waves. Fog is suspended in the atmosphere. The amount of water per unit volum
e determines the quantum of hindrance caused by the fog.
Ducting Normally, warm air is found near the surface of the earth. As the altitu
de increases, the air becomes cooler. Sometimes an abnormal situation occurs, as
a layer of Ham Radio In Plain English 39
warm air is formed above the layers of cool air. This is referred to as temperat
ure inversion. This results in the formation of channels or ducts of cool air be
tween the surface of warm air and earth or between two layers of warm air. These
ducts trap the radio waves (which would otherwise bleed out into space) and gui
de them along the surface of the earth. This process is known as ducting. When t
his happens, the radio waves will travel more distance than usual.
Earth Moon Earth Earth Moon Earth or EME is a fascinating part of amateur radio
communications. Through this process a ham attempts to direct the signal towards
the moon so that a fellow ham can receive the moon- echoes. In order to make th
is happen, one must have very sensitive equipment with powered amplifiers and a
large antenna system. This is because the echoes become extremely feeble. The pr
ocess is known as path loss.
Satellite
One can communicate with another station through a satellite, if both the statio
ns are in the view of the satellite at the same time. When the satellite is low
to the horizon, the required power will be higher as the distance to the satelli
te is very large.
Sunspots
The sunspot cycle is a phenomenon that extends to a period of 11 years. Every fi
ve and half years, the sun reaches a low in sunspots and during the next five an
d a half years the sun’s surface is dotted with hundreds of spots. When the number
of sunspots increases, the quantum of solar energy increases, thus making the i
onosphere heavily charged. During this period, when the number of sunspots is hi
gh, the HF propagation also improves.
40
Chapter 4
Transmission Theory
“Success always occurs in private, and failure in full view.” ~ Anonymous Transfer o
f Radio Waves from the Transmitter to the Antenna
The energy waves from the transmitter cannot be carried using the ordinary elect
rical wire without energy loss. Transmission lines are used for this purpose. As
the antennas are normally located a distance from the instrument, the transmiss
ion lines are necessary for carrying the energy from the radio room to the anten
na. The transmission line has two ends. The end connected to the transmitter or
the source is called the input end. The end connected to the antenna is called t
he output end. Transmission lines are mainly categorized into two types, balance
d and unbalanced lines. Balanced lines consist of two parallel wires each capabl
e of carrying radio waves. The unbalanced lines have only one wire to carry the
signals. The advantage of the coaxial line is that it matches the impedance of m
ost commercially made ham radios. Also, there is no problem in placing the cable
s near metal objects due to the presence of the shield around the wire. Ham Radi
o In Plain English 41
The transmission line can also be expressed in terms of its impedance. Input imp
edance is the ratio of voltage to the current at the input end. This impedance i
s contributed to the transmitter by the transmission line and antenna. The ratio
of voltage to the current at the output end is known as output impedance. This
impedance is contributed to the load by the transmission line and its source. Tr
ansmission Line Theory The electrical properties of two-wire transmission lines
are mostly influenced by the construction of the line. The two-wire line functio
ns like a long capacitor. Since long conductors also possess a magnetic field ar
ound them, they show the properties of inductance. The inductive and capacitive
reactance depends on the applied frequency. A conductance value also may be pres
ent, which is the value of the current flow that is expected through the insulat
ion. Lumped Constants A transmission line also exhibits the properties of induct
ance, capacitance, and resistance just like the ordinary circuits. In practice,
the constants in conventional circuits are lumped into a single device or compon
ent. For example, two metal plates separated by a small space can be used to sup
ply the required capacitance for a circuit. Similarly a coil of wire has the pro
perty of inductance. Considering the ideal case, a transmission line would also
have its constants of inductance, capacitance, and resistance lumped together, a
s shown in the figure.
But in practice, this is not the case. Transmission line constants are distribut
ed. Ham Radio In Plain English 42
Distributed Constants The distributed constants in the transmission lines are sp
read along the entire length of the transmission line and cannot be distinguishe
d separately. Factors like the length of the line, the size of the conducting wi
res, the spacing between the wires, and the dielectric (air or insulating medium
) between the wires determines the amount of inductance, capacitance, and resist
ance in the line.
Inductance of a Transmission Line The flow of current through a wire induces som
e magnetic lines of force in the wire. The change in the value of the amplitude
of the current induces a change in the field also. This produces a certain amoun
t of inductance, which is expressed in micro Henry per unit length.
43
Capacitance of a Transmission Line Capacitance is also present in between the tr
ansmission line wires. The two parallel wires function as the plates of a capaci
tor and the air between them acts as a dielectric. The electric field thus forme
d between the wires is similar to the field that exists between the two plates o
f a capacitor.
Resistance of a Transmission Line As shown above, the transmission line has elec
trical resistance along its length. This resistance is expressed in ohms per uni
t length.
44
DC Applied to a Transmission Line
In the above figure, a battery is connected to a load through a transmission lin
e. When the switch is open, both current and voltage become nonexistent on the l
ine. As the switch is closed, point A becomes positive and point B becomes negat
ive. This potential difference soon migrates to A’ and B’. This causes an electric f
ield as well as a magnetic field. The moving electric field and the accompanying
magnetic field together constitute an electromagnetic wave that is moving from
the generator (battery) toward the load. This energy that reaches the load is eq
ual to that developed at the battery.
45
AC Applied to a Transmission Line
The figure above explains how the things will change when an ac generator replac
es a battery. The instantaneous values of the generated voltage are propagated t
o the other end, one after the other. Here the difference is that the applied vo
ltage is sinusoidal, not a constant one.
46
Chapter 5
Antenna
“If you can’t beat your computer at chess, try kickboxing.” ~ Anonymous Antennas An an
tenna is a vital ingredient in any radio transmission system. RF signals produce
d by a transmitter should be transferred to the space for a successful transmiss
ion. The device used for this purpose is known as antenna. A transmitting antenn
a sends the signal into space, which is later absorbed by a receiving antenna. T
he transmission of RF energy is done in the form of electromagnetic field. The r
eceiving antenna absorbs the electromagnetic field and voltage is induced in the
antenna. The receiver then converts this electromagnetic radiation back into RF
energy.
47
The Basic Antenna Antennas hold a vital place in radio communication. An antenna
consists of a conductor or a set of conductors, which either radiates or collec
ts electromagnetic energy. A radio frequency energy produced by a transmitter is
carried to an antenna through a transmission line. The antenna transforms this
energy into radio waves that propagate in space at the speed of the light. This
wave continues to travel until it is either reflected or absorbed by an object.
If the obstructing object is another antenna, it absorbs part of the radio waves
and transforms it into energy. This energy is carried away to a receiver throug
h another transmission line. The basic components of a communication system are:
1) Transmitting equipment 2) Transmission line 3) Transmitting antenna 4) Mediu
m 5) Receiving antenna 6) Receiving equipment The two basic fields associated wi
th every antenna are induction field and radiation field. The induction field, w
hich is the field related with the energy stored in the antenna, has no hand in
the transmission of electromagnetic energy, although radiation of energy is not
possible without the induction field. Antennas are basically classified into two
types. They are Hertz antennas and Marconi antennas. Hertz antennas are general
ly located at a distance above the ground and are capable of radiating verticall
y and horizontally. Marconi antennas are located perpendicular to Earth, one end
of it being grounded. While Hertz antennas are used for frequencies above 2 MHz
, Marconi antennas are used for frequencies below 2 MHz. The main parts of an an
tenna are the coupling device, the feeder, and the antenna. The transmitters and
feeders are connected using the coupling device. The transmission line that car
ies the energy to the antenna is known as the feeder. The characteristic Ham Rad
io In Plain English 48
of the antenna depends on the frequency of the transmitting operation, the amoun
t of the power to be radiated, and the direction of the receiving set.
Energy Distribution on an Antenna Electromagnetic radiation is based on two laws
. First, a moving electric field creates a magnetic field. The second is that a
moving magnetic field creates an electric field. At any moment, these two fields
will be perpendicular to each other. A high-frequency generator is attached to
a half cut wire. The set frequency of the generator is such that each half of th
e wire is one-fourth the wavelength of the output. The system thus produced is k
nown as a dipole, which is a common type of antenna. At a given instant, the lef
t side of the generator is negative and the right side is positive. As a result,
the electrons will flow away from the negative terminal and will be attracted t
o the positive terminal. The amplitude of the flowing current will be varying wi
th the generated voltage. The charge distribution will be of sine wave pattern.
After every half cycle, the polarity of the charges will be reversed. The sinuso
idal variation of charge lags the sinusoidal variation of the current by one-fou
rth the cycle. Radio Wave Modulation The functioning of a radio may be a perplex
ing thing to a beginner. Your voice produced in front of a microphone is heard u
sing another radio, which is placed at a different location. How does this happe
n? Modulation is the process of merging a radio signal with an information signa
l. That means that for modulation to happen a carrier must be there. It is this
carrier signal that delivers this information to the desired destination.
Morse Code Modulation Morse code turns off and on an RF carrier in order to tran
smit a simple code alphabet. This is also known as continuous wave (CW).
49
Radiation of Electromagnetic Energy The E field and the H field of an electromag
netic energy will be 90 degrees out of phase with each other. As the energy wave
traverses a greater distance, the energy spreads out over a greater area and de
creases as the distance traversed increases. Consider that an alternating curren
t is applied at the starting point X of a wire, which extends up to Y. The wave
will pass through the wire until point Y. The end Y is free and because of that
the wave is unable to travel further. This wave will then reflect back and trave
l to the starting point. Here also, it gets reflected and the process repeats. A
s this to and fro motion continues, the energy of the wave will be gradually los
t by the resistance of the wire. But each time when it reaches the starting poin
t X, the lost energy will be reinforced. This results in the continuous oscillat
ion of energy along the wire. These oscillations are then applied to the antenna
at a rate equivalent to the frequency of the f voltage. The waves travel at a r
ate of 300,000,000 meters per second. The antenna length should be made in such
a way that one to and fro motion of the wave should happen during one cycle of t
he RF voltage. The maximum movement of electrons always happens at the center of
the antenna. Due to this, the center of the antenna is always at low impedance
and this condition is called the standing wave of the current. The points having
high current and voltage are called as current and voltage loops. The point of
minimum current and voltage is called as Nodes.
50
Antenna Gain Most of the antennas are highly directional. This means that more e
nergy is radiated in certain directions compared to other directions.
51
Antenna Reciprocity As we have already described at the transmitting stage, elec
trical energy is converted into the electromagnetic energy and consequently radi
ated into space. At the receiving antenna, electromagnetic energy is converted i
nto electrical energy. The same antenna can be used in both the cases without an
y loss of efficiency. This property of the interchangeability of the antenna for
both transmitting and receiving is known as antenna reciprocity.
Radiation Resistance Radiated energy is lost in heating the antenna wire. Consid
ering radiation, if the assumed resistance is actually present, it would dissipa
te the same quantity of power the antenna takes to radiate the energy. This assu
med resistance is named as radiation resistance.
Isotropic Radiation Some of the antennas radiate equal amount of energy in all d
irections. This type of radiation is known as isotropic radiation. This is often
compared to the radiation pattern from the sun. Sun radiates equal amounts of e
nergy in all directions.
Anisotropic Radiation Radiations produced by most radiators can be found to have
higher intensity in one direction. These types of radiators are referred to as
anisotropic radiators. The ordinary flashlight is the best example of an anisotr
opic radiator.
Antenna Loading The same antenna system can be used for transmitting and receivi
ng signals having different frequencies. For this to happen, the antenna should
either be physically Ham Radio In Plain English 52
or electrically lengthened or shortened. Making physical changes are not that pr
actical. That necessitates the reduction or enlargement of the electrical length
. This is done by inserting either a capacitor or an inductor in series with the
antenna. The process is known as loading.
“Work is a necessary evil to be avoided.” ~ Mark Twain, writer
Antenna Positioning Special care should be taken to locate the antenna well abov
e the ground keeping it away from any tall buildings, trees, electrical power co
nductors, telephone and telegraph wires, and other metal objects that will absor
b the energy. Better results can be obtained by hoisting it to the maximum possi
ble height. The antenna and the output stage of the transmitter have certain imp
edance in them. Maximum possible energy transfer from a source to the load is po
ssible only when the impedance is matched. That means that the output impedance
of the transmitter should match the input impedance of the antenna. A co-axial c
able is used by most amateurs because of its properties of maximum efficiency an
d minimum loss of energy. RG-59/U is a small co-axial cable having an impedance
of 73 Ohms. Ham Radio In Plain English 53
Other stations often judge the performance of an amateur station from the streng
th of the signal they hear. This enunciates the importance of an effective anten
na system.
Types of Different Antennas
Most of us have a misconception that if the length of antenna is more, than the
energy radiated by it will also be on the higher. But this is not the case. Ante
nna should have specific dimensions for effective operation. The basic Hertz ant
enna has a length of half its wavelength. This is also called as a dipole or a d
oublet. The basic Marconi antenna has a length one-fourth its wavelength. Half–wav
e Antennas
54
A half-wave antenna (Hertz, dipole or doublet) is made up of two lengths of tubi
ng, each having one-fourth of wavelength at a particular frequency. This antenna
is capable of operating at a distance above the ground surface. For a half-wave
antenna, the current is maximum at the center and minimum at the ends. Voltage
is minimum at the center and maximum at the ends.
Quarter–wave Antennas A grounded quarter-wave antenna can be obtained by cutting a
half-wave antenna and then grounding one end well. The antenna thus obtained wi
ll resonate with the same frequency as the ungrounded half wavelength antenna. M
ost of the mobile transmitting and receiving antennas are quarter-wave (Marconi)
antennas.
Horizontal Dipole The beginners often start with this antenna, as it is easy to
construct. It gives excellent results in H.F bands. The most attractive thing is
that it requires only two points to hook it up. The height can be above 30 feet
, and the higher the better. This is considered a basic antenna. The length in f
eet is calculated using the formula, 468/f MHz. An insulator is used in the cent
er after cutting it into two halves. The maximum radiation is in the broadside o
f the axis and least along the axis line. The materials of the dipole are easily
available. Dipole can be used for both local as well as Dx. Inverted V The diff
erence between the inverted V and the dipole is that the center is raised to a h
eight comparing with the ends. The length of the inverted V in feet can be calcu
lated using the formula, 464/f MHz. The angle between two halves must be between
90 and 120 degrees. The radiating part of a vertical antenna is called the radi
ator. Normally copper wire or aluminum tubing is used for the radiator. Ham Radi
o In Plain English 55
“If it’s the Psychic Network, why do they need a phone number?” ~ Robin Williams, come
dian Folded Dipole A folded dipole is similar to an ordinary half-wave antenna w
ith one or more additional conductors connected across its ends. Additional cond
uctors are placed at a distance which will be equal to a fraction of its wavelen
gth. The spacings are materialized using standard feed-line spreaders. The folde
d dipole is used over a wider frequency range than that of a simple dipole.
Directional Antennas
56
A directional antenna focuses or directs radio energy in a specific direction. A
s a result of this the stations on the directed sides will be getting strong sig
nals when compared to those on the opposite sides. That means that the direction
al antenna propagates the energy more in one direction at the cost of a weak rad
iation on the rear side.
Parasitic Antenna The parasitic antennas are defined as the antennas, in which t
he radio energy is obtained in some elements by the induction or radiation from
the driven element. Directional antennas are example of the parasitic antenna. Y
agi and quad fall under this category.
Yagi Antenna Yagi antenna consists of many dipoles, one shorter from the other.
Refer to the figure given below. Reflectors, radiators, and directors are the pa
rts of a yagi antenna. The elements are not placed uniformly thus causing an une
ven spacing between the elements. The reflector and director are usually found w
elded to a conducting tube. The radiations from different elements will be in ph
ase in the forward direction, but may not be in phase in other directions. A hig
her number of parasitic elements guarantees more gain, but may lead to a narrow
frequency response.
57
One Antenna for Different Bands You can make an antenna for different bands. Tho
se who are interested in making antennas for all bands can locate resources on t
he web. • To build a sturba curtain antenna for all bands, visit this page: http://
www.hamuniverse.com/sturba.html • The following url contains a detailed study to us
e a patch array for different bandwidths with varied patch lengths and a low los
s PCB material: http://www.itn.liu.se/~shago/Publications/UWB_antenna.pdf A lot
of resources on quad antennas are available at http://www.dxzone.com/catalog/ Te
chnical_Reference/Antennas/Quad/ - 30k http://members.fortunecity.com/xe1bef/10m
eters-antenna.htm
58
Terminology Used in Array Antennas Driven Element A driven element is the elemen
t connected directly to the transmission line. It is almost similar to the dipol
e. While transmitting, it receives the power directly from the transmitter. Simi
larly, while receiving, it delivers the absorbed energy directly to the receiver
.
Parasitic Element A parasitic element is placed near the driven element, from wh
ich it derives the power. When a parasitic element produces maximum energy radia
tion in a direction away from itself but towards a parasitic element, it is call
ed a reflector.
Driven Array When all the elements in an array are driven, it is referred to as
a driven array.
Bi-directional Array A bi-directional array directs in the opposite directions a
long the line of maximum radiation.
Unidirectional Array A unidirectional array directs only in one direction.
59
Chapter 6
Ham Radio License
“Never go to a doctor whose office plants have died.” ~ Erma Bombeck, author FCC The
FCC regulates amateur radio under the jurisdiction of the United States of Amer
ica. This agency can impose fines or even take away licenses if someone is not f
ollowing the rules. Licenses are required due to many security aspects involved
in radio communications.
Control Operator
An amateur station is the place where a station facilitated for the amateur radi
o transmissions is located. A licensed amateur who is completely responsible for
the station transmissions is called a control operator.
Amateur Radio License Any individual who intends to operate a ham radio station
in the U.S, should hold a license from the FCC, prior to his or her initiation t
o the world of ham radio. The license is renewed every 10 years. Where can you f
ind the information you’d need to study for the test? Most of the information is r
ight here in this book.
License Classes
Just as there is no one driver’s license, amateur radio also has different types o
f licenses. The FCC has three license classes. One should begin with a technicia
n class
60
operator license and then graduate to higher classes. There is no possibility of
starting out in a higher class. Naturally, lower classes offer fewer privileges
than higher ones. Type of Classes Technician Class Offered Privileges Have full
liberty to use VHF and UHF spectrum 30 MHz. Limited privileges in Morse code an
d voice in the HF spectrum. Limited access to all the HF amateur bands with Mors
e code, data and voice modes. Full amateur privileges. Eligibility Requirements
Passing a 35 question exam is mandatory.
Technician with Morse Code General Class
A five wpm Morse code exam and a passing grade in the previous exam. A 35 questi
on exam (requires that you have passed the technician and Morse code exams alrea
dy). Possess a general class license and pass a 50 question exam.
Amateur
Extra Renewal of the License
A license is valid for 10 years. After the 10 years, a further two years are all
owed for renewal although the amateur radio privileges cease to exist during thi
s period. After the renewal of the license, one can operate a station. According
to the FCC, it is best to renew the license 90 days prior to the expiration dat
e.
Changes Made by the FCC in 2000 The FCC made changes based on three aspects. The
number of operator licenses was reduced from six to three. The number of telegr
aphy examination elements was reduced from three to one. The number of elements
in the written examination was reduced from five to three. There will be only on
e Morse code examination at a speed of five words-per-minute (wpm). RACES statio
n licenses were eliminated.
61
Novices and Advanced Class licensees can still operate without any difficulty. N
ew Novice and Advanced Class licenses have not been issued since April 15, 2000.
All six license classes will still remain in the FCC database. However, the Nov
ice, Tech Plus, and Advanced Class will gradually cease as members renew or upgr
ade. The Tech Plus operators can have their licenses renewed under Technician, b
ut they retain the exam credit indefinitely for the five words-per-minute Morse
code. Generally speaking, all previous Novice operators and Technician Class ope
rators (licensed before February 14, 1991), even those with long-expired license
s, retain credit for the five wpm Morse code exam. The importance of Morse code
is greatly reduced. The top speed in ham radio becomes five wpm. None of the ama
teur license classes receive any additional frequency privileges and no one lost
privileges. The only exception is that Technician Class radio amateurs licensed
before March 21, 1987 could become General Class licensees after April 15, 2000
without further examination. A time may come soon, where Morse code is consider
ed obsolete.
Expired License If the time duration after the expiry of the license is less tha
n two years, the license only needs to be renewed. The name, address and call si
gn of every amateur remains in the FCC s database for a two year "grace period"
beyond expiration. In case the two year "grace period" is up, one must start all
over again. There are two exceptions to this rule that apply only to Technical
Class operators. These exceptions are: One can retain credit for the Element 1 (
5 wpm) telegraphy and Element 3 (general written) examination if he/she has an e
xpired FCC issued Technician Class operator license granted before March 21, 198
7. That means, even though the license has expired 10 years ago, the person stil
l gets credit for Element 1 and 3. He or she would merely have to pass Element 2
(Technician) and submit the expired Technician license granted before March 21,
1987 (or other evidence) to the VE team to become a General Class operator. Ham
Radio In Plain English 62
One can retain credit for the Element 1 (5 wpm) telegraphy examination if he/she
has an expired FCC issued Technician Class operator license granted before Febr
uary 14, 1991 or an expired Novice Class operator license issued at any time. Bu
t one question remains unanswered. What is the necessity of a license at all? CB
radio operators are not required to have one. The simple answer is that ham ope
rators can work at a power level of almost 375 times than that of a CB operator.
Also, ham operators can transmit across state and international barriers. This
makes it mandatory to understand the international rules and regulations.
VHF/UHF Bands
“If it weren’t for Philo T. Farnsworth, inventor of television, we’d still be eating f
rozen radio dinners.” ~ Johnny Carson, comedian The bandwidth assigned to a ham ma
y differ in some respects from one country to another. This is done by the conce
rned body of the particular country (like FCC for the U.S.) by going through a l
ot of aspects. This makes it impossible to have a common frequency allotment in
the international level. A technician with no Morse code license can operate on
allowed frequency segments above 30 MHz. Most of the activity pertaining to this
segment will be limited to local areas. The amateur bands that can be used by a
no code technician are given below. Note that the 13 cm band is divided into tw
o segments.
50.0MHz_____________________54.0MHz 144.0MHz___________________148.0MHz 222.0MHz
___________________225.0MHz 420.0MHz___________________450.0MHz 902MHz__________
____________928MHz 1240MHz____________________1300MHz 2300~2310MHz_________ 2390
~2450MHz
6 Meter Band VHF 2 Meter Band VHF 1.25 Meter Band VHF 70 centimeter Band UHF 33
centimeter Band UHF 23 centimeter Band UHF 13 centimeter Band UHF
63
The Technician with Morse Code HF Amateur Bands
3675kHz___________________ __3750kHz 7.1MHz______________________7.150MHz 21.100
MHz__________________21.200MHz 28.100MHz__________________28.500MHz
80 Meter Band HF 40 Meter Band HF 15 Meter Band HF 10 Meter Band HF
VHF Bands
6m 6m 2m 2m
50.0 - 50.1 MHz 50.1 - 54.0 MHz 144.0 - 144.1 MHz 144.1 - 148.0 MHz
CW only Phone emissions permitted, FM included CW only Phone permitted, FM inclu
ded.
Image Transmissions Image transmissions are the transmissions of still images or
that of video images. Fax and slow and fast scan television are some of the ima
ge transmission modes. Hams often involve themselves in sharing their personal v
ideos.
Station Licensee If an individual is licensed and owns a radio, then he/she is t
he control operator when he/she is using the radio. The location where the contr
ol operator functions is called the control point. It is possible that the stati
on licensee and the control operator are two separate individuals. A control ope
rator can be anyone who the station licensee designates.
64
Identification
Call sign is a sequence of letters and numbers the FCC provides for identifying
a station. This will be provided as soon as one is licensed. Call sign is a must
for ham radio operation. It is mandatory for an operator to identify his or her
station every 10 minutes or at the end of the operation. Third Party Communicat
ions As implied by the name, third party communications are the communications s
ent between two amateur stations on the behalf of someone. A third party is the
one who has sent the message through two amateur stations. The policy of the FCC
states that an amateur should never be paid for third party communications. Whe
n one allows a third party to use his/her station, then he/she must closely moni
tor the transmission. Third party messages to a foreign country can only be made
if the U.S. has a third party agreement with that government.
Frequency Sharing Sometimes, it is possible that there are others in the same ba
nd. At certain instances, the amateur radio operators share the band with other
radio services. When amateurs are the secondary users of a band, one must not in
terfere with the primary users of the band. This rule stands good for the fellow
operators as well.
Power Limits FCC has specified maximum possible power levels. The term coined fo
r this purpose is Peak Envelope Power or PEP. The maximum power output for techn
ician grade is 1500 watts PEP. Maximum power output allowed to a technician with
Morse code is 200 watts PEP. One should always use the minimum required power.
For example, if only a certain amount of power is required for transmitting to a
particular area, then do not use more than the required power, because it is un
necessary wastage.
65
Language Any language is permitted. There are many individuals who transmit in o
ther languages like Japanese and Spanish.
Beacons Beacons are special transmitters that work 24 hours a day to give inform
ation on radio conditions and propagation characteristics. One must tune to a be
acon frequency and check whether a beacon signal is present. The presence of the
signal confirms the existence of a radio communication path between the locatio
n and the beacon.
Distress Whenever there is a distress call on the radio, contact the person and
the proper authorities. It does not matter if the frequency is outside your lice
nse privileges. MAYDAY and SOS are the words transmitted in case of an emergency
. This should be used for life or property threatening emergencies.
Transmission and Dummy Load During repair, it may be required to operate the sta
tion for a while for the correct diagnosis of the problem. Rather than using a l
ive signal, technicians use a dummy load around the antenna. A dummy load is not
hing but a huge resistor which has the ability to dissipate the radio signal as
heat into the air.
Repeaters As described earlier, most VHF-UHF bands have a line of sight transmis
sion. Due to this, VHF signals are easily blocked by mountains and hills. In ord
er to avoid this situation, a device known as a repeater is used to strengthen t
he signal. The significance of repeaters is that they make it possible to transm
it signals to very long dis-
66
tances. The difference between the input and the output of a repeater is termed
as offset.
The main rules pertaining to the amateur radio transmission are given below. Not
knowing the rules is no excuse. “My father hated radio and could not wait for tel
evision to be invented so that he could hate that, too.” ~ Peter De Vries, novelis
t S 97.5 Station License Required The person having physical control of the stat
ion apparatus must have been granted a station license (detailed below) or hold
an unexpired document (detailed below) before the station may transmit on any am
ateur service frequency from any place that is: • Within 50 km of the Earth s surfa
ce and at a place where the amateur service is regulated by the FCC. • Within 50 km
of the Earth s surface and aboard any vessel or craft that is documented or reg
istered in the United States. • More than 50 km above the Earth s surface aboard an
y craft that is documented or registered in the United States. The types of stat
ion licenses are: • An operator/primary station license. One, but only one, operato
r/primary station license is granted to each person who is qualified to be an am
ateur operator. The primary station license is granted together with the amateur
operator license. Except for a representative of a foreign government, any pers
on who qualifies by examination is eligible to apply for an operator/primary sta
tion license. The operator/primary station license document is printed on FCC Fo
rm 660.
67
•
A club station license. A club station license is granted only to the person who
is the license trustee designated by an officer of the club. The trustee must b
e a person who has been granted an Amateur Extra, Advanced, General, Technician
Plus, or Technician operator license. The club must be composed of at least two
persons and must have a name, a document of organization, management, and a prim
ary purpose devoted to amateur service activities consistent with this Part. The
club station license document is printed on FCC Form 660.
•
A military recreation station license. A military recreation station license is
granted only to the person who is the license custodian designated by the offici
al in charge of the United States military recreational premises where the stati
on is situated. The person must not be a representative of a foreign government.
The person need not have been granted an amateur operator license. The military
recreation station license document is printed on FCC Form 660.
•
A RACES station license. A RACES station license is granted only to the person w
ho is the license custodian designated by the official responsible for the gover
nmental agency served by that civil defense organization. The custodian must be
the civil defense official responsible for coordination of all civil defense act
ivities in the area concerned. The custodian must not be a representative of a f
oreign government. The custodian need not have been granted an amateur operator
license. The RACES station license document is printed on FCC Form 660.
The types of documents are: • A reciprocal permit for alien amateur licensee (FCC F
orm 610-AL) issued to the person by the FCC. • An amateur service license issued to
the person by the Government of Canada. The person must be a Canadian citizen. • A
person who has been granted a station license of the type listed above or who h
olds an unexpired document of the type listed above is authorized to use, Ham Ra
dio In Plain English 68
in accordance with the FCC Rules, all transmitting apparatus under the physical
control of the station licensee at points where the amateur service is regulated
by the FCC.
S 97.7 Control Operator Required When transmitting, each amateur station must ha
ve a control operator. The control operator must be a person who has been grante
d an amateur operator/primary station license, or who holds an unexpired documen
t of the following types: • A reciprocal permit for alien amateur licensee (FCC For
m 610-AL) issued to the person by the FCC. • An amateur service license issued to t
he person by the Government of Canada. The person must be a Canadian citizen.
“Maybe this world is another planet’s Hell.” ~ Aldous Huxley, writer S 97.9 Operator L
icense The classes of amateur operator licenses are: Novice, Technician, Technic
ian Plus (until such licenses expire, a Technician Class license granted before
February 14, 1991, is considered a Technician Plus Class license), General, Adva
nced, and Amateur Extra. A person who has been granted an operator license is au
thorized to be the control operator of an amateur station with the privileges of
the operator class specified on the license. A person who has been granted an o
perator license of Novice, Technician, Technician Plus, General, or Advanced cla
ss and who has properly submitted to the administering VEs an application docume
nt, FCC Form 610, for an operator license of a higher class, and who holds a CSC
E indicating that the person has completed the necessary examinations within the
previous 365 days, is authorized to exercise the rights and privileges of the h
igher operator class until final disposition of the application or until 365 day
s following the passing of the examination, whichever comes first.
69
S 97.11 Stations aboard Ships or Aircraft The installation and operation of an a
mateur station on a ship or aircraft must be approved by the master of the ship
or pilot in command of the aircraft. The station must be separate from and indep
endent of all other radio apparatus installed on the ship or aircraft, except a
common antenna may be shared with a voluntary ship radio installation. The stati
on s transmissions must not cause interference to any other apparatus installed
on the ship or aircraft. The station must not constitute a hazard to the safety
of life or property. For a station aboard an aircraft, the apparatus shall not b
e operated while the aircraft is operating under Instrument Flight Rules, as def
ined by the FAA, unless the station has been found to comply with all applicable
FAA Rules. S 97.13 Restrictions on Station Locations Before placing an amateur
station on land of environmental importance or that is significant in American h
istory, architecture or culture, the licensee may be required to take certain ac
tions prescribed by S 1.1301 - 1.1319 of the FCC Rules. A station within 1600 m
(1 mile) of an FCC monitoring facility must protect that facility from harmful i
nterference. Failure to do so could result in imposition of operating restrictio
ns upon the amateur station by an EIC pursuant to S 97.121 of this Part. Geograp
hical coordinates of the facilities that require protection are listed in Sectio
n 0.121(c) of the FCC Rules. 97.15 Station Antenna Structures Unless the amateur
station licensee has received prior approval from the FCC, no antenna structure
, including the radiating elements, tower, supports, and all appurtenances, may
be higher than 61 m (200 feet) above ground level at its site. Unless the amateu
r station licensee has received prior approval from the FCC, no antenna structur
e, at an airport or heliport that is available for public use and is listed in t
he airport directory of the current Airman s Information Manual or in either the
Alaska Ham Radio In Plain English 70
or Pacific Airman s Guide and Chart Supplement; or at an airport or heliport und
er construction that is the subject of a notice or proposal on file with the FAA
, and except for military airports, it is clearly indicated that the airport wil
l be available for public use; or at an airport or heliport that is operated by
the armed forces of the United States; or at a place near any of these airports
or heliports, may be higher than: • One meter above the airport elevation for each
100 m from the nearest runway longer than 1 km within 6.1 km of the antenna stru
cture. • Two meters above the airport elevation for each 100 m from the nearest run
way shorter than 1 km within 3.1 km of the antenna structure. • Four meters above t
he airport elevation for each 100 m from the nearest landing pad within 1.5 km o
f the antenna structure. An amateur station antenna structure no higher than 6.1
m (20 feet) above ground level at its site or no higher than 6.1 m above any na
tural object or existing manmade structure, other than an antenna structure, is
exempt from the requirements of this section. Further details as to whether an a
eronautical study and/or obstruction marking and lighting may be required, and s
pecifications for obstruction marking and lighting, are contained in Part 17 of
the FCC Rules, Construction, Marking, and Lighting of Antenna Structures. To req
uest approval to place an antenna structure higher than the limits specified her
e, the licensee must notify the FAA on FAA Form 7460-1 and the FCC on FCC Form 8
54. Except as otherwise provided herein, a station antenna structure may be erec
ted at heights and dimensions sufficient to accommodate amateur service communic
ations. [State and local regulation of a station antenna structure must not prec
lude amateur service communications. Rather, it must reasonably accommodate such
communications and must constitute the minimum practicable regulation to accomp
lish the state or local authority s legitimate purpose. See PRB-1, 101 FCC 2d 95
2 (1985) for details.]
71
S 97.17 Application for New License or Reciprocal Permit for Alien Amateur Licen
see (a) Any qualified person is eligible to apply for an amateur service license
. (b) Each application for a new amateur service license must be made on the pro
per document: • • • FCC Form 610 for a new operator/primary station license. FCC Form 610
-A for a reciprocal permit for alien amateur licensee. FCC Form 610-B for a new
amateur service club or military recreation station license. (c) Each applicatio
n for a new operator/primary station license must be submitted to the VEs admini
stering the qualifying examination. (d) Any eligible person may apply for a reci
procal permit for alien amateur licensee. The application document, FCC Form 610
-A, must be submitted to the FCC, 1270 Fairfield Road, Gettysburg, PA 17325-7245
. (1) The person must be a citizen of a country with which the United States has
arrangements to grant reciprocal operating permits to visiting alien amateur op
erators is eligible to apply for reciprocal permit for alien amateur licensee. (
2) The person must be a citizen of the same country that issued the amateur serv
ice license. (3) No person who is a citizen of the United States, regardless of
any other citizenship also held, is eligible for a reciprocal permit for alien a
mateur licensee. (4) No person who has been granted an amateur operator license
is eligible for a reciprocal permit for alien amateur licensee. (e) No person sh
all obtain or attempt to obtain, or assist another person to obtain or attempt t
o obtain, an amateur service license or reciprocal permit for alien amateur lice
nsee by fraudulent means. (f) One unique call sign will be shown on the license
of each new primary station. The call sign will be selected by the sequential ca
ll sign system. Ham Radio In Plain English 72
(g) No new license for a club, military recreation, or RACES station will be gra
nted. “Television enables you to be entertained in your home by people you wouldn’t
have in your home. ~ David Frost, talk show host
S 97.21 Application for a Modified or Renewed License (a) A person who has been
granted an amateur station license that has not expired: (1) Must apply for a mo
dification of the license as necessary to show the correct mailing address, lice
nsee name, club name, license trustee name, or license custodian name. The appli
cation document must be submitted to: FCC, 1270 Fairfield Road, Gettysburg, PA 1
7325-7245. For an operator/primary station license, the application must be made
on FCC Form 610. For a club, military recreation, or RACES station license, the
application must be made on FCC Form 610-B. (2) May apply for a modification of
the license to show a higher operator class. The application must be made on FC
C Form 610 and must be submitted to the VEs administering the qualifying examina
tion. (3) May apply for renewal of the license for another term. (The FCC may ma
il to the licensee a FCC Form 610-R that may be used for this purpose.) The appl
ication may be made on the FCC Form 610-R if it is received from the FCC. If the
Form 610-R is not received from the FCC at least 30 days before the expiration
of the license, for an operator/primary station license, the application may be
made on FCC Form 610. For a club, military recreation, or RACES station license,
the application may be made on FCC Form 610-B. The application must be submitte
d no more than 90 days before its expiration to: FCC, 1270 Fairfield Road, Getty
sburg, PA 17325-7245. When the application for renewal of the license has been r
eceived by the FCC at 1270 Fairfield Road, Gettysburg, PA 17325-7245 prior to th
e license expiration date, the license operating authority is continued until th
e final disposition of the application. (4) May apply for a modification of the
license to show a different call sign selected by the sequential call sign syste
m. The application document must be submitted to: FCC, Ham Radio In Plain Englis
h 73
1270 Fairfield Road, Gettysburg, PA 17325-7245. The application must be made on
FCC Form 610. This modification is not available to club, military recreation, o
r RACES stations. (b) A person who had been granted an amateur station license,
but the license has expired, may apply for renewal of the license for another te
rm during a two year filing grace period. The application document must be recei
ved by the FCC at 1270 Fairfield Road, Gettysburg, PA 17325-7245 prior to the en
d of the grace period. For an operator/primary station license, the application
must be made on FCC Form 610. For a club, military recreation, or RACES station
license, the application must be made on FCC Form 610-B. Unless and until the li
cense is renewed, no privileges in the Part are conferred. (c) Each application
for a modified or renewed amateur service license must be accompanied by a photo
copy (or the original) of the license document unless an application for renewal
using FCC Form 610-R is being made, or unless the original document has been lo
st, mutilated or destroyed. (d) Unless the holder of a station license requests
a change in call sign, the same call sign will be assigned to the station upon r
enewal or modification of a station license. (e) A reciprocal permit for alien a
mateur licensee cannot be renewed. A new reciprocal permit for alien amateur lic
ensee may be issued upon proper application.
S 97.23 Mailing Address (a) Each application for a license and each application
for a reciprocal permit for alien amateur licensee must show a mailing address i
n an area where the amateur service is regulated by the FCC and where the licens
ee or permittee can receive mail delivery by the United States Postal Service. E
ach application for a reciprocal permit for alien amateur licensee must also sho
w the permittee s mailing address in the country of citizenship. (b) When there
is a change in the mailing address for a person who has been granted an amateur
operator/primary station license, the person must file a timely application Ham
for a modification of the license. Revocation of the station license or suspensi
on of the operator license may result when correspondence from the FCC is return
ed as undeliverable because the person failed to provide the correct mailing add
ress. (c) When a person who has been granted a reciprocal permit for alien amate
ur licensee changes the mailing address where he or she can receive mail deliver
y by the United States Postal Service, the person must file an application for a
new permit. Cancellation of the reciprocal permit for alien amateur licensee ma
y result when correspondence from the FCC is returned as undeliverable because t
he permittee failed to provide the correct mailing address.
S 97.25 License Term (a) An amateur service license is normally granted for a 10
-year term. (b) A reciprocal permit for alien amateur licensee is normally grant
ed for a 1-year term.
S 97.27 FCC Modification of Station License (a) The FCC may modify a station lic
ense, either for a limited time or for the duration of the term thereof, if it d
etermines: (1) That such action will promote the public interest, convenience, a
nd necessity; or (2) That such action will promote fuller compliance with the pr
ovisions of the Communications Act of 1934, as amended, or of any treaty ratifie
d by the United States. (b) When the FCC makes such a determination, it will iss
ue an order of modification. The order will not become final until the licensee
is notified in writing of the proposed action and the grounds and reasons theref
ore. The licensee will be given reasonable opportunity of no less than 30 days t
o protest the modification; except that, where safety of life or property is inv
olved, a shorter period of notice may be provided. Any protest by a licensee of
an FCC order of modification will be handled in accordance with the provisions o
f 47 U.S.C. S 316.
75
S 97.29 Replacement License Document Each person who has been granted an amateur
station license or reciprocal permit for alien amateur licensee whose original
license document or permit document is lost, mutilated or destroyed must request
a replacement. A statement of how the document was lost, mutilated, or destroye
d must be attached to the request. A replacement document must bear the same exp
iration date as the document that it replaces.
Subpart B--Station Operation Standards S 97.101 General Standards (a) In all res
pects not specifically covered by FCC Rules, each amateur station must be operat
ed in accordance with good engineering and good amateur practice. (b) Each stati
on licensee and each control operator must cooperate in selecting transmitting c
hannels and in making the most effective use of the amateur service frequencies.
No frequency will be assigned for the exclusive use of any station. (c) At all
times and on all frequencies, each control operator must give priority to statio
ns providing emergency communications, except to stations transmitting communica
tions for training drills and tests in RACES. (d) No amateur operator shall will
fully or maliciously interfere with or cause interference to any radio communica
tion or signal.
S 97.103 Station Licensee Responsibilities (a) The station licensee is responsib
le for the proper operation of the station in accordance with the FCC Rules. Whe
n the control operator is a different amateur operator than the station licensee
, both persons are equally responsible for proper operation of the station. (b)
The station licensee must designate the station control operator. The FCC will p
resume that the station licensee is also the control operator, unless documentat
ion to the contrary is in the station records. Ham Radio In Plain English 76
(c) The station licensee must make the station and the station records available
for inspection upon request by an FCC representative. When deemed necessary by
an EIC to assure compliance with FCC Rules, the station licensee must maintain a
record of station operations containing such items of information as the EIC ma
y require in accord with S 0.314(x) of the FCC Rules.
“I have not failed. I have just found 10,000 ways that won’t work.” ~ Thomas Edison, i
nventor
S 97.105 Control Operator Duties (a) The control operator must ensure the immedi
ate proper operation of the station, regardless of the type of control. (b) A st
ation may only be operated in the manner and to the extent permitted by the priv
ileges authorized for the class of operator license held by the control operator
.
S 97.107 Alien Control Operator Privileges (a) The privileges available to a con
trol operator holding an amateur service license issued by the Government of Can
ada are: (1) The terms of the convention between the United States and Canada (T
IAS no. 2508) relating to the operation by citizens of either country of certain
radio equipment or stations in the other country; (2) The operating terms and c
onditions of the amateur service license issued by the Government of Canada; and
(3) The applicable provisions of the FCC Rules, but not to exceed the control o
perator privileges of an FCC-issued Amateur Extra Class operator license. (b) Th
e privileges available to a control operator holding an FCC-issued reciprocal pe
rmit for alien amateur licensee are:
77
(1) The terms of the agreement between the alien s government and the United Sta
tes; (2) The operating terms and conditions of the amateur service license issue
d by the alien s government; (3) The applicable provisions of the FCC Rules, but
not to exceed the control operator privileges of an FCC-issued Amateur Extra Cl
ass operator license; and (4) None, if the holder of the reciprocal permit has o
btained an FCC-issued operator/ primary station license. (c) At any time the FCC
may, in its discretion, modify, suspend, or cancel the amateur service privileg
es within or over any area where radio services are regulated by the FCC of any
Canadian amateur service licensee or alien reciprocal permittee.
S 97.109 Station Control (a) Each amateur station must have at least one control
point. (b) When a station is being locally controlled, the control operator mus
t be at the control point. Any station may be locally controlled. (c) When a sta
tion is being remotely controlled, the control operator must be at the control p
oint. Any station may be remotely controlled. (d) When a station is being automa
tically controlled, the control operator need not be at the control point. Only
stations transmitting RTTY or data emissions on the 6 m or shorter wavelength ba
nds, and stations specifically designated elsewhere in this Part may be automati
cally controlled. Automatic control must cease upon notification by an EIC that
the station is transmitting improperly or causing harmful interference to other
stations. Automatic control must not be resumed without prior approval of the EI
C. (e) No station may be automatically controlled while transmitting third- part
y communications, except a station participating as a forwarding station in a me
ssage forwarding system. Ham Radio In Plain English 78
S 97.111 Authorized Transmissions (a) An amateur station may transmit the follow
ing types of two-way communications: (1) Transmissions necessary to exchange mes
sages with other stations in the amateur service, except those in any country wh
ose administration has given notice that it objects to such communications. The
FCC will issue public notices of current arrangements for international communic
ations; (2) Transmissions necessary to exchange messages with a station in anoth
er FCCregulated service while providing emergency communications; (3) Transmissi
ons necessary to exchange messages with a United States government station, nece
ssary to providing communications in RACES; and (4) Transmissions necessary to e
xchange messages with a station in a service not regulated by the FCC, but autho
rized by the FCC to communicate with amateur stations. An amateur station may ex
change messages with a participating United States military station during an Ar
med Forces Day Communications Test. (b) In addition to one-way transmissions spe
cifically authorized elsewhere in this Part, an amateur station may transmit the
following types of one-way communications: (1) Brief transmissions necessary to
make adjustments to the station; (2) Brief transmissions necessary to establish
ing two-way communications with other stations; (3) Telecommand; (4) Transmissio
ns necessary to providing emergency communications; (5) Transmissions necessary
to assisting persons learning, or improving proficiency in, the international Mo
rse code; (6) Transmissions necessary to disseminate information bulletins; (7)
Transmissions of telemetry.
79
S 97.113 Prohibited Transmissions (a) No amateur station shall transmit: (1) Com
munications specifically prohibited elsewhere in this Part; (2) Communications f
or hire or for material compensation, direct or indirect, paid or promised, exce
pt as otherwise provided in these rules; (3) Communications in which the station
licensee or control operator has a pecuniary interest, including communications
on behalf of an employer. Amateur operators may, however, notify other amateur
operators of the availability for sale or trade of apparatus normally used in an
amateur station, provided that such activity is not conducted on a regular basi
s; (4) Music using a phone emission except as specifically provided elsewhere in
this Section; communications intended to facilitate a criminal act; messages in
codes or ciphers intended to obscure the meaning thereof, except as otherwise p
rovided herein; obscene or indecent words or language; or false or deceptive mes
sages, signals or identification; (5) Communications, on a regular basis, which
could reasonably be furnished alternatively through other radio services. (b) An
amateur station shall not engage in any form of broadcasting, nor may an amateu
r station transmit one-way communications except as specifically provided in the
se rules; nor shall an amateur station engage in any activity related to program
production or news gathering for broadcasting purposes, except that communicati
ons directly related to the immediate safety of human life or the protection of
property may be provided by amateur stations to broadcasters for dissemination t
o the public where no other means of communication is reasonably available befor
e or at the time of the event. (c) A control operator may accept compensation as
an incident of a teaching position during periods of time when an amateur stati
on is used by that teacher as a part of classroom instruction at an educational
institution.
80
(d) The control operator of a club station may accept compensation for the perio
ds of time when the station is transmitting telegraphy practice or information b
ulletins, provided that the station transmits such telegraphy practice and bulle
tins for at least 40 hours per week; schedules operations on at least six amateu
r service MF and HF bands using reasonable measures to maximize coverage; where
the schedule of normal operating times and frequencies is published at least 30
days in advance of the actual transmissions; and where the control operator does
not accept any direct or indirect compensation for any other service as a contr
ol operator. (e) No station shall retransmit programs or signals emanating from
any type of radio station other than an amateur station, except propagation and
weather forecast information intended for use by the general public and originat
ed from United States Government stations and communications, including incident
al music, originating on United States Government frequencies between a space sh
uttle and its associated Earth stations. Prior approval for shuttle retransmissi
ons must be obtained from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Suc
h retransmissions must be for the exclusive use of amateur operators. Propagatio
n, weather forecasts, and shuttle retransmissions may not be conducted on a regu
lar basis, but only occasionally, as an incident of normal amateur radio communi
cations. (f) No amateur station, except an auxiliary, repeater or space station,
may automatically retransmit the radio signals of other amateur stations.
“We didn’t lose the game. We just ran out of time.” ~ Vince Lombardi, coach
S 97.115 Third Party Communications (a) An amateur station may transmit messages
for a third party to: (1) Any station within the jurisdiction of the United Sta
tes. (2) Any station within the jurisdiction of any foreign government whose adm
inistration has made arrangements with the United States to allow amateur statio
ns to be used Ham Radio In Plain English 81
for transmitting international communications on behalf of third parties. No sta
tion shall transmit messages for a third party to any station within the jurisdi
ction of any foreign government whose administration has not made such an arrang
ement. This prohibition does not apply to a message for any third party who is e
ligible to be a control operator of the station. (b) The third party may partici
pate in stating the message where: (1) The control operator is present at the co
ntrol point and is continuously monitoring and supervising the third party s par
ticipation; and (2) The third party is not a prior amateur service licensee whos
e license was revoked; suspended for less than the balance of the license term a
nd the suspension is still in effect; suspended for the balance of the license t
erm and relicensing has not taken place; or surrendered for cancellation followi
ng notice of revocation, suspension or monetary forfeiture proceedings. The thir
d party may not be the subject of a cease and desist order which relates to amat
eur service operation and which is still in effect. (c) At the end of an exchang
e of international third party communications, the station must also transmit in
the station identification procedure the call sign of the station with which a
third party message was exchanged.
S 97.117 International Communications Transmissions to a different country, wher
e permitted, shall be made in plain language and shall be limited to messages of
a technical nature relating to tests, and, to remarks of a personal character f
or which, by reason of their unimportance, recourse to the public telecommunicat
ions service is not justified.
82
S 97.119 Station Identification (a) Each amateur station, except a space station
or telecommand station, must transmit its assigned call sign on its transmittin
g channel at the end of each communication, and at least every 10 minutes during
a communication, for the purpose of clearly making the source of the transmissi
ons from the station known to those receiving the transmissions. No station may
transmit unidentified communications or signals, or transmit as the station call
sign, any call sign not authorized to the station. (b) The call sign must be tr
ansmitted with an emission authorized for the transmitting channel in one of the
following ways: (1) By a CW emission. When keyed by an automatic device used on
ly for identification, the speed must not exceed 20 words per minute; (2) By a p
hone emission in the English language. Use of a standard phonetic alphabet as an
aid for correct station identification is encouraged; (3) By RTTY emission usin
g a specified digital code when all or part of the communications is transmitted
by RTTY or data emission; (4) By an image emission conforming to the applicable
transmission standards, either color or monochrome, of S 73.682(a) of the FCC R
ules when all or part of the communications are transmitted in the same image em
ission; or (5) By a CW or phone emission during SS emission transmission on a na
rrow bandwidth frequency segment. Alternatively, by the changing of one or more
parameters of the emission so that a conventional CW or phone emission receiver
can be used to determine the station call sign. (c) An indicator may be included
with the call sign. It must be separated from the call sign by the slant mark o
r by any suitable word that denotes the slant mark. If the indicator is self-ass
igned it must be included after the call sign and must not conflict with any oth
er indicator specified by the FCC rules or with any prefix assigned to another c
ountry.
83
(d) When the operator license class held by the control operator exceeds that of
the station licensee, an indicator consisting of the call sign assigned to the
control operator s station must be included after the call sign. (e) When the co
ntrol operator who is exercising the rights and privileges authorized by S 97.9(
b) of this part, an indicator must be included after the call sign as follows: (
1) For a control operator who has requested a license modification from Novice t
o Technician Class: KT; (2) For a control operator who has requested a license m
odification from Novice or Technician Class to General Class: AG; (3) For a cont
rol operator who has requested a license modification from Novice, Technician, o
r General Class operator to Advanced Class: AA; or (4) For a control operator wh
o has requested a license modification from Novice, Technician, General, or Adva
nced Class operator to Amateur Extra Class: AE. (f) When the station is transmit
ting under the authority of a reciprocal permit for alien amateur licensee, an i
ndicator consisting of the appropriate letter-numeral designating the station lo
cation must be included before the call sign issued to the station by the licens
ing country. When the station is transmitting under the authority of an amateur
service license issued by the Government of Canada, a station location indicator
must be included after the call sign. At least once during each intercommunicat
ion, the identification announcement must include the geographical location as n
early as possible by city and state, commonwealth or possession.
S 97.121 Restricted Operation (a) If the operation of an amateur station causes
general interference to the reception of transmissions from stations operating i
n the domestic broadcast service when receivers of good engineering design, incl
uding adequate selectivity characteristics, are used to receive such transmissio
ns, and this fact is made known to the amateur station licensee, the amateur sta
tion shall not be operated during the hours from 8 PM to Ham Radio In Plain Engl
ish 84
10:30 PM local time, and on Sunday for the additional period from 10:30 AM until
1 PM local time, upon the frequency or frequencies used when the interference i
s created. (b) In general, such steps as may be necessary to minimize interferen
ce to stations operating in other services may be required after investigation b
y the FCC.
Subpart C--Special Operations S 97.201 Auxiliary Station (a) Any amateur station
licensed to a holder of a Technician, General, Advanced or Amateur Extra Class
operator license may be an auxiliary station. A holder of a Technician, General,
Advanced or Amateur Extra Class operator license may be the control operator of
an auxiliary station, subject to the privileges of the class of operator licens
e held. (b) An auxiliary station may transmit only on the 1.25 m and shorter wav
elength frequency bands, except the 222.00-222.15 MHz, 431-433 MHz and 435-438 M
Hz segments. (c) Where an auxiliary station causes harmful interference to anoth
er auxiliary station, the licensees are equally and fully responsible for resolv
ing the interference unless one station s operation is recommended by a frequenc
y coordinator and the other station s is not. In that case, the licensee of the
non-coordinated auxiliary station has primary responsibility to resolve the inte
rference. (d) An auxiliary station may be automatically controlled. (e) An auxil
iary station may transmit one-way communications.
“The object of war is not to die for your country but to make the other bastard di
e for his.” ~ General, George Patton, army general
85
S 97.203 Beacon Station (a) Any amateur station licensed to a holder of a Techni
cian, General, Advanced or Amateur Extra Class operator license may be a beacon.
A holder of a Technician, General, Advanced or Amateur Extra Class operator lic
ense may be the control operator of a beacon, subject to the privileges of the c
lass of operator license held. (b) A beacon must not concurrently transmit on mo
re than one channel in the same amateur service frequency band, from the same st
ation location. (c) The transmitter power of a beacon must not exceed 100 W. (d)
A beacon may be automatically controlled while it is transmitting on the 28.20-
28.30 MHz, 50.06-50.08 MHz, 144.275-144.300 MHz, 222.05-222.06 MHz, or 432.300-4
32.400 MHz segments, or on the 33 cm and shorter wavelength bands. (e) Before es
tablishing an automatically controlled beacon in the National Radio Quiet Zone o
r before changing the transmitting frequency, transmitter power, antenna height
or directivity, the station licensee must give written notification thereof to t
he Interference Office, National Radio Astronomy Observatory, P.O. Box 2, Green
Bank, WV 24944. (1) The notification must include the geographical coordinates o
f the antenna, antenna ground elevation above mean sea level (AMSL), antenna cen
ter of radiation above ground level (AGL), antenna directivity, proposed frequen
cy, type of emission, and transmitter power. (2) If an objection to the proposed
operation is received by the FCC from the National Radio Astronomy Observatory
at Green Bank, Pocahontas County, WV, for itself or on behalf of the Naval Resea
rch Laboratory at Sugar Grove, Pendleton County, WV, within 20 days from the dat
e of notification, the FCC will consider all aspects of the problem and take wha
tever action is deemed appropriate. (f) A beacon must cease transmissions upon n
otification by an EIC that the station is operating improperly or causing undue
interference to other operations. The beacon may not resume transmitting without
prior approval of the EIC. (g) A beacon may transmit one-way communications. Ha
m Radio In Plain English 86
S 97.205 Repeater Station (a) Any amateur station licensed to a holder of a Tech
nician, General, Advanced or Amateur Extra Class operator license may be a repea
ter. A holder of a Technician, General, Advanced or Amateur Extra Class operator
license may be the control operator of a repeater, subject to the privileges of
the class of operator license held. (b) A repeater may receive and retransmit o
nly on the 10 m and shorter wavelength frequency bands except the 28.0-29.5 MHz,
50.0-51.0 MHz, 144.0- 144.5 MHz, 145.5-146.0 MHz, 222.00-222.15 MHz, 431.0-433.
0 MHz and 435.0- 438.0 MHz segments. (c) Where the transmissions of a repeater c
ause harmful interference to another repeater, the two station licensees are equ
ally and fully responsible for resolving the interference unless the operation o
f one station is recommended by a frequency coordinator and the operation of the
other station is not. In that case, the licensee of the noncoordinated repeater
has primary responsibility to resolve the interference. (d) A repeater may be a
utomatically controlled. (e) Ancillary functions of a repeater that are availabl
e to users on the input channel are not considered remotely controlled functions
of the station. Limiting the use of a repeater to only certain user stations is
permissible. (f) Before establishing a repeater in the National Radio Quiet Zon
e or before changing the transmitting frequency, transmitter power, antenna heig
ht or directivity, or the location of an existing repeater, the station licensee
must give written notification thereof to the Interference Office, National Rad
io Astronomy Observatory, P.O. Box 2, Green Bank, WV 24944. (1) The notification
must include the geographical coordinates of the station antenna, antenna groun
d elevation above mean sea level (AMSL), antenna center of radiation above groun
d level (AGL), antenna directivity, proposed frequency, type of emission, and tr
ansmitter power.
87
(2) If an objection to the proposed operation is received by the FCC from the Na
tional Radio Astronomy Observatory at Green Bank, Pocahontas County, WV, for its
elf or on behalf of the Naval Research Laboratory at Sugar Grove, Pendleton Coun
ty, WV, within 20 days from the date of notification, the FCC will consider all
aspects of the problem and take whatever action is deemed appropriate. (g) The c
ontrol operator of a repeater that retransmits inadvertently communications that
violate the rules in this Part is not accountable for the communications in vio
lation.
S 97.207 Space Station (a) Any amateur station may be a space station. A holder
of any class operator license may be the control operator of a space station, su
bject to the privileges of the class of operator license held by the control ope
rator. (b) A space station must be capable of affecting a cessation of transmiss
ions by telecommand whenever such cessation is ordered by the FCC. (c) The follo
wing frequency bands and segments are authorized to space stations: (1) The 17 m
, 15 m, 12 m and 10 m bands, 6 mm, 4 mm, 2 mm and 1 mm bands; and (2) The 7.0-7.
1 MHz, 14.00-14.25 MHz, 144-146 MHz, 435-438 MHz, 1260- 1270 MHz and 2400-2450 M
Hz, 3.40-3.41 GHz, 5.83-5.85 GHz, 10.45-10.50 GHz and 24.00-24.05 GHz segments.
(d) A space station may automatically retransmit the radio signals of Earth stat
ions and other space stations. (e) A space station may transmit one-way communic
ations. (f) Space telemetry transmissions may consist of specially coded message
s intended to facilitate communications or related to the function of the spacec
raft. (g) The licensee of each space station must give two written, pre-space st
ation notifications to the Private Radio Bureau, FCC, Washington, DC 20554. Each
notification must be in accord with the provisions of Articles 11 and 13 of the
Radio Regulations.
88
(1) The first notification is required no less than 27 months prior to initiatin
g space station transmissions and must specify the information required by Appen
dix 4, and Resolution No. 642 of the Radio Regulations. (2) The second notificat
ion is required no less than five months prior to initiating space station trans
missions and must specify the information required by Appendix 3 and Resolution
No. 642 of the Radio Regulations. (h) The licensee of each space station must gi
ve a written, in-space station notification to the Private Radio Bureau, FCC, Wa
shington, DC 20554, no later than seven days following initiation of space stati
on transmissions. The notification must update the information contained in the
pre-space notification. (i) The licensee of each space station must give a writt
en, post-space station notification to the Private Radio Bureau, FCC, Washington
, DC 20554, no later than three months after termination of the space station tr
ansmissions. When the termination is ordered by the FCC, notification is require
d no later than 24 hours after termination.
“You can get more with a kind word and a gun than you can with a kind word alone.” ~
Al Capone, gangster S 97.209 Earth Station (a) Any amateur station may be an Ea
rth station. A holder of any class operator license may be the control operator
of an Earth station, subject to the privileges of the class of operator license
held by the control operator. (b) The following frequency bands and segments are
authorized to Earth stations: (1) The 17 m, 15 m, 12 m and 10 m bands, 6 mm, 4
mm, 2 mm and 1 mm bands; and (2) The 7.0-7.1 MHz, 14.00-14.25 MHz, 144-146 MHz,
435-438 MHz, 1260- 1270 MHz and 2400-2450 MHz, 3.40-3.41 GHz, 5.65-5.67 GHz, 10.
45-10.50 GHz and 24.00-24.05 GHz segments.
89
S 97.211 Space Telecommand Station (a) Any amateur station designated by the lic
ensee of a space station is eligible to transmit as a telecommand station for th
at space station, subject to the privileges of the class of operator license hel
d by the control operator. (b) A telecommand station may transmit special codes
intended to obscure the meaning of telecommand messages to the station in space
operation. (c) The following frequency bands and segments are authorized to tele
command stations: (1) The 17 m, 15 m, 12 m and 10 m bands, 6 mm, 4 mm, 2 mm and
1 mm bands; and (2) The 7.0-7.1 MHz, 14.00-14.25 MHz, 144-146 MHz, 435-438 MHz,
1260- 1270 MHz and 2400-2450 MHz, 3.40-3.41 GHz, 5.65-5.67 GHz, 10.45-10.50 GHz
and 24.00-24.05 GHz segments. (d) A telecommand station may transmit one-way com
munications.
S 97.213 Telecommand of an Amateur Station An amateur station on or within 50 km
of the Earth s surface may be under telecommand where: (a) There is a radio or
wireline control link between the control point and the station sufficient for t
he control operator to perform his/her duties. If radio, the control link must u
se an auxiliary station. A control link using a fiber optic cable or another tel
ecommunication service is considered wireline. (b) Provisions are incorporated t
o limit transmission by the station to a period of no more than three minutes in
the event of malfunction in the control link. (c) The station is protected agai
nst making, willfully or negligently, unauthorized transmissions.
90
(d) A photocopy of the station license and a label with the name, address, and t
elephone number of the station licensee and at least one designated control oper
ator is posted in a conspicuous place at the station location.
S 97.215 Telecommand of Model Craft An amateur station transmitting signals to c
ontrol a model craft may be operated as follows: (a) The station identification
procedure is not required for transmissions directed only to the model craft, pr
ovided that a label indicating the station call sign and the station licensee s
name and address is affixed to the station transmitter. (b) The control signals
are not considered codes or ciphers intended to obscure the meaning of the commu
nication. (c) The transmitter power must not exceed 1 W.
S 97.217 Telemetry Telemetry transmitted by an amateur station on or within 50 k
m of the Earth s surface is not considered to be codes or ciphers intended to ob
scure the meaning of communications. S 97.219 Message Forwarding System (a) Any
amateur station may participate in a message forwarding system, subject to the p
rivileges of the class of operator license held. (b) For stations participating
in a message forwarding system, the control operator of the station originating
a message is primarily accountable for any violation of the rules in this Part c
ontained in the message. (c) Except as noted in paragraph (d) of this section, f
or stations participating in a message forwarding system, the control operators
of forwarding stations that retransmit Ham Radio In Plain English 91
inadvertently communications that violate the rules in this Part are not account
able for the violative communications. They are, however, responsible for discon
tinuing such communications once they become aware of their presence. (d) For st
ations participating in a message forwarding system, the control operator of the
first forwarding station must: (1) Authenticate the identity of the station fro
m which it accepts communication on behalf of the system; or (2) Accept accounta
bility for any violation of the rules in this Part contained in messages it retr
ansmits to the system.
Subpart D--Technical Standards
97.303 Frequency Sharing Requirements The following is a summary of the frequenc
y sharing requirements that apply to amateur station transmissions on the freque
ncy bands specified in S 97.301 of this Part. (For each ITU Region, each frequen
cy band allocated to the amateur service is designated as either a secondary ser
vice or a primary service. A station in a secondary service must not cause harmf
ul interference to, and must accept interference from, stations in a primary ser
vice. See SS 2.105 and 2.106 of the FCC Rules, United States Table of Frequency
Allocations for complete requirements.) (a) Where, in adjacent ITU Regions or Su
bregions, a band of frequencies is allocated to different services of the same c
ategory, the basic principle is the equality of right to operate. The stations o
f each service in one region must operate so as not to cause harmful interferenc
e to services in the other Regions or Subregions. (See ITU Radio Regulations, No
. 346 (Geneva, 1979).) (b) No amateur station transmitting in the 1900-2000 kHz
segment, the 70 cm band, the 33 cm band, the 13 cm band, the 9 cm band, the 5 cm
band, the 3 cm band, the 24.05-24.25 GHz segment, the 76-81 GHz segment, the 14
4-149 GHz segment and
92
the 241-248 GHz segment shall cause harmful interference to, nor is protected fr
om interference due to the operation of, the Government radio location service.
(c) No amateur station transmitting in the 1900-2000 kHz segment, the 3 cm band,
the 76-81 GHz segment, the 144-149 GHz segment and the 241-248 GHz segment shal
l cause harmful interference to, nor is protected from interference due to the o
peration of, stations in the non-Government radiolocation service. (d) No amateu
r station transmitting in the 30 meter band shall cause harmful interference to
stations authorized by other nations in the fixed service. The licensee of the a
mateur station must make all necessary adjustments, including termination of tra
nsmissions, if harmful interference is caused. (e) Reserved (f) In the 70 cm ban
d: (1) No amateur station shall transmit from north of Line A in the 420- 430 MH
z segment. (2) The 420-430 MHz segment is allocated to the amateur service in th
e United States on a secondary basis, and is allocated in the fixed and mobile (
except aeronautical mobile) services in the International Table of allocations o
n a primary basis. No amateur station transmitting in this band shall cause harm
ful interference to, nor is protected from interference due to the operation of,
stations authorized by other nations in the fixed and mobile (except aeronautic
al mobile) services. (3) The 430-440 MHz segment is allocated to the amateur ser
vice on a secondary basis in ITU Regions 2 and 3. No amateur station transmittin
g in this band in ITU Regions 2 and 3 shall cause harmful interference to, nor i
s protected from interference due to the operation of, stations authorized by ot
her nations in the radiolocation service. In ITU Region 1, the 430-440 MHz segme
nt is allocated to the amateur service on a co-primary basis with the radio-loca
tion service. As between these two services in this band in ITU Region 1, the ba
sic principle that applies is the equality of right to operate. Amateur stations
authorized by the United States and radiolocation stations
93
authorized by other nations in ITU Region 1 shall operate so as not to cause har
mful interference to each other. (4) No amateur station transmitting in the 449.
75-450.25 MHz segment shall cause interference to, nor is protected from interfe
rence due to the operation of stations in, the space operation service and the s
pace research service or Government or nonGovernment stations for space telecomm
and. (g) In the 33 cm band: (1) No amateur station shall transmit from within th
e States of Colorado and Wyoming, bounded on the south by latitude 39 N, on the
north by latitude 42 N, on the east by longitude 105 W, and on the west by longi
tude 180 W.1 This band is allocated on a secondary basis to the amateur service
subject to not causing harmful interference to, and not receiving protection fro
m any interference due to the operation of, industrial, scientific and medical d
evices, automatic vehicle monitoring systems or Government stations authorized i
n this band. (2) No amateur station shall transmit from those portions of the St
ates of Texas and New Mexico bounded on the south by latitude 31 41 N, on the n
orth by latitude 34 30 N, on the east by longitude 104 11 W, and on the west b
y longitude 107 30 W. (h) No amateur station transmitting in the 23 cm band, th
e 3 cm band, the 24.05-24.25 GHz segment, the 76-81 GHz segment, the 144-149 GHz
segment and the 241-248 GHz segment shall cause harmful interference to, nor is
protected from interference due to the operation of, stations authorized by oth
er nations in the radiolocation service. (i) In the 1240-1260 MHz segment, no am
ateur station shall cause harmful interference to, nor is protected from interfe
rence due to the operation of, stations in the radio navigation-satellite servic
e, the aeronautical radio navigation service, or the radiolocation service. (j)
In the 13 cm band: (1) The amateur service is allocated on a secondary basis in
all ITU Regions. In ITU Region 1, no amateur station shall cause harmful interfe
rence to, and is not protected Ham Radio In Plain English 94
from interference due to the operation of, stations authorized by other nations
in the fixed service. In ITU Regions 2 and 3, no station shall cause harmful int
erference to, and is not protected from interference due to the operation of, st
ations authorized by other nations in the fixed, mobile and radiolocation servic
es. (2) In the United States, the 2300-2310 MHz segment is allocated to the amat
eur service on a co-secondary basis with the Government fixed and mobile service
s. In this segment, the fixed and mobile services must not cause harmful interfe
rence to the amateur service. No amateur station transmitting in the 2400-2450 M
Hz segment is protected from interference due to the operation of industrial, sc
ientific and medical devices on 2450 MHz. (k) No amateur station transmitting in
the 3.332-3.339 GHz and 3.3458- 3525 GHz segments, the 2.5 mm band, the 144.68-
144.98 GHz, 145.45-145.75 GHz and 146.82-147.12 GHz segments and the 343-348 GHz
segment shall cause harmful interference to stations in the radio astronomy ser
vice. No amateur station transmitting in the 300-302 GHz, 324-326 GHz, 345-347 G
Hz, 363-365 GHz and 379-381 GHz segments shall cause harmful interference to sta
tions in the space research service (passive) or Earth exploration-satellite ser
vice (passive). (l) In the 9 cm band: (1) In ITU Regions 2 and 3, the band is al
located to the amateur service on a secondary basis. (2) In the United States, t
he band is allocated to the amateur service on a cosecondary basis with the non-
Government radiolocation service. (3) In the 3.3-3.4 GHz segment, no amateur sta
tion shall cause harmful interference to, nor is protected from interference due
to the operation of, stations authorized by other nations in the fixed and fixe
d-satellite service. (4) In the 3.4-3.5 GHz segment, no amateur station shall ca
use harmful interference to, nor is protected from interference due to the opera
tion of, stations authorized by other nations in the fixed and fixed-satellite s
ervice. (m) In the 5 cm band: Ham Radio In Plain English 95
(1) In the 5.650-5.725 GHz segment, the amateur service is allocated in all ITU
Regions on a co-secondary basis with the space research (deep space) service. (2
) In the 5.725-5.850 GHz segment, the amateur service is allocated in all ITU Re
gions on a secondary basis. No amateur station shall cause harmful interference
to, nor is protected from interference due to the operation of, stations authori
zed by other nations in the fixed-satellite service in ITU Region 1. (3) No amat
eur station transmitting in the 5.725-5.875 GHz segment is protected from interf
erence due to the operation of industrial, scientific and medical devices operat
ing on 5.8 GHz. (4) In the 5.650-5.850 GHz segment, no amateur station shall cau
se harmful interference to, nor is protected from interference due to the operat
ion of, stations authorized by other nations in the radiolocation service. (5) I
n the 5.850-5.925 GHz segment, the amateur service is allocated in ITU Region 2
on a co-secondary basis with the radiolocation service. In the United States, th
e segment is allocated to the amateur service on a secondary basis to the non-Go
vernment fixed-satellite service. No amateur station shall cause harmful interfe
rence to, nor is protected from interference due to the operation of, stations a
uthorized by other nations in the fixed, fixed-satellite and mobile services. No
amateur station shall cause harmful interference to, nor is protected from inte
rference due to the operation of, stations in the non-Government fixed-satellite
service. (n) In the 3 cm band: (1) In the United States, the 3 cm band is alloc
ated to the amateur service on a cosecondary basis with the non-government radio
location service. (2) In the 10.00-10.45 GHz segment in ITU Regions 1 and 3, no
amateur station shall cause interference to, nor is protected from interference
due to the operation of, stations authorized by other nations in the fixed and m
obile services. (o) No amateur station transmitting in the 1.2 cm band is protec
ted from interference due to the operation of industrial, scientific and medical
devices on 24.125 GHz. In the United States, the 24.05-24.25 GHz segment is all
ocated to the amateur service on a Ham Radio In Plain English 96
co-secondary basis with the nongovernment radiolocation and Government and non
government Earth exploration-satellite (active) services. (p) The 2.5 mm band is
allocated to the amateur service on a secondary basis. No amateur station trans
mitting in this band shall cause harmful interference to, nor is protected from
interference due to the operation of, stations in the fixed, inter-satellite and
mobile services. (q) No amateur station transmitting in the 244-246 GHz segment
of the 1 mm band is protected from interference due to the operation of industr
ial, scientific and medical devices on 245 GHz.
“It is now possible for a flight attendant to get a pilot pregnant.” ~ Richard Ferri
s, president of United Airlines
S 97.307 Emission Standards (a) No amateur station transmission shall occupy mor
e bandwidth than necessary for the information rate and emission type being tran
smitted, in accordance with good amateur practice. (b) Emissions resulting from
modulation must be confined to the band or segment available to the control oper
ator. Emissions outside the necessary bandwidth must not cause splatter or key c
lick interference to operations on adjacent frequencies. (c) All spurious emissi
ons from a station transmitter must be reduced to the greatest extent practicabl
e. If any spurious emission, including chassis or power line radiation, causes h
armful interference to the reception of another radio station, the licensee of t
he interfering amateur station is required to take steps to eliminate the interf
erence, in accordance with good engineering practice. (d) The mean power of any
spurious emission from a station transmitter or external RF power amplifier tran
smitting on a frequency below 30 MHz must not exceed 50 mW and must be at least
40 dB below the mean power of the fundamental emission. For a Ham Radio In Plain
English 97
transmitter of mean power less than 5 W, the attenuation must be at least 30 dB.
A transmitter built before April 15, 1977, or first marketed before January 1,
1978, is exempt from this requirement. (e) The mean power of any spurious emissi
on from a station transmitter or external RF power amplifier transmitting on a f
requency between 30-225 MHz must be at least 60 dB below the mean power of the f
undamental. For a transmitter having a mean power of 25 W or less, the mean powe
r of any spurious emission supplied to the antenna transmission line must not ex
ceed 25 uW and must be at least 40 dB below the mean power of the fundamental em
ission, but need not be reduced below the power of 10 uW. A transmitter built be
fore April 15, 1977, or first marketed before January 1, 1978, is exempt from th
is requirement. (f) The following standards and limitations apply to transmissio
ns on the frequencies specified in S 97.305(c) of this Part. (1) No angle-modula
ted emission may have a modulation index greater than 1 at the highest modulatio
n frequency. (2) No non-phone emission shall exceed the bandwidth of a communica
tions quality phone emission of the same modulation type. The total bandwidth of
an independent sideband emission (having B as the first symbol), or a multiplex
ed image and phone emission, shall not exceed that of a communications quality A
3E emission. (3) Only a RTTY or data emission using a specified digital code lis
ted in S 97.309(a) of this Part may be transmitted. The symbol rate must not exc
eed 300 bauds, or for frequency-shift keying, the frequency shift between mark a
nd space must not exceed 1 kHz. (4) Only a RTTY or data emission using a specifi
ed digital code listed in S 97.309(a) of this Part may be transmitted. The symbo
l rate must not exceed 1200 bauds. For frequency-shift keying, the frequency shi
ft between mark and space must not exceed 1 kHz. (5) A RTTY, data or multiplexed
emission using a specified digital code listed in S 97.309(a) of this Part may
be transmitted. The symbol rate must not exceed 19.6 kiloHam Radio In Plain Engl
ish 98
bauds. A RTTY, data or multiplexed emission using an unspecified digital code un
der the limitations listed in S 97.309(b) of this Part also may be transmitted.
The authorized bandwidth is 20 kHz. (6) A RTTY, data or multiplexed emission usi
ng a specified digital code listed in S 97.309(a) of this Part may be transmitte
d. The symbol rate must not exceed 56 kilobauds. A RTTY, data or multiplexed emi
ssion using an unspecified digital code under the limitations listed in S 97.309
(b) of this Part also may be transmitted. The authorized bandwidth is 100 kHz. (
7) A RTTY, data or multiplexed emission using a specified digital code listed in
S 97.309(a) of this Part or an unspecified digital code under the limitations l
isted in S 97.309(b) of this Part may be transmitted. (8) A RTTY or data emissio
n having designators with A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, J or R as the first symbol; 1,
2, 7 or 9 as the second symbol; and D or W as the third symbol is also authoriz
ed. (9) A station having a control operator holding a Novice or Technician Class
operator license may only transmit a CW emission using the international Morse
code. (10) A station having a control operator holding a Novice or Technician Cl
ass operator license may only transmit a CW emission using the international Mor
se code or phone emissions J3E and R3E. (11) Phone and image emissions may be tr
ansmitted only by stations located in ITU Regions 1 and 3, and by stations locat
ed within ITU Region 2 that are west of 130 West longitude or south of 20 North
latitude. (12) Emission F8E may be transmitted.
99
S 97.309 RTTY and Data Emission Codes (a) Where authorized by S 97.305(c) and 97
.307(f) of this Part, an amateur station may transmit a RTTY or data emission us
ing the following specified digital codes: (1) The 5-unit, start-stop, Internati
onal Telegraph Alphabet No. 2, code defined in International Telegraph and Telep
hone Consultative Committee Recommendation F.1, Division C (commonly known as Ba
udot). (2) The 7-unit code, specified in International Radio Consultative Commit
tee Recommendation CCIR 476-2 (1978), 476-3 (1982), 476-4 (1986) or 625 (1986) (
commonly known as AMTOR). (3) The 7-unit code defined in American National Stand
ards Institute X3.4-1977 or International Alphabet No. 5 defined in Internationa
l Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee Recommendation T.50 or in Inter
national Organization for Standardization, International Standard ISO 646 (1983)
, and extensions as provided for in CCITT Recommendation T.61 (Malaga-Torremolin
os, 1984) (commonly known as ASCII). (b) Where authorized by S S 97.305(c) and 9
7.307(f) of this Part, a station may transmit a RTTY or data emission using an u
nspecified digital code, except to a station in a country with which the United
States does not have an agreement permitting the code to be used. RTTY and data
emissions using unspecified digital codes must not be transmitted for the purpos
e of obscuring the meaning of any communication. When deemed necessary by an EIC
to assure compliance with the FCC Rules, a station must: (1) Cease the transmis
sion using the unspecified digital code; (2) Restrict transmissions of any digit
al code to the extent instructed; (3) Maintain a record, convertible to the orig
inal information, of all digital communications transmitted. “I went to a restaura
nt that serves breakfast ‘at any time.’ So I ordered French toast during the Renaiss
ance.” ~ Steven Wright, comedian
100
S 97.311 SS Emission Types (a) SS emission transmissions by an amateur station a
re authorized only for communications between points within areas where the amat
eur service is regulated by the FCC. SS emission transmissions must not be used
for the purpose of obscuring the meaning of any communication. (b) Stations tran
smitting SS emission must not cause harmful interference to stations employing o
ther authorized emissions, and must accept all interference caused by stations e
mploying other authorized emissions. For the purposes of this paragraph, uninten
ded triggering of carrier operated repeaters is not considered to be harmful int
erference. (c) Only the following types of SS emission transmissions are authori
zed (hybrid SS emission transmissions involving both spreading techniques are pr
ohibited): (1) Frequency hopping where the carrier of the transmitted signal is
modulated with unciphered information and changes frequency at fixed intervals u
nder the direction of a high speed code sequence. (2) Direct sequence where the
information is modulo-2 added to a high speed code sequence. The combined inform
ation and code are then used to modulate the RF carrier. The high speed code seq
uence dominates the modulation function, and is the direct cause of the wide spr
eading of the transmitted signal. (d) The only spreading sequences that are auth
orized are from the output of one binary linear feedback shift register (which m
ay be implemented in hardware or software). (1) Only the following sets of conne
ctions may be used: Number of stages in shift register 7 13 19 Taps used in feed
back 7, 1. 13, 4, 3, and 1. 19, 5, 2, and 1.
101
(2) The shift register must not be reset other than by its feedback during an in
dividual transmission. The shift register output sequence must be used without a
lteration. (3) The output of the last stage of the binary linear feedback shift
register must be used as follows: (i) For frequency hopping transmissions using
x frequencies, n consecutive bits from the shift register must be used to select
the next frequency from a list of frequencies sorted in ascending order. Each c
onsecutive frequency must be selected by a consecutive block of n bits. (Where n
is the smallest integer greater than log2X.) (ii) For direct sequence transmiss
ions using m-ary modulation, consecutive blocks of log2 m bits from the shift re
gister must be used to select the transmitted signal during each interval. (e) T
he station records must document all SS emission transmissions and must be retai
ned for a period of one year following the last entry. The station records must
include sufficient information to enable the FCC, using the information containe
d therein, to demodulate all transmissions. The station records must contain at
least the following: (1) A technical description of the transmitted signal; (2)
Pertinent parameters describing the transmitted signal including the frequency o
r frequencies of operation and, where applicable, the chip rate, the code rate,
the spreading function, the transmission protocol(s) including the method of ach
ieving synchronization, and the modulation type; (3) A general description of th
e type of information being conveyed (voice, text, memory dump, facsimile, telev
ision, etc.); (4) The method and, if applicable, the frequency or frequencies us
ed for station identification; and (5) The date of beginning and the date of end
ing use of each type of transmitted signal.
102
(f) When deemed necessary by an EIC to assure compliance with this Part, a stati
on licensee must: (1) Cease SS emission transmissions; (2) Restrict SS emission
transmissions to the extent instructed; and (3) Maintain a record, convertible t
o the original information (voice, text, image, etc.) of all spread spectrum com
munications transmitted. (g) The transmitter power must not exceed 100 W.
S 97.313 Transmitter Power Standards (a) An amateur station must use the minimum
transmitter power necessary to carry out the desired communications. (b) No sta
tion may transmit with a transmitter power exceeding 1.5 kW PEP. (c) No station
may transmit with a transmitter power exceeding 200 W PEP on: (1) The 3.675-3.72
5 MHz, 7.10-7.15 MHz, 10.10-10.15 MHz and 21.1-21.2 MHz segments; (2) The 28.1-2
8.5 MHz segment when the control operator is a Novice or Technician operator; or
(3) The 7.050-7.075 MHz segment when the station is within ITU Regions 1 or 3.
(d) No station may transmit with a transmitter power exceeding 25 W PEP on the V
HF 1.25 m band when the control operator is a Novice operator. (e) No station ma
y transmit with a transmitter power exceeding 5 W PEP on the UHF 23 cm band when
the control operator is a Novice operator. (f) No station may transmit with a t
ransmitter power exceeding 50 W PEP on the UHF 70 cm band from an area specified
in footnote US7 to S 2.106 of the FCC Rules, unless expressly authorized by the
FCC after mutual agreement, on a case-by-case basis, between the EIC of the app
licable field facility and the military area frequency coordinator at the applic
able military base. An Earth station or telecommand station,
103
however, may transmit on the 435-438 MHz segment with a maximum of 611 W effecti
ve radiated power (1 kW equivalent isotropically radiated power) without the aut
horization otherwise required. The transmitting antenna elevation angle between
the lower half-power (–3 dB relative to the peak or antenna bore sight) point and
the horizon must always be greater than ten. (g) No station may transmit with a
transmitter power exceeding 50 watts PEP on the 33 cm band from within 241 km of
the boundaries of the White Sands Missile Range. Its boundaries are those porti
ons of Texas and New Mexico bounded on the south by latitude 31 41 North, on th
e east by longitude 104 11 West, on the north by latitude 34 30 North, and on
the west by longitude 107 30 West.
“We had gay burglars the other night. They broke in and rearranged the furniture.” ~
Robin Williams
S 97.315 Type Acceptance of External RF Power Amplifiers (a) No more than one un
it of one model of an external RF power amplifier capable of operation below 144
MHz may be constructed or modified during any calendar year by an amateur opera
tor for use at a station without a grant of type acceptance. No amplifier capabl
e of operation below 144 MHz may be constructed or modified by a nonamateur oper
ator without a grant of type acceptance from the FCC. (b) Any external RF power
amplifier or external RF power amplifier kit (see S 2.815 of the FCC Rules), man
ufactured, imported or modified for use in a station or attached at any station
must be type accepted for use in the amateur service in accordance with Subpart
J of Part 2 of the FCC Rules. This requirement does not apply if one or more of
the following conditions are met: (1) The amplifier is not capable of operation
on frequencies below 144 MHz. For the purpose of this part, an amplifier will be
deemed to be incapable of operation below 144 MHz if it is not capable of being
easily modified to increase its amplification characteristics below 120 MHz and
either: Ham Radio In Plain English 104
(i) The mean output power of the amplifier decreases, as frequency decreases fro
m 144 MHz, to a point where 0 dB or less gain is exhibited at 120 MHz; or (ii) T
he amplifier is not capable of amplifying signals below 120 MHz even for brief p
eriods without sustaining permanent damage to its amplification circuitry. (2) T
he amplifier was manufactured before April 28, 1978, and has been issued a marke
ting waiver by the FCC, or the amplifier was purchased before April 28, 1978, by
an amateur operator for use at that amateur operator s station. (3) The amplifi
er was: (i) Constructed by the licensee, not from an external RF power amplifier
kit, for use at the licensee s station; or (ii) Modified by the licensee for us
e at the licensee s station. (4) The amplifier is sold by an amateur operator to
another amateur operator or to a dealer. (5) The amplifier is purchased in used
condition by an equipment dealer from an amateur operator and the amplifier is
further sold to another amateur operator for use at that operator s station. (c)
A list of type accepted equipment may be inspected at FCC headquarters in Washi
ngton, DC or at any FCC field location. Any external RF power amplifier appearin
g on this list as type accepted for use in the amateur service may be marketed f
or use in the amateur service.
S 97.317 Standards for Type Acceptance of External RF Power Amplifiers (a) To re
ceive a grant of type acceptance, the amplifier must satisfy the spurious emissi
on standards of S 97.307(d) or (e) of this Part, as applicable, when the amplifi
er is: (1) Operated at its full output power; (2) Placed in the "standby" or "of
f" positions, but still connected to the transmitter; and
105
(3) Driven with at least 50 W mean RF input power (unless higher drive level is
specified). (b) To receive a grant of type acceptance, the amplifier must not be
capable of operation on any frequency or frequencies between 24 MHz and 35 MHz.
The amplifier will be deemed incapable of such operation if it: (1) Exhibits no
more than 6 dB gain between 24 MHz and 26 MHz and between 28 MHz and 35 MHz. (T
his gain will be determined by the ratio of the input RF driving signal (mean po
wer measurement) to the mean RF output power of the amplifier); and (2) Exhibits
no amplification (0 dB gain) between 26 MHz and 28 MHz. (c) Type acceptance may
be denied when denial would prevent the use of these amplifiers in services oth
er than the amateur service. The following features will result in dismissal or
denial of an application for the type acceptance: (1) Any accessible wiring whic
h, when altered, would permit operation of the amplifier in a manner contrary to
the FCC rules; (2) Circuit boards or similar circuitry to facilitate the additi
on of components to change the amplifier s operating characteristics in a manner
contrary to the FCC rules; (3) Instructions for operation or modification of th
e amplifier in a manner contrary to the FCC rules; (4) Any internal or external
controls or adjustments to facilitate operation of the amplifier in a manner con
trary to the FCC rules; (5) Any internal RF sensing circuitry or any external sw
itch, the purpose of which is to place the amplifier in the transmit mode; (6) T
he incorporation of more gain in the amplifier than is necessary to operate in t
he amateur service; for purposes of this paragraph, the amplifier must: (i) Not
be capable of achieving designed output power when driven with less than 40 W me
an RF input power; (ii) Not be capable of amplifying the input RF driving signal
by more than 15 dB, unless the amplifier has a designed transmitter power of le
ss than 1.5 kW (in such a Ham Radio In Plain English 106
case, gain must be reduced by the same number of dB as the transmitter power rel
ationship to 1.5 kW; This gain limitation is determined by the ratio of the inpu
t RF driving signal to the RF output power of the amplifier where both signals a
re expressed in peak envelope power or mean power); (iii) Not exhibit more gain
than permitted by paragraph (c)(6)(ii) of this Section when driven by an RF inpu
t signal of less than 50 W mean power; and (iv) Be capable of sustained operatio
n at its designed power level. (7) Any attenuation in the input of the amplifier
which, when removed or modified, would permit the amplifier to function at its
designed transmitter power when driven by an RF frequency input signal of less t
han 50 W mean power; or (8) Any other features designed to facilitate operation
in a telecommunication service other than the Amateur Radio Services, such as th
e Citizens Band (CB) Radio Service.
107
Chapter 7 Amateur Radio Practice
Safety
"I m always amazed to hear of air crash victims so badly mutilated that they hav
e to be identified by their dental records. What I can t understand is if they d
on t know who you are, how do they know who your dentist is?" ~ Paul Merton, com
edian
Lightning Damage It is always advisable to ground the antenna when not in use. I
f there is a possibility of a storm, all the station equipment can be turned off
. The antenna’s cables can be disconnected and hooked to the ground.
Safety of the station
Grounding All the station equipment should be grounded to prevent any electrical
shock. What is a Ground? A ground is a low-impedance electrical connection to e
arth. All transmitting antenna systems need an excellent ground system to provid
e proper operator safety and optimum radiation of the maximum amount of RF energ
y into the air. There are three types of ground. Power Line Ground It is the gro
und found at the power box on home s electrical service connection. It provides
overall electrical safety for the building and property. DC Ground (Safety Groun
d) This is a strap or wire placed from radio equipment to a convenient cold wate
r pipe or ground rod to eliminate the hazard of electrical shock. In case of a m
obile con-
108
nection in an automobile, this wire is the one that connects the ground stud on
the rear of the radio to the negative terminal of the battery, or the engine blo
ck.
RF Ground RF ground is a low-impedance path for RF to reach Earth. Normally, the
DC Ground and the RF Ground are served by a common connection.
High Voltage Power Supplies High voltage power supply deals with very high volta
ges. The manufacturers of such equipment are bound to use interlock switches in
the power supply. This facilitates the disconnection of AC power to the supply,
while the cabinet is opened for repairs. This is done to avoid electrical shocks
.
Antenna Safety When someone is on the antenna for repair activities, it is best
to wear a helmet. Those on the ground should also wear a helmet. The antennas an
d feed-lines should always be clear of power lines.
Safety of the Equipment The U.S. occupational hazard standard for the people who
work with amateur radio is 10 m Watts/square cm. Many studies have revealed tha
t for 99 percent of the population, the total exposure is less than .001 m Watts
per square cm. This is very low compared to the current U.S. standard. But the
situation changes when close to an operating antenna. This will be much more tha
n the standard value.
109
Hazardous Voltages Since 30 volts is enough to kill a person, one must take the
necessary precautions while working on high voltage. An electric current as feeb
le as 1/10th of an ampere can be fatal. The body part most affected by an electr
ic shock is the heart. That is why shocks sometimes cause death. Standing Wave R
atio (SWR) The standing wave ratio provides the information on the mismatch betw
een the antenna and the radio. A mismatch occurs when some of the power sent to
the antenna returns to the radio. This ratio between the voltage sent to the ant
enna and the voltage reflected gives the SWR reading. If there is a mismatch, th
en the performance level of the radio will be affected. SWR Readings - How Are T
hey Rated? 1:1 – This is the best ratio. (The best impedance match has been attain
ed.) 1.5:1 – Excellent SWR match. 2:1-- A good SWR reading. 2.5:1 - An okay SWR re
ading. 3:1 - Poor SWR reading. 4:1 - Bad SWR reading. 5:1 - Very bad SWR reading
. It is time to fix the antenna.
Fixing a Bad SWR Reading
A very high SWR reading denotes an incorrect length. Another chance is that the
connection along the feed line may be shorted somewhere. Otherwise, the length o
f the antenna needs to be changed. Lengthening If the SWR reading at the low end
(frequency) of the band is 5:1 and at the higher end is 2 5, then the antenna n
eeds to be lengthened. Ham Radio In Plain English 110
Shortening If the SWR reading of the lower end is 2.5:1 and at the higher end is
5:1, then the length of the antenna must be shortened. “Some people see things th
at are and ask, Why? Some people dream of things that never were and ask, Why no
t? Some people have to go to work and don t have time for all that.” ~ George Carl
in, comedian
Meters and Measurements
Voltmeter Voltmeter is a device used to measure the voltage of a portion of a ci
rcuit. While measuring, the voltmeters are connected “parallel” across the circuit.
Ammeter Ammeter is used to measure current in a circuit. Ammeter shows the curre
nt flowing in amperes through the circuit. The ammeter is placed in series with
the circuit.
Multimeter A multimeter is multipurpose equipment, which can be used to measure
the current voltage as well as resistance.
RF Wattmeter This device measures the quantity of radio frequency energy flowing
out of the radio. It is measured in Watts; hence the name Wattmeter. It general
ly operates at 50 ohms line impedance.
111
Directional Wattmeter This Wattmeter measures forward and reflected power. When
a mismatch occurs, this can be used to detect the power going in the direction t
owards the antenna and the power going towards the radio. Peak Reading Wattmeter
The peak energy emitted by a station is measured using a peak reading wattmeter
to ensure that one station is in compliance with the power output permitted as
per the license.
Oscilloscope This electronic test instrument is used to observe wave forms and v
oltages on a cathode-ray tube. It displays time on the X-axis and amplitude on t
he Y-axis and the intensity of the CRT spot along the Z axis. Different types of
oscilloscopes are available at http://eham.net/.
Audio Wave Modulation
The functioning of a radio may be a perplexing thing for a beginner. Voice produ
ced in front of a microphone is heard using another radio which is placed at a d
ifferent location. How does this happen? Modulation is the process of merging a
radio signal with an information signal. For modulation to happen a carrier must
be available. It is this carrier signal that transmits the information to the d
esired destination. Morse Code Modulation Morse code turns off and on an RF carr
ier in order to transmit a simple code alphabet. This is also called continuous
wave (CW).
112
Chapter 8
Elementary electricity
“Smoking kills. If you’re killed, you’ve lost a very important part of your life.” ~ Bro
oke Shields, actress
‘God of Small Things’
It is always best to start small. One of my uncles who introduced me to the grea
t hobby of amateur radio used to say that it’s the basics that make a man. Have yo
u ever analyzed a flashlight? This is the best way to begin. A bulb is connected
across two cells in a series. The metal switch contacts of a sliding switch mak
e the command for the bulb to start its duty. This tiny thing can sometimes ruin
the flashlight.
113
Let’s move on to the circuit diagram of a flashlight.
Two cells of 1.5 volts are connected to a lamp with a switch in between. The lin
es in this schematic diagram represent the metal conductors which connect the sy
stem together.
Points to Remember
A circuit is a closed conducting path. In the case of a flashlight, if the switc
h is not closed, then the circuit is not complete. When the metal parts of the s
witch fail to make contact, the circuit becomes incomplete. Cells Connected in S
eries
The current in the circuit should flow to make the lamp glow. How does this happ
en in a flashlight? The voltage or potential difference V pushes the current to
flow. Two
114
cells of 1.5 V, connected in series will provide 3 V, while three cells will pro
vide 4.5 V (see the figure). A battery consists of two or more cells. The higher
the voltage, the brighter the lamp will be. Cells can also be connected in para
llel. Cells Connected in Parallel
A single cell may provide some current for a long time. If you connect the cells
in series, it may increase the voltage, but will not have any effect on its lif
e. A parallel connection guarantees a longer life.
The Direction of Current Flow As evident from the figure, the battery or cell ha
s two terminals, one is positive while the other is negative. Conventionally, th
e current is considered to flow from the positive terminal to the negative termi
nal. Conventional current is often used to designate this current. The arrows in
the circuit diagrams always point in this direction. This is the direction of f
low of positive charged particles. When the charge carriers are negatively charg
ed electrons, the flow direction will be opposite to the direction of convention
al current. In electronic systems, charge carriers can be both positive and nega
tive materials. The holes and electrons found in the transistors are examples of
the coexistence of both positive and negative charge carriers in the same syste
m.
115
What Is Electric Current? If two bodies are connected through a conducting wire,
electrons will flow from the negatively charged body to the positively charged
one. This flow of electrons is called electric current. The electric current wil
l continue to flow as long as the ‘excess’ and ‘deficit’ of electrons exist in the bodie
s. The electrons move around the nucleus of an atom in different orbits. The ele
ctrons in the inner orbits are tightly bound to the nucleus. As they move away f
rom the nucleus, this binding goes on decreasing so that electrons in the last o
rbit (called valence electrons) are quite loosely bound to the nucleus. In certa
in substances, especially metals, the valence electrons are so weakly attached t
o their nuclei that they can be easily removed or detached. These electrons are
called free electrons. The free electrons move at random from one atom to anothe
r in the material. Since a small piece of metal has billions of atoms, there are
a large number of free electrons present. The SI unit of electric current is co
ulomb/sec, which is called ampere.
"Imagine if every Thursday your shoes exploded if you tied them in the usual way
. This happens all the time with computers, and nobody thinks of complaining." ~
Jeff Raskin
Properties of Electric Current 1. The actual direction of current is from the ne
gative terminal to the positive terminal through the part of the circuit externa
l to the cell. However prior to the electron theory, it was assumed that current
flowed from positive terminal to the negative terminal of the cell via the circ
uit. This convention is so firmly established that it is still in use. This assu
med direction is called conventional current. 2. Those substances, which have a
large number of free electrons, will permit current flow easily. Such substances
are called conductors (i.e. copper, silver, aluminum, etc). On the other hand,
atoms of some substances have valence electrons that are tightly
116
bound to their nuclei. Such substances will not permit the flow of electric curr
ent and are called bad conductors or insulators (i.e. glass, mica, etc). Conduct
ors Any material that permits an electrical current to flow through it without d
ifficulty is called a conductor. The most effective conductors in electric syste
ms are those with a high degree of free electrons. As a result, metals are excel
lent conductors of electricity, while glass and wood are not. Materials used as
conductors fall into one of four types: metallic conductors, ionic conductors, i
nsulators and semi-conductors. • Metallic conductors have a large number of free el
ectrons, which facilitate the efficient transfer of electric current. • A solution
that is highly ionic, or has a large number of free ions, is called an ionic con
ductor. It is a good conductor of electric current, like metal in its liquid or
molten form. Salt water is an excellent example of an ionic conductor. • An insulat
or has a lesser number of free electrons and is a poor conductor. Insulators do
not permit electric current to flow through them, and for this reason, they ofte
n surround conductors. Rubber, glass, and plastic are good examples of insulator
s. • A semi-conductor conducts electricity partially, as it behaves like a conducto
r at high temperatures, and an insulator at low temperatures. Semi-conductors co
ntrol the movement of electrons in an electric current depending upon the struct
ure of the material used to construct it. Careful placement of non-conductive “imp
urities” on a conductive surface directs the flow of electrons, enabling advanced
electronics. A semiconductor is neither a conductor nor an insulator. All semico
nductor materials originate from silicon. It is a component made of silicon and
glass. Silicon in its purest form is a good insulator. In order to change the co
nductivity of the silicon, impurities are introduced, which changes the number o
f electrons in the lattice structure. This process is called doping. Missing ele
ctrons are called holes.
117
Extrinsic Semiconductors – P and N Type
Since intrinsic or pure germanium/silicon semiconductors are of no use as such,
their conductivity is enormously enhanced by judicious addition of impurity atom
s or doping. The resultant semiconductor is called a doped or extrinsic semicond
uctor. (a) Donor atoms: If an impurity atom is added to a pure semiconductor lik
e germanium/ silicon atoms, these impurity atoms dislodge some of the germanium/
silicon atoms. Each impurity atom donates a free electron and is therefore calle
d donor atom. The doped semiconductor containing donor atoms is called donor typ
e semiconductor or Ntype semiconductor, because its conductivity is mostly due t
o electron current. However, the crystal as a whole remains electrically neutral
. The mobile electrons so donated are far in excess of the conduction electrons
released by thermal breaking of covalent bonds and they are therefore called exc
ess electrons. Hence, the conductivity of N-type semiconductor is fairly constan
t over a large temperature range (unlike a pure semiconductor). When an intrinsi
c semiconductor is doped, the result introduces allowable energy levels slightly
below the conduction band. Since the impurity atoms are placed relatively far a
way from each other, no interaction takes place and a single basic discrete leve
l forms the new allowable state. In silicon, the gap is 0.05 V below the conduct
ion level. Hence at room temperature, almost all excess electrons donated get ra
ised into the conduction band. In N-type semiconductor, electron-hole pairs are
formed as in the pure crystal. But, because of the more numerous excess electron
s, recombination is rapid and only fewer holes than in pure crystal are present.
In an N-type crystal, holes are called the minority carriers and the electrons
are called the majority carriers. The doped semiconductor behaves like a resisto
r (called bulk resistance) with enhanced conductivity due to doping. (b) Accepto
rs and P-type semiconductors: If a trivalent impurity like indium, boron and gal
lium is used for doping germanium, this results in the production of holes. Sinc
e the
118
holes so created accept electrons, the dopant is called an acceptor type and the
resultant semiconductor is called P-type semiconductor. Holes are the majority
carriers and the electrons are the minority carriers in Ptype semiconductors. At
room temperature, almost all acceptor atoms get ionized and the number of mobil
e holes equals the number of acceptor atoms.
Pn Junction Diodes
Pn Junctions When a p-type semiconductor is suitably joined to an n-type semicon
ductor, the contact surface is called pn junction. The pn junction is of great i
mportance because it is the control element for semiconductor devices. A thoroug
h knowledge of the formation and properties of pn junction can enable you to und
erstand the semiconductor devices.
Formation of Pn Junction Pn junction is fabricated by special techniques. One co
mmon method is alloying. In this method, a small block of indium (impurity) is p
laced on an n-type germanium slab. The system is then heated to a temperature of
about 500°C. The indium and some of the germanium melt to form a small puddle of
molten germanium-indium mixture. The temperature is then lowered and the puddle
begins to solidify. Under proper conditions, the atoms of indium impurity will b
e suitably adjusted in the germanium slab to form a single crystal. The addition
of indium overcomes the excess of electrons in the ntype germanium to such an e
xtent that it creates a p-type region. As the process goes on, the remaining mol
ten mixture becomes increasingly rich in indium. When all germanium has been re-
deposited, the remaining material appears as indium button, which is frozen on t
o the outer surface of the crystallized portion. This button serves as a suitabl
e base for soldering on leads.
119
“More and more of our imports are coming from overseas.” ~ George W. Bush, president
Properties of Pn Junction Consider a p-type semiconductor having negative accept
or ions and positively charged holes and an n-type semiconductor having positive
donor ions and free electrons. If both are made to form a junction, which is a
perfect joint, (on atomic state) then n-type material has a high concentration o
f free electrons while p- type material has a high concentration of holes. There
fore, at the junction, there is a tendency for the free electrons to diffuse ove
r to the p-side and holes to the n-side. This process is called diffusion. As th
e free electrons move across the junction from n-type to p-type, positive donor
ions are uncovered and are robbed of free electrons. Hence, a positive charge is
built on the n-side of the junction. At the same time, the free holes cross the
junction and uncover the negative acceptor ions by filling in the holes. Theref
ore, a net negative charge is established on the p-side of the junction. When a
sufficient number of donor and acceptor ions are uncovered, further diffusion is
prevented. It is because now positive charge on n-side repels holes to cross fr
om p-type to n-type and negative charge on p-side repels free electrons to enter
from n-type to p-type. Thus a barrier is set up against further movement of cha
rge carriers (holes and electrons). This is called potential barrier or junction
barrier Vo. This field sets up a drift of charge carriers, which opposes the di
ffusion of holes or electron current. The net charge flow across the open circui
ted junction is zero. Thus the positive ions and negative ions are not neutraliz
ed over a region. Since this region is depleted of mobile charges, this region i
s called the depletion region.
120
Transistors Transistor is actually a term to describe “transfer resistance.” The dev
ice consists of a silicon or germanium single crystal containing two p-n junctio
ns. They are formed between the following layers of the semiconductor. Base -- a
very thin layer forming the central region. Emitter and collector layers -- The
se two are on the opposite sides on the B layer and are of the same type. An ohm
ic or non-rectifying contact is made to each of the layers. The junction between
the base and emitter is called the emitter junction and the junction between th
e base and collector is called the collector junction. The device is classified
into two main types – PNP or NPN depending on whether the base material is N or P.
Vacuum Tubes In electronics, there are a lot of devices in which a stream of ele
ctrons is controlled by electric and magnetic fields. Since a vacuum is required
in the form of an evacuated enclosure in which the electrons can move without c
ollisions with gas molecules. These devices, called vacuum tubes or electron tub
es in the U.S., are known as thermionic valves in Britain. These devices have be
en completely replaced by semiconductors in current practice. They are also call
ed "receiving" valves, which comes from their use in radio receivers. In vacuum
tubes, the electrons shift from the cathode (K), the negative electrode, to the
anode or plate (P), the positive electrode. But, conventional current flows in t
he opposite direction. At the cathode, the electrons are liberated either by hea
t (thermionic emission) or by the bombardment of positive ions. This causes emis
sion of electrons. As a result, some gas molecules may become ionized by collisi
on with speedy electrons. When an electron is knocked off, a positive ion is lef
t off. The positive ions move in the opposite direction of the electrons. Howeve
r, their current is in the same direction, since they have opposite charges. Due
to the usage of a very high vacuum, the effect of Ham Radio In Plain English 121
positive ions in a receiving tube is very small. The electrons released by the t
hermionic cathode accumulate to form a negative space charge cloud around the ca
thode. It is so dense that if no electron is removed by attraction to the anode,
the rate of emission is equal to the rate of return. As soon as the anode is ma
de positive, some of the electrons are attracted to it out of the space-charge c
loud, and a thermionic current results. A third electrode, the grid, placed betw
een the cathode and the anode, closer to the cathode has also some part in the e
lectric field at the space charge that controls the current. The grid is made of
a spiral of fine wire and electrons can pass through without hindrance. When it
is negative, it opposes the effect of the anode in creating an electric field,
but does not attract any electron, and draws no current. If it is made positive,
it increases the plate current, but draws some grid current to itself. The grid
provides a sensitive control thus making the vacuum tube a powerful amplifying
device.
122
Chapter 9
Magnetism and Basic Electric Devices
“Now they show you how detergents take out bloodstains, a pretty violent image the
re. I think if you ve got a T-shirt with a bloodstain all over it, maybe laundry
isn t your biggest problem. Maybe you should get rid of the body before you do
the wash.” ~ Jerry Seinfeld, comedian Electric Potential When a body is charged, w
ork has been done. This work is stored in the body in the form of potential ener
gy. The charged body has the capacity to do work by moving other charges either
by attraction or repulsion. This ability of the charged body to do work is calle
d electric potential. Electric potential= work done/ charge Potential Difference
The difference in the potentials of two charged bodies is called the potential
difference between them. Current will flow if potential difference exists. No po
tential difference means there is no current flow. It may be noted that potentia
l difference is sometimes called voltage. The potential difference between two p
oints is 1 volt.
Resistance The opposition offered by a substance to the flow of electric current
is called resistance. Since current is the flow of electrons, resistance is the
opposition offered by the substance to the flow of free electrons. This opposit
ion occurs because the atoms and molecules of the substance obstruct the flow of
these electrons. It may be noted that resistance is electric friction offered b
y the substance and causes the production of heat with the flow of electric curr
ent. The unit of resistance is ohm.
123
Capacitors Capacitors can simply be defined as the circuit element, which stores
electrons. Mostly they are used as rechargeable batteries to provide stable vol
tage. Other than this function, capacitors have many other uses in an electrical
circuit. Capacitors are comprised of aluminum electrolytic, ceramic disk, tanta
lum electrolytic, ceramic disc, mica, and polypropylene. A capacitor mainly func
tions as: • Dc blocking devices -- When a capacitor functions as a dc blocking devi
ce, it allows ac to flow, while blocking the dc. • Supply by-pass capacitor -- This
capacitor, when used on a dc supply line, shunts (shorts) to ground any unwante
d ac. • Reservoir bypass capacitor -- A capacitor, used in the output of a dc recti
fier, is called a reservoir bypass capacitor when it smoothes out the power line
ac pulses and acts as a reservoir between the charging pulses. • Emitter bypass ca
pacitor -- Considered a combination of two models. Under the dc conditions, it o
perates as a transistor. Under ac conditions, it functions as an amplifier. When
a battery of certain voltage is connected to a capacitor, the capacitor gets ch
arged depending upon the voltage and the value of the capacitance.
124
With reference to the above figure, there is a flow of negative charges to the l
ower plate, thereby making the upper plate positively charged. The voltage of th
e fully charged capacitor will be equal to that of its source. The charged capac
itor stores energy in the form of an electric field. A capacitor is comprised of
two plates separated by an insulator. The value of the capacitance mostly depen
ds on the total surface area of the plates as well as the distance between the p
lates. The unit of capacitance is farad. Farad is a large quantity and the unit
of microfarad is used in most of the cases. If the value of the capacitor is hig
h, then the stored energy will be large.
125
Schematic Symbol for a Capacitor Different types of capacitors are shown below -
Capacitors from left to right: polypropylene, adjustable trimmer cap, polyester
, ceramic radial capacitor, and ceramic axial capacitor.
Equivalent Series Resistance of a Capacitor (ESR) Ideally a capacitor should hav
e only capacitance. But practically all conductors will have some resistance. Al
l conductors contribute a certain amount of resistance can be represented by a r
esistor in series with the capacitor. Capacitors of higher ESR values will allow
only a lesser quantity of current to pass to the external circuit. Similarly eq
uivalent series inductance (ESL) is the value of inductance connected in series
with the capacitor. As the electrolytic capacitors consist of a large coil of fl
at wire, it will have some inductance.
“I want to have children, but my friends scare me. One of my friends told me she w
as in labor for 36 hours. I don t even want to do anything that feels good for 3
6 hours.” ~ Rita Rudner, comedian Film Capacitors Capacitors less than one microfa
rad usually contain a plastic type of insulator. They can also be metallized mat
erial bonded on to the plastic material. Film capacitors are illustrated below.
Ham Radio In Plain English 126
127
Electrolytic Capacitors Electrolytic capacitors are used for capacitance values
higher then 0.47 micro farad. They consist of a paper material between two layer
s of aluminum foil. The below figure illustrates an electrolytic capacitor.
128
Capacitor and Voltage A capacitor may have a surge voltage and a working voltage
. Working voltage provides the value of the voltage the capacitor can withstand
over time. A surge voltage depicts the value, which it can withstand for a short
er duration of time. Application of too much voltage can fail a capacitor.
129
Electric Field An electrically charged object induces a force field around it, w
hich can be detected and measured. These electric charges are capable of moving
the electric charges in the field. An electrically charged object will have eith
er a greater or smaller concentration of electrons than normal. This guarantees
the existence of a difference of potential between a charged object and an uncha
rged object. This difference of potential produces an electric field. This field
of force is normally represented by lines, which depict the paths along which t
he force acts. A large concentration of lines demonstrates a large electric forc
e. Similarly lesser number of lines indicates a weak force. “Charlie Brown is the
one person I identify with. C.B. is such a loser. He wasn t even the star of his
own Halloween special.” ~ Chris Rock Alternating Current In a power station, the
conventional method of producing electricity is by using a motor to spin magneti
c wire coils. The electricity, thus produced will be fluctuating in nature by vi
rtue of motor’s rotation. This is known as alternating current. As discussed earli
er, the electric current can be transmitted, more effectively in the form of alt
ernating current. Hence the electricity that arrives in homes is ac. One complet
e cycle of the signal occupies 360 degrees irrespective of the amplitude. The nu
mber of cycles-per-second is the frequency of the signal. This cycle is depicted
using a sine wave. A signal may start at zero degrees and then reach its most p
ositive value at 90 degrees, then come back to zero value at 180 degrees and con
tinue to its most negative value at 270 degrees. It can then return to zero agai
n at 360 degrees. This is one complete cycle.
130
The frequency of the domestic supply in the U.S. is 60 cycles/second or 60 Hz. I
f the frequency is 50 Hz as in Australia, one cycle occupies 1/50th of a second
or 20 milliseconds. Here the signal reaches its maximum positive value after fiv
e milliseconds, then goes down to its maximum negative value in the next five mi
lliseconds. This complete cycle takes almost 20 milliseconds and repeats 50 time
s a second. In the case of a 60 Hz frequency, one cycle occupies 1/60th of a sec
ond or 16.67 milliseconds.
Magnetism Magnetism is a natural phenomenon that acts as a force to attract or r
epel specific substances, particularly metals. It is displayed by magnets and el
ectric currents. Magnetism is ultimately a creation of electric charges and thei
r movements.
Types of Magnets Any mass that produces an external magnetic field is called a m
agnet. A magnet’s force affects other magnets, electric currents and materials exh
ibiting magnetic properties. Magnets occur mainly in two varieties: permanent an
d excited. A permanent magnet is one in which the magnetic field is always on, a
nd the possessing material is always magnetized. Permanent magnets are often mad
e of ferromagnetic material; ferro refers to iron, which is a material that resp
onds strongly to magnetism and is easily magnetized. However, not all ferromagne
tic materials are iron. Ham Radio In Plain English 131
Some alloys and ceramics actually produce better permanent magnets than iron. Pe
rmanent magnets may lose their magnetism if they are heated to an extreme, are s
ubject to a demagnetizing field, or are exposed to shock. A temporary magnet (al
so known as an excited or induced magnet) is one in which the magnetic field may
be turned on and off through an electric current from an outside source. Tempor
ary magnets can be made from materials that do not respond strongly to magnetism
by running electric current through a conductor to construct an electromagnet.
Electric currents may also be used to supplement the magnetic power of a permane
nt magnet.
Magnetic Poles and Forces All magnets have two poles, which is where the majorit
y of their magnetic force is. Like electric charges, there are positive and nega
tive poles, and similar poles repel one another while dissimilar poles attract o
ne another. The north or north-seeking pole of a magnet is called so because it
is attracted to the Earth’s North Pole. A magnet’s south or south-seeking pole is at
tracted to the South Pole. The Earth is itself a large, permanent magnet resulti
ng from the molten iron core that creates an electric current with its movement.
Because the Earth is a magnet, it is possible to detect its magnetic field usin
g a compass, or a thin, rotating magnet. The compass magnet will rotate so that
its poles are aligned in the opposite direction of the Earth’s, as similar poles r
epel one another.
Magnetic Fields Like electric charges, magnets create a field of magnetic force
around their poles. These magnetic fields contain the kinetic energy of the pole
s’ charges that can be applied to other objects as they approach the magnet and en
ter its magnetic field.
132
Figure shows the B-H characteristics for a ferromagnetic material where B is the
magnetic flux density and H is the magnetic field. Operation follows the line,
in the direction indicated by the arrow.
A magnetic field follows a path around the magnet according to certain lines of
force, called lines of induction. The lines of induction appear similar to the e
lectric field Ham Radio In Plain English 133
surrounding a dipole, circling the magnet to connect its north and south poles.
A magnetic field is formed around a conductor, whenever a current flows through
the conductor. Unlike the electrical lines, magnetic lines are not drawn between
the rods. The magnetic lines of force are drawn at right angles to the directio
n of current flow. The left hand rule is used to determine the direction of magn
etic line of force. When one holds the conductor in the left hand as shown in th
e figure, the fingers will point in the direction of magnetic line of force.
A magnetic field is not easily measured quantitatively. The easiest way to ident
ify a magnetic field is to observe whether certain metals are attracted to a par
ticular object or medium. However, a weak magnetic field may not be visible this
way. One way to identify even a weak magnetic field involves iron filings, a sh
eet of paper and the object believed to be a magnet. If the iron filings are spr
ead on the paper and a magnet is placed underneath the paper, the filings will a
rrange themselves in a pattern that outlines the magnet’s lines of induction. Ham
Circuit Theory A circuit is a corridor through which an electric or magnetic cur
rent travels, or is anticipated to travel. The essential components of a circuit
include a power source, two connecting wires to conduct the current, and a load
to receive the energy. If the connections between the power source and the load
are complete and correct, the current will flow, creating a closed circuit.
Types of Circuits Most circuits occur as series or parallel circuits. Series cir
cuits connect all components using a single length of wire, and are of the simpl
est circuit construction. In a series circuit, the power source and load follow
one another in a series, so that the electric current must travel through the fi
rst component before it can be passed on to the second and successive components
. The string of Christmas tree lights that refuses to work if one bulb fails is
an example of a series circuit. This demonstrates one of the pitfalls of a serie
s circuit: that the circuit as a whole will not function if a single component f
ails. Another problem is that resistance increases as the number of components o
n the circuit increases. In a parallel circuit, the components are connected ind
ividually to the power source by lengths of wire that mirror one another, or are
parallel to one another. Each component in a parallel circuit receives the same
amount of voltage independent of the other components. The disadvantages of ser
ies circuits reflect the advantages of parallel circuits. Parallel circuits do n
ot fail as a whole if a single component in the circuit fails, and the amount of
resistance on a parallel circuit does not increase as components are added.
Circuit Components Circuits can contain many different components besides the es
sential power source, wires and load. If a circuit’s power source is a direct curr
ent, a battery will be a major component.
135
•
Battery -- Batteries produce electric current through a chemical reaction that g
enerates an excess of electrons at one terminal (pole), while creating a deficie
ncy of electrons at the second terminal (pole). As a result, a battery connected
to a closed circuit will attempt to equalize this imbalance by sending an elect
ric charge through the connecting wires to the deficient terminal.
•
Switch -- A circuit must be closed in order for its electric current to flow; to
exercise control over the electric current, a switch may be introduced into the
circuit. A switch is an opening in the circuit that can be opened to prevent a
flow of electricity, or closed to enable an electric flow. Switches are useful i
n conservation of energy, since they permit the flow to be broken, preventing un
necessary energy use.
"Adults are always asking kids what they want to be when they grow up because th
ey are looking for ideas.” ~ Paula Poundstone, comedian
Sometimes, a power source in a circuit provides more energy than the load requir
es. To decrease the amount of electrical current, a resistor may be added to the
circuit. • Resistor -- A resistor introduces additional resistance to an electric
flow by converting electricity into heat. Some resistors are variable, which mea
ns the amount of resistance they introduce to a circuit can be changed.
The Objective of a Resistor
The duty of the resistor is to limit the flow of current. Normally a resistor is
connected in a series with a light emitting diode.
136
Symbols used to denote resistors vary by continent. A zigzag symbol is found in
both the U.S. and Japan while a box symbol is popular in the UK and Europe.
A carbon film resistor is shown below.
137
The advantages of carbon film resistors are that they are
easily available and a
re quite inexpensive. Their accuracy ranges are within five percent to 10 percent

of their marked values. Metal oxide resistors have a better accuracy within one
percent of their nominal value. Light Dependent Resistor A light dependent resi
stor together with its circuit symbol is demonstrated below.
138
A cadmium sulfide track functions as the light sensitive part of the LDR. As the
light energy falls on the light sensitive part, extra charge carriers are relea
sed in this material thus causing the resistance to decrease. This induces an in
crease in the level of illumination.
Capacitor We have already dealt with capacitors in detail. Here is a brief expla
nation of the capacitor. A capacitor is a component that can be added to a circu
it to regulate voltage by storing a charge in an electric field between two plat
es or surfaces that are positioned close together, but do not touch. A capacitor
will store electricity in its field until the opening between the two plates is
closed and the capacitor is allowed to discharge the energy it has stored. The
storage of energy in an electric field allows the capacitor to discharge, even i
f a switch disconnects the power source. A diode is a circuit component that per
mits an electrical current to flow in a single direction only. On one end, the d
iode has a high resistance to an electrical current, and on the other end, has a
low resistance to an electrical current. Consequently, a diode is often used to
convert alternating current into direct current. Light-emitting diodes (LED) pr
oduce light when an electrical current is flowing in the right direction. The li
ght of an LED is used for entertainment, but also provides a useful source of in
formation about circuits.
139
Different components in a PCB An inductor is a coil of wire added to a circuit t
o create a magnetic field. The magnetic field stores energy by resisting voltage
changes, much like a capacitor.
140
A transformer is used with alternating current to vary the current’s voltage throu
gh electromagnetic induction, or the change in electric potential achieved by al
tering a surrounding magnetic field. The difference between the voltage supplied
to the transformer and the voltage produced by the transformer is directly rela
ted to the number of coils belonging to the inductor. If the primary or initial
winding of the inductor has more coils than the secondary, the transformer will
produce less voltage than was supplied to it. Conversely, if the primary or init
ial winding of the inductor has fewer coils than the secondary, the transformer
will produce more voltage than was supplied to it.
141
Temperature Sensors Temperature sensors are sensitive to temperature. When the r
esistance of a resistor decreases with the rise in temperature, it is called a n
egative temperature coefficient thermistors or an ntc thermistor. A positive tem
perature coefficient thermistor or a ptc thermistor shows an increase in resista
nce with temperature.
Microphone A microphone is also termed as sound sensor. The figure given below s
hows a cermet microphone. Cermet is a combination of both ceramic and metal. The
sound sensitive part is produced using a mixture of these materials.
142
Switch
When a switch is pressed, a voltage signal is usually generated. This voltage si
gnal sets off the circuit in to action. This can be accomplished in two differen
t ways.
The pull down resistor makes the output voltage, Vout, to be of a low value, exc
ept when the switch functions. When the switch is pressed, a high voltage is del
ivered. The pull up resistor makes the output voltage of a high value, except wh
en the switch functions. When the switch is pressed, a low voltage is delivered.
"Outside of the killings, Washington has one of the lowest crime rates in the co
untry." ~ Marion Barry, former Washington D.C. mayor
143
Fuse A fuse is a protection device used in a circuit. If there is any malfunctio
n in the equipment, the fuse burns and melts, thus cutting off the power to the
circuit. After correcting this problem, the device can be again put into operati
on. Special care should be taken while fixing a new fuse. The fuse must have the
same current ratings. When replacing a fuse with one of lower rating, the fuse
will be blown off as soon as it is replaced. If the fuse is of higher rating, it
can cause an accident. Voltmeter Voltmeter is a device used to measure the volt
age of a portion of a circuit. When measuring, the voltmeters are connected “paral
lel” across the circuit. Ammeter Ammeter is used to measure current in a circuit.
Ammeter shows the current flowing in amperes through the circuit. The ammeter is
placed in series with the circuit. Multimeter A multimeter is considered multip
urpose equipment, which can be used to measure the current, voltage as well as r
esistance. Generally used electrical symbols are given below.
ac supply
aerial
ammeter
amplifier
battery
144
Capacitor
cell
d c supply
diode
earth
fuse
led
loud speaker
mic
motor
145
ohmmeter
photodiode
! transformer
!
! npn transistor
Circuit Equations Ohm’s law explains the relationship between a current, its volta
ge, and resistance, stating that a circuit’s current is directly proportional to i
ts voltage and inversely proportional to its resistance. This relationship can b
e described with the following equation: E = (I) R Where E represents voltage, I
is the amount of current and R is equivalent to the amount of resistance in a c
ircuit. Joule’s law explains the relationship between heat and electricity as one
converts to the other. It states that the amount of heat created by an electrica
l conductor holding a current is directly proportional to the amount of the cond
uctor’s resistance, multiplied by the square of the current itself, illustrated by
the following equation: P = I2 (R) Where P is equivalent to the amount of heat,
I represents the circuit’s current and R is the amount of resistance.
146
Kirchhoff’s laws describe energy requirements for circuits, specifically voltage a
nd circuit requirements. They are the Law of Voltage and the Law of Currents. Th
e Law of Voltage states that all voltages in any closed circuit must equal zero.
The Law of Currents states that at any node, or current junction, the sum of cu
rrents entering must equal the sum of currents exiting.
147
Chapter 10 Transmission of Electricity
"I tell you, that Michael Jackson is unbelievable! Isn t he? He s just unbelieva
ble. Three plays in twenty seconds." ~ Al Gore, former vice president, commentin
g on Michael Jordan Structure of Electric Power Systems Generating stations, tra
nsmission lines and the distribution systems are the main components of an elect
ric power system. Generating stations and a distribution system are connected th
rough transmission lines, which also links one power system (grid area) to anoth
er. A distribution system connects all the loads in a particular area to the tra
nsmission lines.
A Power Transmission Line
148
For economical and technological reasons, individual power systems are organized
in the form of electrically connected areas or regional grids (also called powe
r pools). Each area or regional grid operates technically and economically indep
endently, but these are eventually interconnected to form a national grid (which
may even form an international grid) so that each area is contractually tied to
other areas in respect to certain generation and scheduling features. Electric
power is generated at a voltage of 11 to 25 KV, which then is stepped up to the
transmission levels in the range of 66 to 400 KV (or higher). As the transmissio
n capability of a line is proportional to the square of its voltage, research is
continuously being carried out to raise transmission voltages. Some countries a
re already employing 765 KV. For very long distances (over 400 miles), it is eco
nomical to transmit bulk power by DC transmission. It also offers obvious techni
cal problems associated with very long distance AC transmission. The DC voltages
used are 400 KV and above, and the line is connected to the AC systems at the t
wo ends through a transformer and converting/ inverting equipment (silicon contr
olled rectifiers are employed for this purpose). Several DC transmission lines h
ave been constructed in Europe and the U.S. The conductor system by means of whi
ch electric power is conveyed from a generating station to the consumer’s premises
may, in general be divided into two distinct parts (i.e. transmission system an
d distribution system). Each part can again be sub-divided into two primary tran
smission and secondary transmission, and similarly, primary distribution and sec
ondary distribution, and then finally the systems of supply to individual consum
ers. It is a common practice nowadays to interconnect many types of generating s
tations by means of a common electrical network and operate them all in parallel
. This combination of generating stations forms what is known as a power system.
The various elements of such systems like generating stations, transmission lin
es, the substations, feeders, and distributors become tied into a whole by the i
ntegrated process of continuous generation and consumption of electric energy. A
system network (or
149
grid) is the name given to the part of the power system that consists of the sub
stations and transmission lines of various voltage rating. Distribution The dist
ribution system may be divided into feeders, distributors, sub-distributors and
service mains. As already explained, feeders are the conductors, which connect t
he sub-station (in some cases the generating station) to the distributors servin
g a certain allotted area. Various tappings are taken from distributors. The con
necting link between the distributors and the consumer terminals are the service
mains. There is an essential difference between a feeder and a distributor. The
current loading of a feeder is the same throughout its length, but the distribu
tor has a distributed loading which results in variations of current along its e
ntire length. No direct tappings are taken from a feeder to a consumer’s premises.
Transmission and Distribution Today, all production of power is AC power, and ne
arly all DC power is obtained from large AC power systems by using converting ma
chinery like synchronous or rotary converters, solid-state converters and motor-
generator sets. There are many sound reasons for producing power in the form of
alternating current rather than direct current. 1. It is possible, in practice t
o construct large high-speed AC generators of capacities up to 500 MW. Such gene
rators are economical both in the matter of cost per kWh of electric energy prod
uced as well as in operation. Unfortunately, DC generators cannot be built of ra
tings higher than 5 MW because of commutation trouble. Moreover, since they must
operate at low speeds, it necessitates large and heavy machines. 2. AC voltage
can be efficiently and conveniently raised or lowered for economic transmission
and distribution of electric power respectively. On the other hand, DC power has
to be generated at comparatively low voltages by units of relatively low power
ratings. There is no economical method of raising the DC voltage for transmissio
n and lowering it for distribution. Ham Radio In Plain English 150
Chapter 11
Electromagnetic Waves and Radio Waves
"You teach a child to read, and he or her will be able to pass a literacy test.
~ George W. Bush, president Electromagnetic Waves The main constituents of an
electromagnetic wave are an electric field and a magnetic field. Generally, elec
tromagnetic fields are an orientation of horizontal and vertical line of force a
t right angles to each other. The electromagnetic field (E) and the magnetic fie
ld (H) together form these lines of force, which in turn constitute the electrom
agnetic force. It is this electromagnetic field that makes the groundwork for th
e transmission and reception of electromagnetic waves through space. We have alr
eady dealt with the basics of electric and magnetic fields.
Basics of Wave Motion When referring to the wave in the figure, one complete cyc
le of the wave is represented by points ABCDE. As evident from the figure, this
wave has maximum points on both sides of the reference line. The combination of
the area covered by the portion above the reference line (ABC), and one portion
below the reference line (CDE), completes one cycle of the wave. The peak of the
positive part is sometimes called the top or the crest. The peak of the negativ
e part is the bottom or the trough.
Wavelength A wavelength is the distance traversed by one cycle of a wave. Wavele
ngth is inversely proportional to the frequency. Hence, at extremely high freque
ncies, wavelength will be very small, and at extremely low frequencies, waveleng
th will be very large (can extend to many miles). The Greek letter lambda () is
used to denote wavelength. Ham Radio In Plain English 151
Amplitude The altitude of the peak above the reference line is known as the ampl
itude of the wave. It is possible for two waves to have the same wavelength, but
different amplitudes.
Frequency The number of cycles of a wave train in a unit of time is called the f
requency of the wave train. The unit of frequency is cycles/second or hertz. Con
sider that 10 waves pass a point in one second. The frequency of the wave is 10
cycles/second. If we know the velocity and frequency of a wave, we can determine
the wavelength of the wave using the following equation: = v/ f, where is the w
avelength, v the velocity of propagation and f the frequency of the wave.
Radio Waves A radio wave is an energy wave generated by a transmitter. It is a c
ombination of both electrical field and magnetic field, better known as electrom
agnetic field. The standard shape of the wave generated by a transmitter is that
of a sine wave. The frequency of a sine wave is the number of cycles that are c
ompleted in one second. The frequencies between 3,000 hertz (3 kHz) and 300,000,
000,000 hertz (300 GHz) are called radio frequencies. For convenience, the radio
frequencies are divided into bands. One band is 10 times higher in frequency th
an the preceding one.
Units of Frequency Frequencies of the amateur radio are always expressed in kilo
(thousand), mega (million) or giga (billion) hertz.
152
Bandwidth Bandwidth explains how much space a specific signal takes up. The unit
used for measuring bandwidth is kilohertz. A large bandwidth denotes that it co
ntains more information and occupies more room in an amateur radio band. The fre
quency band is tabulated below.
FREQUENCY
3 to 30 KHz 30 to 300 KHz 300 to 3000 KHz 3 to 30 MHz 30 to 300 MHz 300 to 3000
MHz 3 to 30 GHz 30 to 300 GHz
DESCRIPTION
Very low Low Medium High Very high Ultra high Super high Extremely high
TERMINOLOGY
VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF
If a particular frequency is the whole number multiple of a smaller basic freque
ncy, then that frequency is referred to as the harmonic of the basic frequency.
The basic frequency is often called the first harmonic or fundamental frequency.
A second harmonic is the frequency which is twice as great as the fundamental f
requency and the terminology repeats for the third, fourth, etc. The time requir
ed for one complete cycle is known as the period of a radio wave. For a sine wav
e of frequency of four hertz, each cycle has a period of one-fourth of a second.
The frequency of a radio wave is inversely proportional to the period. A wavele
ngth is horizontal distance transposed by one full cycle of a radio wave at any
given instant. The velocity of a radio wave is equivalent to the speed of light
(186,000 miles per second). The speed of the radio wave is independent of the fr
equency. A two megahertz wave travels through the space with the same velocity a
s a six megahertz wave. Ham Radio In Plain English 153
The plane in which the E field propagates with respect to the Earth is the plane
of polarization of radio wave. If the E field component of the radio wave propa
gates in a plane perpendicular to the Earth s surface (vertical), the radiation
is said to be vertically polarized. If the E field radiates in a plane parallel
to the Earth s surface (horizontal), the radiation is said to be horizontally po
larized. In order to maximize the quantum of energy absorbed from the electromag
netic fields, the antenna at the receiving end must be located in the plane of p
olarization. This explains the placement of the conductor at the antenna at righ
t angles to the magnetic line of force moving through the antenna and parallel t
o the electric lines effectuating maximum induction. The right hand rule is used
to determine the direction of wave propagation. The rule states that if the thu
mb, forefinger and the middle finger of the right hand are extended so that they
are mutually perpendicular, the middle finger will point in the direction of th
e wave propagation, if the thumb points in the direction of the E field and fore
finger points in the direction of H field. The wave always propagates in the dir
ection away from the antenna. In the atmosphere, radio waves can be reflected, r
efracted and diffracted. Depending upon the obstructing object, the radio waves
can be reflected to a different extent. The earth’s surface is an excellent reflec
tor of radio waves. Metals with good electrical conductivity are excellent refle
ctors. When the radio waves move from one medium to another, with differing velo
city of propagation, the bending of this wave occurs. This is known as refractio
n. When a radio wave enters a highly charged area of the atmosphere, refraction
will take place. The part of the wave that enters first will travel at a greater
speed than that which has not yet entered. This sudden change of velocity cause
s the wave to bend towards the earth, which is called refraction.
The Factors Affecting Radio Waves The characteristic of the medium in between th
e transmitting antenna and the receiving antenna often affects the propagation o
f radio waves in one way or another. The atmospheric condition varies with heigh
t, changes in geographic locations, and with the changes with respect to day/nig
ht and seasons. The information on basic division of the earth’s atmosphere is alw
ays helpful for an amateur radio enthusiast.
154
Chapter 12
A Peep into the Atmosphere
"Whenever I watch TV and see those poor starving kids all over the world, I can
t help but cry. I mean I d love to be skinny like that but not with all those fl
ies and death and stuff." ~ Mariah Carey What Is Atmosphere? We live at the bott
om of an ocean – an ocean of air. All around us this ocean, called the atmosphere,
presses in upon us and affects us in everything we do. We breathe its gases and
they keep us alive. We communicate by speech. Fuels burn through vibrations. Pa
rticular layers shield us from harmful radiations from the sun. Even at heights
of tens of kilometers, it is thick enough to arrest the flight of meteorites and
cause them to burn up before reaching the earth’s surface. It is colorless, taste
less and odorless, but it enables us to exist. This vast ocean reaches several h
undred kilometers above our heads, but on a world scale, it is like a thin envel
ope. The earth’s atmosphere is divided into three regions: troposphere, stratosphe
re, and ionosphere.
Troposphere. The troposphere, the region in contact with the earth’s surface and w
here weather occurs, is characterized by a decrease of temperature with increasi
ng altitude. The troposphere extends from the surface of the earth to a height o
f about 3.7 miles (6 km) at the North Pole or the South Pole and 11.2 miles (18
km) at the equator. It is the layer in which we live and function. It contains m
ore than 75 percent of the earth’s atmosphere. Nearly all of the earth’s weather con
ditions – including most clouds, rain, and snow – occur in this layer. Thus scientis
ts forecast the most aerosols and water vapor in the air. Jet streams blow in th
e upper part of the troposphere. The temperature of the troposphere decreases ab
out 6.5 0C for every kilometer of increase in altitude.
155
The temperature stops decreasing at the tropopause, the upper boundary of the tr
oposphere. The temperature in this region decreases rapidly with altitude. Cloud
s form, and there may be much turbulence because of variations in temperature, d
ensity, and pressure. These conditions have a great effect on the propagation of
radio waves.
Stratosphere Above the troposphere is the stratosphere. The troposphere and the
stratosphere show distinct circulating systems. Whereas vertical motions prevail
in the former, motions in the latter are largely confined to the horizontal. Ve
ry little moisture enters the stratosphere and clouds are rare. Airline pilots p
refer to fly in the stratosphere to stay above the weather disturbances that occ
ur in the troposphere. The stratosphere usually has a lower layer of nearly stea
dy temperature and an upper layer in which the temperature increases with altitu
de. The upper layer contains most of the atmosphere’s ozone. The ozone heats the a
ir thereby absorbing ultraviolet rays from the sun. The temperature throughout t
his region is almost constant and there is little water vapor present. The strat
osphere has relatively little effect on radio waves because it is a relatively c
alm region with little or no temperature changes.
Ionosphere The ionosphere extends upward from about 31.1 miles (50 km) to a heig
ht of about 250 miles (402 km). The air in the ionosphere is extremely thin. Mor
e than 99.99 percent of the atmosphere lies below it. The chemical composition o
f the thermosphere differs from that of the other atmospheric layers. In the low
er regions of the thermosphere, many of the oxygen molecules in the air are brok
en into oxygen atoms. The outer layer of the thermosphere consists chiefly of hy
drogen and helium. Ionosphere is completely exposed to the sun’s radiation, which
heats the thin air to extremely high temperatures – attaining a maximum value of m
ore than 1,000 degree Celsius at about 250 miles. This usually happens during so
lar storms when more radiation and particles strike the atmosphere. When this ha
ppens, the radiation ionizes some of the molecules and atoms of the air. This is
why this region is known as ionosphere. The ionosphere Ham Radio In Plain Engli
sh 156
plays an important part in long distance radio communication. It reflects back t
o the earth radio waves that would otherwise travel into space.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------- ### --This concludes Ham Radio In Plai
n English. I hope you found the information helpful and I wish you many hours of
happy broadcasting!
Randy Pryor
Also available from Randy Pryor:
“The Ultimate Ham Radio Resource Guide” only $19.95
Finally, a resource guide that will help you nd exactly what you’re looking for! Wi
th everything from the most popular Ham Radio websites, best buys, and highest r
ecommendations, to the most challenging where-on-earth-do-I- nd-this-part? “insider”
information.
“How To Speak Ham Radio” only $9.95
Sure, you know amateur radio. You may even know your QRP from your SWR and ARRL.
You may even know the di erence between APRS, WIRES, Antennas, Frequencies, and F
ull Duplex operations. But, if you don’t (or even if you do!) won’t it be great to h
ave all this information in one place at one time! Ham Radio In Plain English 157

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