Micro-Networks Technical Approaches
AC versus DC Supply - Consumers Testing
Mariana Dumitrescu
Automation and Electrical Engineering Department
"Dunarea de Jos" Galati University Romania
Abstract—The paper has as first objective the overview of the
active distribution networks for the future, their viability with
existing equipment and components. The presented applications
are intended for industrial-type networks with local power
generation in view of their efficient integration into an intelligent
distribution network. The main scientific goal of the paper is to
test the stability issues of the most used low voltage consumers,
for both type of power supply AC versus DC and to conclude on
the adaptability of the consumers to a DC micro-network. Taking
in account the efficiency and quality of the network cases study,
will be concluded when and if it is major to use the DC micro-
network power supply.
Keywords— power systems, efficiency, quality, micro-networks,
availability
I. INTRODUCTION
The evolution of power systems has led to the transition
from the dominance of the structure of the power supply
macro in the centralized system to that of the power supply
micro-network.
The concept needs increased flexibility of both, sources
and receivers, a great dynamism, an interfacing for integrated
systems and so on. This type of power system uses new
primary energy sources and new configurations to convert
these primary energies into electric power and to find new
classes of receivers that can fit to the dynamics of new energy
sources. These involve finding special energy storage systems,
impossible in centralized systems, management power systems
to optimize consumption, reduce costs, and minimum impact
on environment, trends presented in [1], [2]. Both AC and DC
micro-networks require the use of new ways to supply
consumers, depending on the specificity of energy sources and
receivers. Availability of the integrated micro-networks means
to create the possibility of the rapid switching between the
micro-network operational phases, detailed in [1], [3]. Such a
possibility additionally calls for consumer universality, the
possibility to work both in AC and in DC.
In general a DC micro-network consists of a number of
generators with static interfacing modules CC converters/CC
and CC/CA bidirectional, power consumers at continuous
voltage or alternative with inverter modules as well as
transformer and conversion modules to the distribution
978-1-5386-2059-5/17/$31.00 ©2017 IEEE
network. Possible DC micro-network has an impact on
building technology, in isolated sites using renewable energy
and industrial applications.
Scientist [2] show research results related to the evaluation
of the energy quality in the isolated voltage networks, which is
a new approach, requiring the initial study of the functioning
of the equipment loads, DC sources, power electronics and
protections at continuous voltage.
In the current and future evolution of power systems there
are two approaches: the very large use of power electronics in
power conversion systems, which has the effect of quality of
power systems, due to the harmonics of the networks and the
increase in the share of electricity production from renewable
sources. Given the characteristics of primary energy, like the
random and non-stationary nature of wind energy, static
converters are involved in the production of electricity from
renewable sources, which ensures the regulation of the
electrical energy parameters. The paper final purpose is to see
the adaptability of the consumers to AC versus Dc micro-
network with respect to the quality of electricity in networks
where distributed/renewable energy sources and use facilities
are present, both of which are sources of pollution due to the
widespread use of power electronics.
II. ACTIVE MICRO-NETWORK PENETRATION
Distributed generation consists of supplying electricity
from low power sources which are usually connected to
distribution networks that have not been designed to include
power generators. If the 10-15% level of penetration for the
active micro-network is achieved, the pick of the electric
power consumed can be easily embedded by the distribution
network without big changes in the main distribution
configuration.
Some countries use the voltage-based definition while
others consider the distributed generation to be connected to
the circuits from which consumers are directly supplied. Other
definitions are based on the type of primary sources,
renewable or cogeneration (CHP), or generation without
dispatch, or maximum energy. The conditions of CIGRE WG
37-23 for distributed generation are: no central planning,
without centralized dispatching; usually connected to the
national system, less power than 50-100 MW.
 The purpose of the research studies is a consequence of
the innovative technologies used for the integration into
distribution networks of distributed generation/DG and
intermittent sources. Opposite to the function of the passive
classical grids, which generally allow unidirectional energy
flows, active distribution networks offer two major
advantages: they allow the integration of DG into distribution
networks and the active control of flow Energy, as is detailed
in [2], [3], [4]. Also the use of renewable energy sources leads
to the promotion of green technologies. Most renewable
sources provide electric power at continuous voltage like
combustion cells, photovoltaic cells. But other like wind
turbines, microturbines - hydro or gas deliver electric power to
alternative voltage, to variable or non-standard frequencies As
a consequently the signals at their terminals must be rectified,
converted again into alternating current and corrected until the
nominal network parameters. Is more and more usual the
solution for interconnecting these sources into a DC network.
Three common solutions for the active micro-network are
represented in “Fig. 1” which may include distributed
storage/DS. The input power to the converter can be ac/dc
fixed of variable frequency from the source side and it has a
50/60 Hz from the microgrid-side of the converter. A DG unit
has a dispatchable or a non dispatchable control system. A
dispatchable DG unit is a unit that can be controlled
externally, through set points provided by a supervisory
control system. On the other side, the output power of a non
dispatchable DG unit is normally controlled based on the
optimal operating condition of its primary energy resources.
From these figures it can be seen the fact that a DG unit with a
non dispatchable power provider through a dc-ac/dc-dc/ac-dc
converter can provide a dispatchable power at the output of
the unit [1], [3].
Fig.1 Common structures for an electronically coupled DER unit: (a)
nondispatchable DG, (b) and (c) dispatchable DG plus DS.
III. AC MICRO-NETWORKS CHALENGES
The AC micro-network important task is the testing and
functional commissioning of the isolated micro-network
function by intelligent storage methods, coupled through a
flexible distribution AC system, that includes isolated
operations, automatic isolation and reconnection, fault level of
micro net, harmonic voltage distortion, energy management
and lifetime optimization of the life of the storage system and
the parallel operation of the converters.
To exemplify a complex project like is presented. The park
project in the Netherlands contains 210 chalets, of which 108
are supplied by PV systems connected to the network. The
park is powered by a 400 V classical three-phase network that
is connected to a 10kV medium voltage network through a
nearby distribution transformer “Fig. 2”. The distribution
transformer does not feed other loads than those in the park.
Inside the park the 400V power supply from the distribution
transformer is distributed through 4 cables each protected by a
200A fuse on three phases. The pick load is about 90kW. The
total installed power of PV systems is 315 kW [1], [5 ].
Fig.2 AC micro-network structure for a park project in the Netherlands.
Micro-network parameters are measured at both consumer
and network by current transformers (CTs) and voltage
transformers (PTs) “Fig. 3”. Interconnect switches are
designed to fit with the interconnection standards IEEE1547
and UL1741 for North America and to minimize on-site
command and on-site design at the lowest cost. To maximize
applicability and functionality, the control systems are also
designed to be technologically neutral and can be used with a
circuit breaker or quicker based on fast switching thyristors or
with bipolar transistor based technologies applied to a wide
variety of DGs that have conventional generators or power
converters.
Fig. 3 Micro-network interconnection switch diagram.
 In addition, depending on the primary energy source and sources are by nature often distributed by different natures. In
the technology used for the conversion process, connecting the most cases, the conversion of primary energy into electricity,
GD units to the main grid can give problems that, if not with the exception of photovoltaic cells captured by
properly done, can reduce the quality of the electric power to photovoltaic cells and electrochemical energy through
consumers . Damaging the power quality may affect network combustion cells, is not done directly but through intermediary
users installations and may affect the main grid operator from stages: chemical - thermal - mechanical - electrical. If in the
performing its basic tasks. Thus, recommendations or first case, the voltage obtained is continuous, in the second
requirements to limit these effects of the phenomena described case it is an alternative, high frequency (2400 rpm) for gas
above should be established and also to guarantee the quality microturbine groups, at fixed frequencies of 50 Hz for steam
of the power supply service, like connection criteria of GD or gas turbines of megawatt order; or variable in the case of
units as limits or by reference to certain standards IEC-EN conversion of wind or micro-hydropower with variable water
61000-3 series of standards. flow, like in example from “Fig. 4”. Similar characteristics are
Harmonic emissions may also be a particular issue when also obtained for wind turbines which are able to operate
using power electronics converters as an interface between optimally at variable speeds depending on wind speed [2], [4],
GD and network. Although the power electronics interface can [6].
be seen as an opportunity to improve the conditions for
connecting to the power grid, mainly for renewable energy Hydro
sources, it can also be a problem with harmonic pollution. The
harmonic current emissions of a converter based on the power
electronics depend on its characteristics. A type of inverter Wind
who does not inject low harmonic current, than the remaining
harmonic frequencies are in the order of several kHz, meaning
the frequency of operation of the converter. Loads
Higher inter harmonics and harmonics > 2000 kHz can also be
produced by power electronics converters which it is currently
difficult to assess to what extent this may be a real problem.
With the increasing use of power-based converters in the main
distribution network, appropriate studies are needed to defined
Solar
limits for network connection of GD sources. Under normal
operating conditions steady state, for the safety and efficiency
of the electric power supply and the operation of the electric
power network, the voltage must be maintained within Inverter
acceptable limits on any part of the distribution network.
It should be taking in account that increasing or
decreasing voltage at a certain level in the distribution main
network can affect the voltage profile of the lower voltage
networks. For example, the increase in the voltage due to the
connection of a DG plant to a medium voltage network can
also influence the voltage level in the low voltage grid
powered by the medium voltage grid. Thus, voltage
restrictions must also be checked in lower voltage networks.
The regulation of voltage or reactive power is therefore an
important problem for the distribution network operator,
which requires appropriate norms for the contribution of GD
units to voltage and reactive power. These requirements can
be expressed in different forms and may vary from Fig. 4 DC micro-network power system.
specification to more sophisticated contributions, such as: Other challenges comes from the electric generators are
maintaining a constant value of reactive power at the point of synchronous and produce alternating voltage, their output
connection by capacitor batteries; constant power factor or of needs to be rectified. The single phase three phase rectifying
the the ratio between reactive and active power; reactive produces significant harmonics on the alternating current side
power control or voltage control in the reactive power and a disturbing ripple on the DC side “Fig. 5”., so the use of
capability range of DG units. the hexagonal motors with a double star-triangular winding
system “Fig. 6” will mainly eliminates these deficiencies “Fig.
7”.
IV. DC MICROGRID CHALENGES Due to the massive use of electric drives with variable
Specially for aerospace, air, naval and terrestrial speed AC motors, electrothermal processes, high frequency
applications using renewable energies is the fact that primary inverter fluorescence lighting, computing and data storage
devices, regardless of the type of energy produced, a the generated power to be transported exceeds these limits, the
conversion to DC and/or a conversion into AC is needed. In transport voltage can be doubled by rectified outputs of
addition, the power produced by most renewable sources is synchronous generator sets. Such a DC system with 3
not constant and as such must be stored when it is surplus and conductors has -800 V , 0 V, +800 V with earth terminal 0
recovered when demand exceeds production. connected to ground protection. They are generally single-
phase or at most biphasic, the maximum voltage is not more
800
than 800 V, so the usual equipment is the type of urban
traction.
ia 2 (Am ps )

600 AC power is connected via a 1600 V AC power inverter,

400 12-pole inverter. The detailed diagram of the three-level
inverter is shown in “Fig. 8” where is shown the operation of
200
the three-level inverter both as a load and as a generator, thus
0 providing bidirectional power flow from the DC to the AC
v a 2 (V )

-200
network and vice versa.
-400
400
-600
300

-800
0.97 0.975 0.98 0.985 0.99 0.995 1 200
Time (s)
.

Ua (V) Ia (Amps)
100

Fig. 5 Voltage and current for three phase generator. Figura 1.1Sistem
0
generator hexafazat – redresor
-100
400

1500 -200
300
vdc (V) vdc1 (V) vdc2 (V)
ia1 (Amps)

1200 -300
200
-400
100 900 0.12 0.125 0.13 0.135 0.14 0.145 0.15 0.155 0.16
Time (s)
0 600
va1 (V)

400
-100 300

300
-200
Ia (Amps)

0
0.97 0.975 0.98 0.985 0.99 0.995 1
200 Time (s)
-300

100
-400
0.97 0.975 0.98 0.985 0.99 0.995 1
Time (s) 0

Figura 1.2Tensiunea
-100 continua
Fig. 6 Voltage and current for double star-triangular winding system generator.
Ua (V)

-200

-300

1500
vdc (V) vdc1 (V) vdc2 (V)

-400
0.12 0.125 0.13 0.135 0.14 0.145 0.15 0.155 0.16
1200 Time (s)

Fig. 8 Three-level inverter working for both as a load and as a

900
generator.
600

300 Other types of sources such as photovoltaic panels

0
0.97
Fig. 7 DC rectified voltage.
Energy storage is either electrochemical in various types
of electric accumulators, in the form of kinetic energy, with
various high velocity or potentially pumped energy in the form
of pumped water in the lakes at higher elevations or
pressurized air in underground cavities.
For economic reasons, up to 1 MW of AC voltages are
400 volts and for DC voltages of 800 volts. When the sum of
and combustion cell batteries also contribute to energy
0.975 0.98 0.985
Time (s)
0.99 0.995 1 production in the system. Specific for these devices is
that their voltage around 100 V output is not constant
but variable, depending on the position of the sun and
the cell load. Under these conditions, the voltage must
be amplified to at least 800 V by means of a transformer
inverter. Energy storage can be done by various
methods, but in this case the most common solution was
chosen, the use of a Pb-acid battery which in turn, for
technical and economic reasons, is chosen as 120 V and
the connection to the 800 V network is done by a
bidirectional system that ensures charging and
 discharging the battery after an optimal cycle. Because
the load on the two parts of the system, of -800 V and
+800 V, may be different, which would have a negative
effect on the operation of the system, an equalizer group
based on two IGBT single-phase inverters and a
transformer isolation that can transfer the load between
one system and another is used.

V. EXPERIMENTAL TESTING AC VERSUS CC

LOADS SUPPLY

The network power supplied loads are tested in the

laboratory located inside the Faculty of Electrical Engineering,
University Dunarea de Jos Galati, for the micro-network
detailed presented in the paper [3]. The laboratory, for
research and educational purpose, is equipped with adjustable
dc voltage 300V maximum voltage control simulating the Fig. 10 DC LAB/SM 1300 LTRS interface building.
micro-network renewable sources “Fig. 9”.

a
a

Renewable Renewable
source source

- RS1 - - RS2 -

DC/DC
DC Batteries
converter
consumer
b
Fig. 11 DC LAB/SM 1300 LTRS interface, (a) front page, (b) reading the
parameters.
AC
Stabilized
grid
Stabilized
source -SS 2-
For the PC computer tested power supply LC 04064177
source -SS 1-
the data aquisiton was done by step for DC increased voltage
“Fig.12”and for AC increased voltage “Fig.13”.
b
Fig. 9 DC Power Supply DC LAB/SM 1300 LTRS (a), simulating the
DC
micro-network (b) power supply..

For command and control of the power supply with PC the

Labview software was used. The steps for the DC power
supply comand by the proper working interface „Fig. 10” are:
source type settings, communication standard seting, Labview
block diagram interface building, data achizition „Fig. 11 a, b.
Two types of consumers were power supplied like
fluorescent lamps and sources of computers, in both cases for
AC power system and in the DC power system. The level of
voltage that was made is ranged from a minimum of 40V for Fig. 12 PC power supply LC 04064177 for DC increasing voltage acquisition
the lamps and 100V for the computers supplies up to the rate data.
voltage value [3].

AC
Fig. 13 PC power supply LC 04064177 for AC increasing voltage acquisition
data.
Also PC power supply LC 04064177 was tested and the
data aquisiton was done by step for DC decreasined voltage
“Fig.14”and for AC decreased voltage “Fig.15”.
DC
Fig. 14 PC power supply LC 04064177 for DC decreasing voltage
acquisition data.
AC
Fig. 15 PC power supply LC 04064177 for AC decreasing voltage acquisition
data.
There are presented the differences can be observed by
variation of voltage- current in the two study cases (DC grid
supply , AC grid supply) for the analyzed power supply in the
computer/PC case. The studied PC consumer can adapt to the
DC power supply , although generally they are designed for
AC electric power supply. Adding the stability of the DC
voltage, comparing with the instability and distortions of the
AC voltage, with negative influence on consumers, will lead
to the use more and more of the DC micro-networks in the
residential or island applications.
Recently major power supply applications are identified in
DC like computing center where energy flows through
transformers (MT / JT) to power server racks where an energy
loss of 8-9 percent was observed. Also, each server has to
convert AC to DC for the power processors, memories,
storage drives, which is leading to additional losses. Future
implementation of a local network of DC would result in
energy savings up to 20%.
Also for buildings countries promote the use of Compact
Fluorescent Lamp called Economic Lamp for efficiency
reasons. By connecting directly to DC all these types of
equipment and devices can increase overall efficiency when
there is energy available in this form.
VI. CONCUSION
Solutions based on DC micro-network are expected to
have a strong impact in the near future due to the 10-15 years
progress in the field of power electronics, like IGBTs for high
voltages and high currents at low prices, high-performance
DSP controllers.
The main reason to prefer the technology solution for DC
in power system distribution lies in the low voltage
characteristics. In the near future, it is expected to implement
networks of DC in buildings. Most of the electrical and
electronic equipment used in buildings works with DC electric
power, like personal computers, mobile phones, other
multimedia units, lighting, air conditioning systems.
Using a DC electric power supply all of these equipment
would no longer require AC /DC adapters. If this solution is
used with photovoltaic cells at front or roof mounted, a
storage system based on condenser or fuel cell batteries can be
added at DC micro-network
CONCUSION
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Microgrids Work”, IEEE Power end Energy Vol 6, pp. 57-68,
2008.
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LV DC network”, 2007 IEEE European Conference on Power
Electronics and Applications, Aalborg, Denmark , pp. 48-57,
September 2007.
[3] M. Dumitrescu, C. Vlad, “Intelligent Power Microgrids
Benefits”. ISEEE 2012, Sinaia, Romania, pp. 86-94, October
2012.
[4] R. Fulton and C. Abbey, "Planned islanding of 8.6 MVA
IPP for BC Hydro system " in First International Conference
on the integration of RE and DER, pp. 9- 17, 2004.
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solution,” in Proceedings of the IEEE 35th Annual Power
Electronics Specialists Conference (PESC 04), pp. 4285–4290,
June 2004 .
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308, 2002.