Pavement-Dependent Load Limits
Case Study in South Dakota for Different Tire Configurations
Hao Wang, Imad L. Al-Qadi, and David L. Huft
South Dakota statutes limit the weight of nonsteering axles to 500 lb/in.
of tire width. The load allowance for single axles or spread tandem
axles with wide-base tires is less than the axle load limit for dual tires.
The objective of this research is to assess the potential impact of policy
change if the load limit on wide-base tires is increased to be the same
as the load limit on dual tires. First, a comprehensive literature review
was conducted. Results indicated that the impact of wide-base tires on
pavement damage varied, depending on pavement structure and damage
mechanism. Pavement response and performance data were obtained
from previous studies to calculate damage ratios between wide-base
tires and dual tires with the same load. Different pavement failure mech-
anisms (fatigue cracking, top-down cracking, primary rutting, and
subgrade rutting) were applied. Cost functions were then developed by
relating the life-cycle cost of four typical asphalt pavement structures
used in South Dakota to design traffic levels. The impact of the policy
change on the cost of pavement damage was estimated by using detailed
traffic data for each road segment in the state highway network. It was
found that the cost of pavement damage increased because of wide-base
tires on thin asphalt pavements commonly used in secondary roads.
However, the impact of wide-base tires on Interstate highways was mini-
mal. In addition, the environmental benefits brought about by the use of
wide-base tires were equally significant, especially when the reduction
in fuel consumption and air pollution was considered.
The trucking industry is the driving force behind the U.S. economy.
Trucks deliver 70% of freight tonnage and deliver goods to 80%
of U.S. communities. Revenues of the trucking industry exceed
$650 billion, approximately 5% of the U.S. gross domestic product
(1). The impact of trucking on road infrastructure is substantial,
especially pavement load–related damage. Freight transportation
growth is not expected to slow any time soon, and therefore inno-
vative technologies capable of improving the efficiency of trucking
operations must be introduced to ensure continuous economic growth.
However, this growth should not be achieved at the expense of road
infrastructure.
Tire manufacturers are marketing new wide-base single tires
(445 and 455 mm wide) to replace traditional dual tires. The new
H. Wang, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Rutgers University,
96 Frelinghuysen Road, Piscataway, N.J. 08854. I. L. Al-Qadi, Department of
Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign,
205 North Mathews Avenue, MC-250, Urbana, IL 61801. D. L. Huft, South Dakota
Department of Transportation, 700 East Broadway Avenue, Pierre, SD 57501.
Corresponding author: H. Wang, hwang.cee@rutgers.edu.
Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board,
No. 2456, Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington,
D.C., 2014, pp. 107–114.
DOI: 10.3141/2456-11
107
wide-base tires incorporate a new technology that makes them
an attractive alternative for truck fleets. The new tires offer several
advantages including fuel savings and greater stability (2, 3). How-
ever, concern about pavement damage has been triggered because of
wide-base tire loading, which might increase pavement maintenance
and rehabilitation costs.
South Dakota statutes limit the weight of nonsteering axles to
500 lb/in. (87 N/mm) of tire width. The load allowed on single axles
is 17,500 lb (78 kN) for 445-mm tires and 18,000 lb (80 kN) for
455-mm tires. However, standard dual-tire configurations are allowed
up to a 20,000-lb (89-kN) load. Thus, the load limit for a semitrailer
with spread tandem axles or a trailer with single axles at each end
is reduced by up to 4,000 to 5,000 lb (18 to 22 kN) when wide-base
tires are used. Therefore, truck operators must either reduce payload
capacity or avoid travel in South Dakota. It is recommended that the
impact of having the same axle load limit on dual tires and wide-base
tires be quantified.
Objective and Scope
This research aims at assessing the potential impact on pavement
performance life and the environment if the same load limit is allowed
for dual tires and wide-base tires on single axles or spread tandem
axles. First, a comprehensive literature review was conducted to
study the effect on pavement of replacing dual tires with wide-base
single tires. Pertinent studies were identified by reviewing pavement
response, and performance data were obtained for calculating dam-
age ratios (DRs) between wide-base tires and dual tires carrying the
same load. Different pavement failure mechanisms (fatigue cracking,
top-down cracking, primary rutting, and subgrade rutting) were used
for the calculation of DRs.
Pavement cost functions were developed by relating the cost of
the pavement life cycle to the number of equivalent single-axle loads
(ESALs) that the pavement structure is designed to accommodate.
Four typical South Dakota asphalt pavement structures were used.
The potential impact of wide-base single tires on pavement costs
was evaluated by using traffic data, length of each road segment,
and percentage of trucks with spread tandem axles. However, the
environmental benefits from using wide-base tires were quanti-
fied with special consideration of reduced fuel consumption and air
pollution.
Review of Pertinent Studies
The evaluation of pavement damage caused by wide-base tires
is based on field testing, modeling analysis, or a combination of
both. Results of previous studies vary because of the differences in
108 Transportation Research Record 2456

TABLE 1   Field Testing for New Wide-Base Tires (4–10)

Instrumentation or
Source Reference Wide-Base Tire Loading Measurements or Both

Virginia Smart Road study (4) 445/50R22.5 Field, tandem Strain gauge
Pressure cell
Quebec study (5) 455/55R22.5 Field, tandem Multiple depth deflectometer
Strain gauge
NCAT study (6) 445/50R22.5 Field, tandem Strain gauge
Pressure cell
Ontario study (7) 455/55R22.5 Field, single Strain gauge
Illinois DOT study (8) 455/55R22.5 APT Strain gauge
Pressure cell
Florida DOT study (9) 445/50R22.5 APT Strain gauge
455/55R22.5 Rutting depth
Laval University study (10) 455/55R22.5 Field, tridem Strain gauge

Note: NCAT = National Center for Asphalt Technology; DOT = Department of Transportation.

pavement design, distresses, vehicle speed, tire configurations, and the analytical methods previously used in this research. The find-
loading conditions. ings indicate that the effect of wide-base tires on pavements varies
because of vehicle loading and tire–pavement contact stresses.

Field Testing
Two types of field testing, testing of trucks with wide-base tires and
accelerated pavement testing (APT), were conducted to evaluate the
effect of truck loading parameters on pavement damage. The APT
method provides an acceptable middle ground between real pave-
ment loading and laboratory tests. During truck testing and APT, the
pavement response under various tire loads is measured by using
pavement instrumentation, including strains, stresses, and deflections.
In situ measurements of these parameters facilitate comparison of
pavement response and long-term performance under various tire
configurations. Table 1 summarizes the field testing and APT studies
related to the new generation of wide-base tires (4–10). These studies
have shown variable results depending on the differences in pavement
designs, distresses, vehicle speeds, tire configurations, and loading
conditions.
Modeling Analysis
Modeling analysis of pavement under tire loading is based on either
multilayer elastic theory or the finite element model. The latter
approach is more accurate in predicting pavement damage because
it can simulate realistic tire–pavement interaction. Table 2 outlines
Significant Findings
The following findings were reported on the impact of new wide-base
tires (445 mm and 455 mm) on pavements (4–12):
1. Compared with dual tires, the new wide-base tires cause pave-
ment damage that varies depending on the pavement structure and
predominant failure mechanism.
2. The new wide-base tires cause greater bottom-up fatigue crack-
ing and subgrade rutting than dual tires. However, the impact of wide-
base tires on bottom-up fatigue cracking and subgrade rutting lessens
significantly with the increase in asphalt layer thickness because the
impact of tire–pavement interaction becomes less with an increase
in pavement thickness. However, tensile strains caused by different
tire configurations are affected by temperature or speed changes.
3. The new wide-base tires may cause slightly greater, similar,
or less primary rutting in the asphalt layer depending on asphalt
layer thickness and pavement temperature. As temperature or asphalt
layer thickness increases, the wide-base tires cause less primary rutting
than the dual tires.
4. The new wide-base tires cause less near-surface cracking in
relatively thick asphalt pavements because the pavement near-surface
response is more affected by localized tire contact stress distribution.

TABLE 2   Modeling Analysis for New Wide-Base Tires (9, 11, 12)

Source Reference Tire Analysis Tool Tire–Pavement Contact Stresses Loading

Virginia Smart Road study (11) 445/50R22.5 FEM Vertical Moving

455/55R22.5 Nonuniform
Florida DOT study (9) 445/50R22.5 FEM Vertical Stationary
455/55R22.5 Nonuniform
Illinois DOT study (12) 455/55R22.5 FEM Nonuniform Moving
Vertical and shear stresses dynamic

Note: FEM = finite element model.

Wang, Al-Qadi, and Huft
Damage Ratios Between
Two Tire Configurations
Damage Ratios for Different Pavement Structures
The concept of the damage ratio (DR) was used in this study to
quantify the effect on pavement damage of 20,000-lb loads on
single axles with wide-base tires. The DR is the ratio of damage
caused by one pass of a single axle with wide-base tires with respect
to the damage caused by one pass of a single axle with dual tires
carrying the same load, as shown in Equation 1. The failure mecha-
nisms considered in the analysis vary depending on asphalt layer
thickness. For example, subgrade rutting was not considered for full-
depth pavements and top-down cracking was not considered for thin
asphalt pavements.
1
N single N
DR = = dual
1 N single
N dual
where Nsingle equals the allowable number of load repetitions to failure
under loading of a single axle with wide-base single tires, and Ndual
equals the allowable number of load repetitions to failure under loading
of a single axle with dual tires when carrying the same load.
On the basis of available data, the allowable number of load
repetitions to failure could be calculated directly from the perfor­
mance measurements (rutting depth or cracking area) or from
critical pavement responses (stress and strain) through performance
models (transfer functions). The performance models in the proposed
AASHTO Mechanistic–Empirical Pavement Design Guide (13) were
primarily used in the analysis. These models are nationally calibrated
with data from the Long-Term Pavement Performance database
and can be used to compare the impact of two tire configurations as
needed in this study.
With data obtained from previous studies, Table 3 presents the
calculated ratios of critical pavement response and pavement dam-
age for full-depth, thick, and thin asphalt pavements under various
failure mechanisms. The critical pavement response includes tensile
strain at the bottom of the asphalt layer for fatigue cracking, tensile
strain at the pavement near the surface for top-down cracking, maxi-
mum compressive strain in the asphalt layer for primary rutting, and
compressive strain on the top of the subgrade for subgrade rutting.
DRs vary significantly among different pavement structures and
failure mechanisms. Several factors contribute to the variability
TABLE 3   DRs for Different Pavement Structures
Pavement Structure Distress
Full-depth pavement Fatigue cracking
Top-down cracking
Primary rutting
Thick asphalt pavement Fatigue cracking
Top-down cracking
Primary rutting
Thin asphalt pavement Fatigue cracking
Primary rutting
Subgrade rutting
a
Response data are not available if the damage ratio is calculated from the number of repetitions to cause the same rutting depth.
109
observed in DRs, such as loading conditions (axle load and configu-
ration, tire type and inflation pressure, and traffic speed), material
properties (asphalt mixture, aggregate, and soil subgrade), pavement
structure (layer thickness and interface condition), and environmental
conditions (temperature and moisture). Data obtained from previous
studies indicate that the load applied on tires ranged from 6,000 to
11,000 lb (27 to 49 kN). The speed varied from 5 to 8 mph in the APT
to 16 to 45 mph in the field testing. Single and tandem axle configu-
rations were used in the field testing, whereas only single-axle con-
figurations were applied in the APT or modeling analysis. Pavement
response was measured at intermediate temperatures (72°F to 22°F)
or high temperatures (113°F to 122°F).
The loading assumptions used in the mechanistic pavement model
(e.g., uniform versus nonuniform contact stress, circular versus
rectangular contact area) significantly affected the calculated pave-
ment response under various tire configurations. A previous study
showed that the findings resulting from the uniform circular pressure
assumption and linear layered elastic theory contradicted field testing
(1)
results (6). However, when tire–pavement contact stress patterns were
accurately captured under different tire configurations, consistent
trends were established between field testing and modeling results
(9, 11, 12). Therefore, only the studies that considered the realistic
distribution of tire contact stresses were used to calculate the DRs
between the two tire configurations.
DR for State Highway Network in South Dakota
Failure mechanisms are progressive and contribute to the degrada-
tion of pavement serviceability. Even if one failure mechanism is
manifested in the field, other distresses may still occur throughout
the pavement service life. A combined DR is therefore needed for this
analysis. The combined DR is a combination of individual DRs with
weight factors based on the significance of respective failure mecha-
nisms for pavement structures. A logarithmic weight factor was used
by the authors to consider the differences between the number of rep-
etitions to failure for different failure mechanisms (11, 12). However,
not all the critical responses were measured during field studies and
in some cases only the ratio of critical responses between two tire
configurations was provided (5, 7). In order to consider the varia-
tion of DRs from various studies, a simple, average DR was used in
this study to calculate the combined DR.
As shown in Table 4, DRs between the two tire configurations range
from 0.88 to 1.88 depending on pavement structure. It is assumed that
the surface designs of Interstate and primary highways are full-depth
Ratio of Critical
Response Damage Ratio Source References
1.03–1.25 1.13–2.41 Illinois DOT study (8)
0.89–0.91 0.64–0.70
0.86–0.91 0.77–0.85
0.96–1.06 0.86–1.26 Virginia Smart Road study
0.63–0.90 0.16–0.67 (4, 11); Ontario study (7);
1.06a 1.05–1.27 Florida DOT study (9)
1.14–1.30 1.68–2.82 Quebec study (5); Laval
1.14–1.28 1.35–1.77 study (10); Illinois DOT
1.06–1.21 1.31–2.35 study (12)
110 Transportation Research Record 2456

TABLE 4   DRs for South Dakota State Highway Network

Percentage Range of Average

Category Pavement Type of Total Miles Damage Ratio Damage Ratio

Interstate and Full depth (>10 in. ACP with no granular base) 3.4 0.85–1.32 1.085
primary road Thick (5 to 10 in. ACP with granular base) 49.6 0.69–1.07 0.88
ACP on PCCP (asphalt overlay on top of PCCP) 12 1.0a 1.0a
Rigid pavements 35 1.0a 1.0a
Secondary road Thin on strong base (2 to 5 in. ACP on >8 in. granular base) 76 1.45–2.31 1.88
Thin on weak base (2 to 5 in. ACP on <8 in. granular base) 21.8 1.45–2.31 1.88
Surface treatment (bituminous surface treatment or 2.2 1.45–2.31b 1.88b
oil aggregate surface)

Note: ACP = asphalt concrete pavement; PCCP = portland cement concrete pavement; BLOT = bituminous surface treatment.
a
Assume that BLOT has same DR as thin on weak base or thin on strong base.
b
Assume that DRs on ACP on PCCP and rigid pavements are equal to 1.

pavement, thick asphalt pavement, asphalt overlay on concrete slab,
and rigid pavement, but the surface designs of secondary roads are
thin asphalt pavement or thin asphalt on strong base and bituminous
surface treatment. Results indicate that when compared with the dual
tires, new wide-base tires cause similar or slightly less damage on
Interstates and primary roads and an average of 1.88 times the damage
on secondary roads (data from other studies were used for analysis).
Impact of Load Limit Change
The impact of policy change on pavement damage cost was evaluated
by using calculated DRs and pavement cost functions. In addition, the
environmental benefits resulting from policy change were quantified.
structure was designed to accommodate. An analysis of life-cycle
cost was performed on the basis of South Dakota typical pavement
design practice and construction material costs. The analysis period
was 40 years with periodic preventive maintenance treatments
(chip seal, crack seal, and thin overlay) based on South Dakota
Department of Transportation practice. The life-cycle cost was rep-
resented as the equivalent uniform annual cost (EUAC) per lane mile
and a function of the number of ESALs during the 20-year design life.
The life-cycle cost was analyzed for thin asphalt pavement on weak
base, thin asphalt pavement on strong base, thick asphalt pavement,
and full-depth pavement, as shown in Equations 2 through 5:
Thin asphalt pavement on weak base:
EUAC = 5,657 ( N ESAL )0.1229 (2)

Impact on Pavement Damage Cost Thin asphalt pavement on strong base:

The current load limit of 500 lb/in. (87 N/mm) does not affect the
use of wide-base tires on normal tandem axles because the maximum
load allowed for tandem axles is 34,000 lb (151 kN). However, the
load limit of spread or split tandems varies depending on the type of
tire. The proposed policy change is therefore expected to recommend
use of wide-base tires on spread tandem axles; this configuration will
eventually affect pavement deterioration and maintenance costs.
Previous studies show that the unit cost of pavement damage caused
by loading varies depending on road functional class and considered
cost (agency versus user) (14, 15). In this study, the impact of policy
change on pavement damage cost was assessed by the following steps:
1. Define pavement cost functions with respect to traffic for
different road categories,
2. Estimate pavement cost with the assumption that only dual tires
with spread tandem axles are used,
3. Estimate the number of trucks with spread tandem axles and
their axle load spectrum,
4. Estimate pavement cost with the assumption that dual tires are
replaced by wide-base tires at a specific percentage, and
5. Calculate the total change of pavement cost in the state highway
network.
Step 1
The pavement cost function was developed by relating the cost of
the pavement life cycle to the number of ESALs that each pavement
EUAC = 4,717 ( N ESAL )0.1378 (3)
Thick asphalt pavement:
EUAC = 4,284 ( N ESAL )0.1456 (4)
Full-depth pavement:
EUAC = 7,282 ( N ESAL )0.1186 (5)
where EUAC is the equivalent annual uniform cost (dollars per
lane mile) and NESAL is the number of ESALs during 20 years in the
design lane.
Step 2
Pavement cost was estimated accurately for each road segment on
the basis of detailed traffic data and the type of pavement structure.
A total of 3,401 road segments defining the state highway network
were extracted from the South Dakota Department of Transportation
pavement management database. The extracted data for each road
segment included current average daily traffic (ADT), current average
daily truck traffic (ADTT), future ADT, length of road segment, road
category (Interstate or non-Interstate), and pavement structure type.
The traffic data were converted to annual ESALs in the design lane
based on typical South Dakota Department of Transportation truck
Wang, Al-Qadi, and Huft 111

TABLE 5   Examples of Pavement Costs on Road Segments Before Policy Change

Road Highway Length Pavement Millions of ESALs EUAC per

Segment Number (mi) Type Interstate in 20 Years Lane Mile ($)

1 010 9.08 TONS No 0.26 26,250

2 011 11.089 THK No 0.16 24,452
3 012 1.158 FD No 0.43 33,927
4 065 3.049 TONW No 0.11 23,548
5 090 2.374 FD Yes 6.26 46,567
6 090 8.005 THK Yes 6.76 42,284

Note: TONS = thin asphalt pavement on strong base; THK = thick asphalt pavement; FD = full-depth pavement;
TONW = thin asphalt pavement on weak base.

loading factors. Table 5 shows an example of extracted road segments
and pavement costs specified on the basis of design ESALs in 20 years
and the type of pavement structure.
Step 3
Although the tire load limit of 500 lb/in. affects the load limit on
nonsteering single axles and spread tandem axles, the weigh-in-motion
(WIM) data show that the spread tandem is the major axle type
carrying heavy loads in South Dakota. Thus, costs were estimated on
the basis of number of trucks with spread tandem axles on each road
segment. The WIM data measured at 15 different sites showed that the
spread tandem axle is mainly used on Class 9 trucks. For all Class 9
trucks, the distribution of gross vehicle weight showed a bimodal dis-
tribution with one peak at 80,000 lb (356 kN) (full legal load) and
another peak at 32,000 lb (142 kN) (40% of full load). Thus, the axle
load distribution of spread tandem axles was assumed to follow the
same gross vehicle weight trend.
The percentages of spread tandem axles with different axle spacing
were extracted from the WIM data because the load limit on the spread
tandem axle depends on the spacing between the two axles. Table 6
shows the percentages of Class 9 trucks in all truck traffic and the dis-
tributions of axle load and axle spacing on spread tandem axles. The
obtained data were grouped into two categories: Interstate and non-
Interstate highways. The number of spread tandem axles traveling on
each road segment was estimated by using the current ADTT data.
Step 4
Since pavement cost is expressed as a function of number of ESALs
in the design period, the equivalent number of ESALs applied by
spread tandem axles with different axle loads had to be identified.
The load equivalency factor of any single-axle load with respect
to the single-axle load of 80 kN (18,000 lb) can be estimated by
using the fourth-power law. The estimated DRs between the two tire
configurations, shown in Table 4, represent the number of dual-tire
passes required to cause the same amount of damage inflicted by a
single pass of the wide-base tires. The change of ESALs as a result
of using wide-base tires on spread tandem axles can be calculated on
the basis of the percentage of spread tandem axles using wide-base
tires in lieu of dual tires. Pavement costs can then be estimated by
using Equations 2 to 5.
An example of pavement costs after the policy change is shown
in Table 7. The change of EUAC per lane was calculated as the dif-
ference in EUAC before and after the policy change multiplied by
the length of each road segment. The example covers several road
segments and considers the average DR between the two tire con-
figurations by assuming that 50% of the dual tires are replaced by
wide-base tires.
Step 5
The change of total pavement cost caused by all trucks with spread
tandem axles traveling on the South Dakota state highway network
was calculated by summing the change of pavement cost on each road
segment. Table 8 shows the impact of policy change on the pavement
cost, assuming different percentages of spread tandem axles with
wide-base tires in lieu of dual tires. The cost was expressed as the
EUAC for each highway system.
Results indicate that pavement damage costs will not increase
if wide-base tires are used only on Interstate highways. The most
common types of pavement structures on Interstate highways are
concrete pavement, asphalt overlay on concrete pavement, and thick

TABLE 6   Percentage of Class 9 Trucks and Spread Tandem Axles

Percentage of Trucks with Spread Tandem Axles in

All Class 9 Trucks
Percentage of Percentage of Percentage of Spread
Class 9 Trucks 8- to 9-ft Axle 9- to 10-ft Axle >10-ft Axle Spread Tandem Tandem with 40%
Category in All Trucks Spacinga Spacingb Spacingc with Full Load Full Load

Interstate 51.7 0.46 8.12 15.26 78.97 21.03

Non-Interstate 35.2 0.35 8.29 19.15 65.12 34.88
a
Maximum load allowed = 19,000 lb.
b
Maximum load allowed = 19,500 lb.
c
Maximum load allowed = 20,000 lb.
112 Transportation Research Record 2456

TABLE 7   Examples of Pavement Costs on Road Segments After Policy Change

Road Highway Length Pavement Millions of ESALs EUAC per Change of EUAC
Segment Number (mi) Type Interstate in 20 Years Lane Mile ($) per Lane ($)

1 010  9.08 TONS No 0.29 26,693 +4,015

2 011 11.089 THK No 0.16 24,406 −507
3 012  1.158 FD No 0.44 33,977 +57
4 065  3.049 TONW No 0.12 23,827 +851
5 090  2.374 FD Yes 6.33 46,631 +152
6 090  8.005 THK Yes 6.64 42,176 −859

Note: Examples assume average DRs and that 50% of dual tires are replaced by wide-base tires.

asphalt pavement. The impact of wide-base tire loading on these
pavement structures is minimal, as indicated by the DRs of the two
tire configurations. However, the increased use of wide-base tires
will cause increased costs for the non-Interstate highway system.
The exact amount of cost increase depends on the percentage of
spread tandem axles that use wide-base tires in lieu of dual tires. The
pavement damage costs caused by wide-base tires on non-Interstate
highway segments vary significantly because of the variation of
the DRs between the two tire configurations.
Future research must therefore determine accurate DRs on rela-
tively weak pavement structures based on South Dakota local mate-
rials and climate conditions. If the tire replacement ratio is 50% and
the average DR between tire configurations obtained from the previ-
ous studies is used, the policy change will result in $1.72 million
increase in the EUAC of highways statewide. Again, that increase
depends on the percentage of trucks using Interstate highways versus
other roads.
Impact on Fuel Economy
and Environmental Benefits
A policy change recommending the use of wide-base tires is expected
to be advantageous to the trucking industry and the environment.
Recent studies proved that the use of wide-base tires can reduce tire
rolling resistance by 12% and reduce fuel consumption between
2% and 10% (16, 17). Considering the current truck traffic on
the South Dakota state highway network and the percentage of
Class 9 trucks with spread tandem axles, the annual consumption
of fuel by trucks with spread tandems will reach 22.8 million gal
(assuming that fuel efficiency is 5 mpg for trucks). If the reduc-
tion in fuel consumption as a result of using wide-base tires on
spread tandem axles is assumed to be 2%, the fuel cost savings
for the truck industry can be estimated on the basis of a fuel price
of $3.80/gal ($1/L).
Furthermore, a reduction in fuel consumption will reduce gas
emissions and air pollution. According to a recent study in Canada,
the consumption of a liter of fuel results in the emission of 68 g
of carbon monoxide, 2,730 g of carbon dioxide, 9.6 g of nitrogen
oxide, and 9.7 g of hydrocarbons. The environmental damage and
the cost of neutralizing gas emissions are estimated at $1.13/gal
($0.3/L) of fuel consumption (18). The U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency estimates that the average carbon dioxide emission is
8,800 g for a gallon of gasoline and 10,100 g for a gallon of diesel
(19). On-road testing of heavy-duty diesel vehicles showed that the
pollutant emissions per gallon include 46.5 g of carbon monoxide,
119 g of nitrogen oxide, and other emissions (20). Therefore, the
environmental benefits of using wide-base tires must also be taken
into consideration.
Table 9 shows the estimated fuel cost savings and environmen-
tal benefits based on different percentages of spread tandem axles
using wide-base tires in lieu of dual tires. The emissions cost data
were obtained from the Highway Economic Requirements System-
State Version and adjusted to 2013 U.S. dollars (21). Consider-
ing that the replacement ratio is 50%, wide-base tires will result
in $1.12 million annual cost savings, which includes $0.86 mil-
lion savings on fuel costs and $0.26 million savings on air pol-
lution reduction costs. The fuel cost saving and environmental
benefits are greater when wide-base tires are used on Interstate
highways compared with non-Interstate highways. Therefore, the
benefit–cost ratio due to policy change may change significantly
depending on the category of highway system considered and the

TABLE 8   Impact of Policy Change on Pavement Damage Cost

EUAC ($ millions), by Percentage of Spread Tandem Axles with Wide-Base

Tires Replacing Dual Tires

Road Category 10 20 30 50 100

With average DRS

 Interstate 0.00 0.00 0.00 −0.01 −0.02
 Non-Interstate 0.36 0.71 1.06 1.73 3.28
  All state highways 0.36 0.71 1.06 1.72 3.26
With range of DRS
 Interstate 0.00 −0.02∼0.01 −0.02∼0.02 −0.05∼0.02 −0.09∼0.03
 Non-Interstate 0.03∼0.69 0.07∼1.36 0.09∼2.01 0.14∼3.27 0.19∼6.19
  All state highways 0.03∼0.69 0.05∼1.37 0.07∼2.03 0.09∼3.29 0.10∼6.22
Wang, Al-Qadi, and Huft 113

TABLE 9   Annual Cost Savings After Policy Change

Cost Savings ($ millions), by Percentage of

Spread Tandem Axles with Wide-Base Tires
Replacing Dual Tires
Cost Savings
Road Category Category 10 20 30 50 100

Interstate Fuel 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.50 0.99

Pollution 0.03 0.06 0.08 0.14 0.28
Total 0.13 0.25 0.38 0.64 1.27
Non-Interstate Fuel 0.07 0.15 0.22 0.37 0.73
Pollution 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.10 0.21
Total 0.09 0.19 0.28 0.47 0.94
All state highways Fuel 0.17 0.35 0.52 0.86 1.73
Pollution 0.05 0.10 0.16 0.26 0.52
Total 0.22 0.45 0.67 1.12 2.25

inclusion of user cost and emission cost as compared with agency
cost. With the current focus on improving pavement sustainabil-
ity, the environmental benefit brought by wide-base tires should
not be ignored.
Conclusions
In this study, the impact of the proposed load limit change on wide-
base tires in South Dakota was investigated in terms of pavement
damage cost and environmental benefits. The calculated DRs indi-
cated that the impact of wide-base tires on pavement damage var-
ied depending on pavement structure and damage mechanism. The
impact on pavement damage as a result of using wide-base tires
on full-depth pavements and thick asphalt pavements is generally
minimal. However, wide-base tires cause greater pavement dam-
age than dual tires when used on thin asphalt pavements. There-
fore, the varied impact of wide-base tires on different roads must
be thoroughly studied should a policy change regarding wide-base
tire load limits be enacted.
By use of detailed traffic data on each road segment in the South
Dakota state highway network, the increase in EUAC was esti-
mated at $1.72 million for a two-lane highway system. This
estimate is based on the average DRs between the two tire con-
figurations and on the assumption that 50% of spread tandem
axles used wide-base tires instead of dual tires. The cost increase
is attributed primarily to the impact of wide-base tires on thin
asphalt pavements, which are commonly used in secondary roads.
However, the environmental benefits due to using wide-base tires
were estimated at $1.12 million per year because of the reduction
in fuel consumption and air pollution. Further study is recom-
mended to quantify more accurately the DRs between the two
tire configurations by using the local material properties and
climate conditions in South Dakota, especially for thin asphalt
pavements.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the South Dakota Department of Trans-
portation for support of the research and the input of technical panel
members. The authors also acknowledge Gill Hedman for conducting
the life-cycle cost analysis for this project.
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The contents of this paper do not necessarily reflect the official views or policies
of the South Dakota Department of Transportation. This paper does not constitute
a standard, specification, or regulation.
The Flexible Pavement Design Committee peer-reviewed this paper.