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David Gur 1 , Bin Zheng 1 , Dror Lederman 1 , Sreeram Dhurjaty 2 , Jules Sumkin 1 ,
Margarita Zuley 1
1
Department of Radiology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213
2
Dhurjaty Electronics Consulting LLC, Rochester, NY 14618
ABSTRACT
A new resonance-frequency based electronic impedance spectroscopy (REIS) system with multi-probes,
including one central probe and six external probes that are designed to contact the breast skin in a circular form with a
radius of 60 millimeters to the central (“nipple”) probe, has been assembled and installed in our breast imaging facility.
We are conducting a prospective clinical study to test the performance of this REIS system in identifying younger
women (< 50 years old) at higher risk for having or developing breast cancer. In this preliminary analysis, we selected a
subset of 100 examinations. Among these, 50 examinations were recommended for a biopsy due to detection of a highly
suspicious breast lesion and 50 were determined negative during mammography screening. REIS output signal sweeps
that we used to compute an initial feature included both amplitude and phase information representing differences
between corresponding (matched) EIS signal values acquired from the left and right breasts. A genetic algorithm was
applied to reduce the feature set and optimize a support vector machine (SVM) to classify the REIS examinations into
“biopsy recommended” and “non-biopsy” recommended groups. Using the leave-one-case-out testing method, the
classification performance as measured by the area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve was 0.816 ±
0.042. This pilot analysis suggests that the new multi-probe-based REIS system could potentially be used as a risk
stratification tool to identify pre-screened young women who are at higher risk of having or developing breast cancer.
Keywords: Electrical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), resonance frequency, risk stratification, breast cancer, support
vector machine, technology assessment.
I. INTRODUCTION
Developing a non-radiation based, low cost, easy to operate, and highly performing prescreening tool to
identify younger women (< 50 years old) with higher risk of having or developing breast cancer has been attracting
research interest for a long time. Electrical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) technology is one of the approaches that have
been explored for this purpose. When applying EIS technology to detect breast abnormalities, the system applies
alternating low power electric signals to the breast skin (tissue) and measures the tissue’s response. The breast tissue
impedance is determined by analyzing the difference between the applied “excitation” and the response electrical signals.
Differences in electrical conductivity and capacitance between neo-plastic and normal breast tissue have been shown in
the 1920s and have been assumed to be primarily the result of changes in cellular water content, amount of extracellular
fluid, and membrane proteins [1]. Cancer cells exhibit altered local dielectric properties as compared with normal cells.
A study performed in the 1980s reported that the conductivity and capacitance in malignant human breast tissue was 20
to 40 fold higher than the normal breast tissue. Based on such experimental results, a prototype EIS system was tested in
the hope of detecting breast abnormalities [2]. Since then, a number of studies followed and improved EIS systems that
include both system hardware and classification algorithms have been developed and reported [3-8]. A commercial EIS
system (T-Scan 2000, Mirabel Medical Systems, Austin, TX) was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) as an adjunct modality to mammography and several laboratory and clinical studies have been conducted to
assess the performance and clinical utility of this EIS system [9, 10].
Medical Imaging 2010: Image Perception, Observer Performance, and Technology Assessment,
edited by David J. Manning, Craig K. Abbey, Proc. of SPIE Vol. 7627, 76271B
© 2010 SPIE · CCC code: 1605-7422/10/$18 · doi: 10.1117/12.844452
Under an IRB approved protocol, we are currently acquiring REIS data aimed to enable an investigation of the
possible performance and reliability of applying this technology to classify young women (between ages of 30 and 50
years old) into “positive” and “negative” groups. The “positive” group represents the cases that had been recommended
for biopsy due to suspicious findings during the imaging based diagnostic workup, and the “negative” group represents
negative screening cases that had been rated “negative” during screening and/or a diagnostic workup. Because REIS is a
non-imaging type of examination, there is no restriction (nor identification) regarding the type of abnormality in question
(i.e., mass, micro-calcification clusters, asymmetry, and etc.), nor of the abnormality location within the breast (in
“positive” cases). This preliminary analysis included an initial dataset of 100 REIS examinations (cases). Among these,
half (50) were “positive” and the other half “negative”.
In each REIS examination multiple EIS signal sweeps are generated and recorded. To develop the machine
learning classifiers to classify test cases, we first computed a relatively large number of EIS signal features extracted
from six sets of EIS sweeps for all six pairs between the center probe and each of the six “external” probes (Fig. 1).
Based on the expectations that similar to the known symmetry between breast tissue patterns observed on mammograms;
hence, the two breasts of each woman should have a higher level of electrical impedance symmetry in the normal
(negative) cases than in the abnormal (positive) cases [8], we used EIS signal differences (subtraction) between the
corresponding signal values extracted from two matched EIS sweeps acquired from the left and right breasts (in a
location based mirrored fashion). Our initial feature pool included a total of 33 EIS signal related features. Most of these
features represented the absolute difference (subtraction) of two corresponding EIS signal values computed for the two
breasts. Using figures 2 and 3 as an example, we describe the definitions, computational methods, and resulting units for
the 33 EIS signal difference related features. We first identified the resonance frequency values of all six EIS signal
sweeps and computed the maximum range of these six resonance frequency values for each breast
( Δf = Max | f i − f j | , i ≠ j = 1,2, K ,6 ). Thus, feature 1 is defined as the absolute difference of these two values
computed from the left (L) and right (R) breasts ( F1 = | Δf L − Δf R | ). In the sweeps shown in Fig. 2, the maximum
resonance frequency ranges for the two breasts are Δf L = 420 – 280 = 140 KHz, and Δf R = 405 – 280 = 125 KHz.
Thus, F1 = (140 – 125) = 15 KHz.
The remaining 32 features are divided into two groups each containing 16 values. In the first group, we first
computed an average value of the six EIS signal values extracted from the six EIS signal sweeps acquired from one
breast. We then computed either average (1 value) or absolute differences (15 values) of the two matched averaged
signal values between the two breasts. Thus, the 16 features in this group can be described as follows:
6
1. We computed the average resonance frequency ( f = ( ∑ f i ) / 6 ) for each breast. As shown in Fig. 2 f L = (390 +
i =1
405 + 330 + 300 + 280 + 320) / 6 = 337.5 (KHz) and f R = (420 + 405 + 305 + 285 + 300 + 360) / 6 = 345.8 (KHz).
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 2: Six sets of recorded EIS signal magnitude sweeps and six phase sweeps for the left and right breast of one
examination. The minimum, average, and maximum resonance frequencies of the six sweeps are shown for comparison
in (a) and (b), respectively. Six sets of EIS output signal phase sweeps of the right and left breast, as well as the
frequencies at which the phase signals reaches a plateau are shown in (c) and (d), respectively.
difference of the two averaged values between the two breasts: F4 = | I L − I R | . As shown in Fig. 2 (a) and (b),
I L = (5576 + 5384 + 5555 + 5439 + 5334 + 5202) / 6 = 5415 (mV), and I R = (5433 + 5187 + 5346 + 5351 + 5688
+ 5769) / 6 = 5462.3 (mV). Thus, F4 = 47.3 (mV).
(a) (b)
Figure 3: A mirror-matched pair of EIS signal sweeps (magnitude –left and phase –right) that have the largest difference
in resonance frequency between the right and left breasts as shown in Fig. 2.
3. Near the resonance frequency of each EIS sweep, we extracted six signal values of an EIS sweep ( I ( f i ) ) at six
specific frequencies. These included values at two frequencies that are lower by 5 and 10 KHz than the identified
resonance frequency ( f −10 = f − 10 KHz and f −5 = f − 5 KHz) and values at frequencies that are higher by 5,
10, 15 and 20 KHz than the identified resonance frequency (from f 5 = f + 5 KHz to f 20 = f + 20 KHz at 5
KHz increment). At each of these frequencies we computed the EIS signal magnitude value ( I ( f i ) ) and subtracted
these values from the EIS signal magnitude value at the resonance frequency ( I ( f i ) ). Specifically, we computed
the following six values ΔI i = I ( f i ) − I ( f ) , i = −10, − 5, 5, 10, 15, 20 KHz. After averaging the six EIS
6
signal magnitude differences ( ΔI i ) over the six probe pairs ( ΔI i = ∑ ( ΔI )
k =1
i k ), we defined six features (Features
5 to 10) by computing the absolute differences for the EIS signal magnitude values computed from the two breasts
( F j = | ΔI ( f i ) L − ΔI ( f i ) R | , where j = 5, 6, K10 and i = −10, − 5, 5, 10, 15, 20 KHz below and above
the resonance frequency). For example, at f −10 = f − 10 KHz the EIS signal magnitude values acquired from the
right breast (Fig. 2(a)) are 5670, 5286, 5503, 5475, 5993, and 5937 for the six EIS sweeps, respectively. After
subtracting EIS magnitude values at the resonance frequency [ I ( f ) ] for the same EIS sweep, we computed the
4. From the EIS signal phase sweeps (Fig. 2 (c) and (d)), we computed the following seven feature values. In each EIS
Max
phase sweep, we identified the frequency [ f ( p )] at which the EIS phase signal (p) reaches a “plateau”. We
6
then computed the average values ( f ( p
Max
) = ∑ f ( piMax ) / 6 ) of the six EIS phase sweeps for both the left and
i =1
right breast and defined Feature 11 as the absolute difference of the two values ( F11 = | f ( p L ) − f ( p RMax ) | ).
Max
Max
In the example we present (Fig. 2 (c) and (d)), f ( p L ) = (505 + 520 + 455 + 430 + 430 + 455) / 6 = 466 (KHz)
Max
for the left breast and f ( p R ) = (535 + 525 + 440 + 420 + 430 + 480) / 6 = 472 (KHz) for the right breast. Thus,
F11 = (472 – 466) = 6 (KHz).
5. Similar to feature values 5-10 we computed EIS signal phase value differences rather than the EIS signal magnitude
value differences for the same set of six frequencies of interest. Features 12 to 17 are defined as the absolute
differences of the two averaged phase values at the six specific frequencies between two breasts
( F j = | p ( f i ) L − p ( f i ) R | , where j = 12, 13, K17 , and i = −10, − 5, 5, 10, 15, 20 KHz. For example, to
compute feature F12 from the EIS phase sweeps shown in Fig. 2(c) and (d), we computed p ( f i ) R = [(-1525) + (-
1178) + (-1257) + (-923) + (-1558) + (-1364)] / 6 = -1300.8 (mV) and p ( f i ) L = [(-1147) + (-1377) + (-1415) + (-
1072) + (-1126) + (-1305)] / 6 = -1240.3 (mV). As a result, F12 = 60.5 (mV) and so on.
The second group of 16 feature values (18-33) is computed in a similar manner to feature values (2-17) with
the exception that only one mirror-matched pair of EIS signal sweeps (rather than averages of all six sweeps) from left
and right breasts is selected. The selected matched pair of EIS signal sweeps is the one that has the largest difference in
the two resonance frequency values as compared with all other five matched pairs. In the example shown in Fig. 2, the
matched pair of EIS sweeps at 10 o’clock on the left breast and 2 o’clock on the right breast has the maximum resonance
frequency difference (40 KHz). Discarding the other five EIS pairs, we plotted this matched pair of EIS sweeps in Fig. 3.
Similar to computing the 16 feature values from the difference of the averaged data of the six EIS sweeps, we computed
the second set of 16 EIS signal features using the same definitions albeit computed solely based on the selected matched
pair of EIS sweeps ( F18 to F33 ). For example, as shown in Fig. 3 (a), features 18 to 20 are computed as: F18 = (320 +
360) / 2 = 340 (KHz), F19 = (360 – 320) = 40 (KHz), and F20 = (5769 – 5202) = 567 (mV), respectively. Table I
summarizes the definitions of all 33 EIS signal based feature values selected as an initial pool.
To classify between “positive” and “negative” examinations (case based) we built a support vector machine
(SVM) based classifier. The SVM is a popular machine learning classifier based on statistical learning theory [14] which
has been used in a number of classifiers designed for computer-aided detection schemes [15]. We modified a publicly
available SVM software package (SVM-Light) [16] to build our classifier. The SVM-Light software package provides
for 10 model (kernel) options including linear, polynomial, radial basis, sigmoid, and others. In this analysis, a
polynomial function based statistic model [ s = ( a ∗ b + c ) ] was selected.
d
To select a small (“optimal”) set of effective features and remove (discard) redundant features in our initial
feature pool and to define an optimal parameter (d) used in the polynomial function, a genetic algorithm (GA) [17] was
applied. The binary coding method with 35 genes was applied to represent a GA chromosome in which the first 33
represent all initially computed EIS signal related feature values and the last two genes represent the parameter (d) used
in the polynomial function. In the first 33 genes, 1 indicates that the feature represented by this gene is selected and 0
Table I: A list of the initial set of 33 EIS signal based features. With the exception of features #2 and #18 that represent
an average of two feature values computed from two breasts, all other features represent the absolute difference of two
corresponding EIS signal values computed from the signals obtained from two breasts.
Performance assessment of the classifier was performed using the leave-one-case-out testing method due to the
limited size of the REIS dataset. During each testing iteration, 99 examinations were used to train the coefficients using
the SVM classifier with a fixed number of EIS signal features and a given classification function while the remaining
examinations were used to test the SVM performance. This process was repeated 100 times, hence, each examination
was used once as a test case. As a result, 100 testing (classification) scores that indicate the likelihood of the case being
positive were generated. Using these classification scores the SVM overall performance level was measured as the area
under the ROC curve ( AZ value), which is frequently used for this purpose as a summary index, and was computed
using a publicly available ROC program (ROCKIT [18]).
A set of 12 EIS signal features were selected by the GA from the initial pool of 33 features. Thus, the SVM
based classifier built, tested, and presented in this study included 12 EIS signal related features and a parameter d = 2
for the polynomial function based classification hyper-plane. Among the 12 REIS selected features, seven were extracted
from the average values of the six probe pairs (the first group). These features included F2 , F4 , F6 , F8 , F9 , F10 , and
F12 . The remaining five features were computed from a single mirror-matched probe pair showing the largest difference
in resonance frequencies (the second group) and included F17 , F19 , F21 , F28 , and F32 . Two of the features were
related to frequency differences, seven were associated with EIS signal magnitude differences, and three were related to
the computed phase differences. The testing (classification) performance of the SVM classifier when applied to our
dataset of 100 examinations achieved an AZ = 0.816 ± 0.042 (Fig. 4). The 95% confidence interval of the computed
AZ for this dataset was [0.722, 0.887].
Figure 4: The SVM actual detection performance data points and the fitted ROC curve classifying between 50 positive
(biopsy) cases and 50 negative (non-biopsy) examinations. The area under ROC curve ( AZ ) is 0.816 ± 0.042.
IV. DISCUSSION
To date, EIS technology has attracted but limited interest as an adjunct examination modality to mammography
[9, 10]. We are focused on the development and assessment of a different approach to using EIS signals. The unique
characteristic of our approach is that it is primarily based on differences in measurements of multiple EIS signals at and
near the detected resonance frequencies. We have assembled and tested two REIS systems. The first prototype REIS
system consisted of only one pair of sensor probes (one EIS signal detection channel) and the second system includes
This paper describes the first preliminary study that assessed the possible use of a SVM based machine learning
classifier for this purpose. We note that the initial feature pool of 33 EIS signal related features was reduced to 12 that
were used to build the SVM classifier. Both EIS signal magnitude and phase values were ultimately included in the
SVM classifier. Although we cannot directly compare our performance level to that achieved in the previous study ( AZ
= 0.707 ± 0.033) [12] as different datasets were used, we believe that the multi-probe pair based REIS system has the
potential to achieve a substantially higher classification performance.
Our initial testing results are quite encouraging but we need to emphasize that this was a very preliminary study
with but a small set of 100 REIS examinations. Additional work and further tests of this REIS approach using a
significantly larger number of diverse cases combined with repeated optimization of feature selection are needed before
this technology can be seriously considered as acceptable for routine clinical use. The possible advantages of the REIS
system and approach are many, such as low-cost, non-radiation based, and easy to use, but the system’s possible use as a
prescreening risk stratification tool (e.g. an office based system to be used in conjunction with CBE) in identifying
younger women (i.e., ≤ 50 years old) with higher risk of having or developing breast cancer remains far from reality at
this point in the development.
V. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work is supported in part by Grant 1R21/R33 CA127169 to the University of Pittsburgh from the National
Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health. The authors also thank the Magee-Womens Research Institute &
Foundation, Glimmer of Hope Fund, for supporting this effort.
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