Brown University Physics 0050/0070

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Simple Harmonic Motion

(Reference-Halliday— Resnick Chapter 14)

The oscillation of a mass will be investigated under two totally different combinations of
controlling forces, spring force plus gravity and gravity plus a constraining force,
respectively. The object of study is the relation between period or frequency of oscillation
and the characteristics of the controlling forces.

THEORY AND APPARATUS

We consider only one-dimensional oscillations (motion along a straight line). The
oscillation frequency (v, vibrations per second) and period (T, seconds) are both related
to the “circular frequency”, ω:
2π ω
T= and v =
ω 2π
What determines ω is the relation between the magnitudes of the strength of the restoring
force and the inertia in the system,
k
ω= , where Fnet = −kx
m
is the resultant force acting on the mass m when it is at position x, as measured from the
equilibrium position. A resultant force obeying this equation (“elastic restoring force”) is
necessary and sufficient to generate simple harmonic motion. Thus ω is an intrinsic
property of the vibrating system and does not depend on the “initial conditions” (the
position and velocity with which the vibration is started off). Since the vibration
amplitude is determined by the initial conditions, it follows that ω is independent of
amplitude for simple harmonic motion.

Vertical oscillation of mass on spring

The mass moves under the influence of the force of gravity and the spring force,
Fspring = − k ( L − L0 )
if L0 is the spring’s relaxed length. When the spring is hung from its upper
end with M attached to the bottom, the equilibrium length is L1, determined
by Mg = k ( L1 − L0 ) and hence the resultant force acting on M is
Fnet = Fspring − Mg = − kx , where x = L − L1
All the L values are positive, but x may be positive or negative, with the direction of Fnet
being opposite to the direction of x. Thus the “k” which determined ω in this case is the
force constant of the spring itself; the force of gravity sets the equilibrium position but
does not affect the vibration rate.
This simplified analysis assumes that the spring has no mass. The real spring does have
mass, of course, which also takes part in the oscillation. The part of the spring to which
the M is attached vibrates with the same amplitude as M itself; the part of the spring
attached to the upper end does not vibrate at all; and intermediate parts oscillate with
intermediate amplitudes. The effect of this partial (on the frequency) is as if a certain
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fraction of the spring’s mass were added to the attached mass and the spring itself were
massless.
A two-spring oscillator can
be constructed in either of
two ways (as shown). If an
external force F (downward)
is applied to M, and M
moves down a distance x as
a result,
the effective force constant
of the pair is F/x.

Series case: the same F acts on each spring, so #1 stretches a distance x1 = F / k1 and #2
stretches by x2 = F / k2. In this case
F F F
x = x1 + x2 , so = + , or k eff−1 = k1−1 + k 2−1
k k1 k 2
Parallel case: each spring stretches the same distance (x1 = x2 = x), while the restoring
forces add F = F1 + F2.

Pendulum

In the simple pendulum (mass swinging from the end of a long, massless string) the
direction of motion is essentially horizontal, and the controlling forces are gravity and
string tension. For small amplitudes the resultant of these two is a small, variable fraction
of the gravitational force,
⎛x⎞ Mg
Fnet = − Mg sin θ = − Mg ⎜ ⎟ , so k =
⎝L⎠ L
The “force constant” is weight divided by string length and is thus proportional to the
system mass, in contrast with the spring situation in which the force constant is not
affected by the mass. The result is that ω, which is determined by the quotient k/M, is in
this case independent of the mass:
g
ω=
L
The obvious way to test this is by measuring the frequency for various string lengths and
masses, but that makes a dull experiment and instead we concentrate on the fact that the
acceleration due to gravity (which is the gravitational “force constant”) is also a factor in
determining pendulum frequency.
On earth, of course, “g” is a fixed constant except for very small variations with latitude
or elevation relative to sea level. On other planets, the moon, etc. the pendulum frequency
for a given length would vary grossly, in proportion to g . The effect of a variable “g” is
reproduced in this experiment by an apparatus that permits the oscillation to be confined
to a plane, which is not vertical. If the entire pendulum were supported on a frictionless
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plane and that plane inclined at angle u to the vertical (below left, upper figure), the only
effective component of weight would be the component of it which lies in the plane,
Mg cos(α ) . The dynamics of the pendulum motion in the plane would then be the same
as in the normal case, but with reduced weight Mg’ where g’= gcosα (below left, lower
figure).

The actual apparatus is shown at right. The pendulum mass (a cylinder with a horizontal
axis) is supported by two rigid rods of negligible mass which themselves are fastened to
the ends of an axle that can rotate freely in two low—friction bearings, at A and B. The
rods keep M at a fixed distance (d) from the axle AB; the inclination of AB can be
adjusted to any angle by loosening the wing—nut on the vertical support, and fixed at
that inclination by tightening the nut. This has the effect of permitting M to move freely,
but only in the plane perpendicular to axle AB, and at the fixed distance (d) from it.

PROCEDURE

The main measurements in these experiments are of the period of oscillation under
various conditions. The period can be measured with high accuracy by measuring the
total time for a large number of complete cycles of the motion. Timing ten cycles is
suggested in general, unless the period is very short, in which case enough cycles should
be followed so that the measured time is at least a minute or two. (The error in timing is a
fixed fraction of a second—basically, your reaction time in starting and stopping the
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clock. Therefore the percent error in timing decreases with increase in the size of the
actual time interval measured.)

Experiments with springs

Measure the mass of each of the two springs provided. For each one, measure the force
constant (k) by suspending it with a mass attached, measuring its length, adding an
additional mass and measuring the new length.
Measure the period of oscillation for each of four different masses attached to the first
spring. Repeat for the second spring. Repeat for the pair of springs connected in series.
Repeat for the pair of springs connected in parallel.
For one spring and one particular mass, measure the period for each of two different
amplitudes of vibration which differ by about a factor of 2.

For the spring and mass last

used, measure the period of the
vibration when it is started by
raising the mass to the
unstretched position of the
spring and letting it drop—i.e.,
same vibration, different initial
condition. (This is problem
8.14 in Halliday—Resnick.)
In recording spring data,
remember to include the mass
of the mass—holder with the
value of attached mass.
The springs follow the linear
force law only for a limited range of force values; a typical true F(L) law is illustrated
above. For too-small an applied force the spring acts “soft”, with a variable force-
constant; for too large a force the atomic structure is permanently changed and the spring
goes “soft” again, getting ready to break (“elastic limit”). The instructor will tell you the
range of masses which will put you in the linear region; stay within those limits.

Variable-g pendulum
Measure “d” and the dimensions of “M” (see drawing.) Measure the period for each of
five inclination angles (α), covering the range from 0° to the largest angle at which you
can get it to oscillate at all.
Reset α to 0° (oscillation in vertical plane) and measure the period for amplitudes of
roughly 5°,15°, 30° and 90°. (You can adjust the amplitude to these values by first
calculating what the initial horizontal displacement must be; release from rest.)
In all pendulum measurements (except the last set) keep the amplitude of oscillation
below about 15°.

ANALYSIS
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Spring data:
Plot the square of the period as a function of attached mass (including holder), for each of
the springs and spring combinations separately (four graphs).
Are these graphs linear? (If not, can you suggest what effect may have caused the non—
linearity?) From the slope (or average slope if there is nonlinearity), determine the value
of “k” for each graph. Compare these values with the directly—measured values for the
two individual springs, and with the theoretical combination values in the cases of the
two combinations.
Do the graphs lie on a line pointing to the origin? If not estimate what fraction of the
spring mass was participating in the oscillation, from the graph’s intercept.
By what factor did the period change when the amplitude was doubled?
By what factor did the period change when the initial condition (method of starting) was
changed?

Pendulum data:
Plot the square of the frequency of oscillation as a function of cosα.
Is the graph linear? (If not, speculate on possible reasons.)
From the slope of this graph determine the effective length of the pendulum. By
comparing this value with the measured dimensions of the apparatus, determine the
location of the point within M at which the mass is effectively concentrated. Does the
result make sense?
For the oscillations in the vertical plane, plot frequency as a function of amplitude angle.
Over what range of angles, approximately, is “simple harmonic motion” a good
approximation to the actual vibration?
The acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the moon is 1.67 m/sec2, on Mars it is
3.72 m/sec2, and on Jupiter 22.9 m/sec2.
What would be the period of this pendulum (operated in the vertical position) on each of
these bodies?