Injectionmouldingmodified 160516104456 PDF

2.
1 Introduction
2.1.1 Historical Background
2.1.2 Advantages of Injection Moulding Process
2.1.3 Limitations of Injection Moulding
2.1 Introduction
One of the most common methods of converting plastics from the raw material form to
an article of use is the process of injection moulding. This process is used for
thermoplastic materials and other polymeric materials which may be successively melted,
reshaped and cooled. Injection moulded components are a feature of almost every
functional manufactured article in the modern world, from automotive products through
to food packaging. This versatile process allows us to produce high quality, simple or
complex components on a fully automated basis at high speed with materials that have
changed the face of manufacturing technology over the last 50 years or so. Injection
moulding is suitable processing method for following materials:
 Thermoplastics
 Elastomers
 Rubbers
 Thermo sets
 Composites
 Foamed plastics
2.1.1 Historical Background
The process of injection moulding began as a result of extensive research into

substitution products, mainly for ivory and rubber. Development began in the late 19th
century with a modified form of existing die-casting machines used for the manufacture
of lengths of rod and tube. A single-action hydraulic injection machine was designed in
the U.S.A. in 1870 by Hyatt. This process was adapted for covering metal and wood
parts. The material was cellulose nitrate and was extruded in its plastic state round a
core contained in a cavity and allowed to cool in the cavity.
Cellulose acetate was first used to make a solid part by an injection moulding process in
the early 1920's; where the process of injection moulding known today began. Initially
the progress was slow, but by the early 1930's, in addition to private development in
Great Britain, commercial horizontal machines for injection moulding were available in
Germany and injection moulding was starting to reduce the greater lead held by
compression moulding. Heating-cylinder design was first recognised in a patent issued to
Adam Gastron in 1932.
Large-scale development of injection moulding machinery design towards the machines

we know today did not occur until the 1950's in Germany. Earlier machines were based
on a simple plunger arrangement to force the material into the mould, although these
machines soon became inadequate as materials became more advanced and processing
requirements became more complex. The main problem with a straightforward plunger
arrangement was that no melt mixing or homogenisation could be readily imparted to the
thermoplastic material. This was exacerbated by the poor heat transfer properties of a
polymeric material. One of the most important developments in machine design to
overcome this problem, which still applies to modern processing equipment today, was
the introduction to the injection barrel of a plunging helical screw arrangement. The
machine subsequently became known as a 'Reciprocating Screw' injection moulding
machine.
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2.1.2 Advantages of Injection Moulding Process
 Parts can be produced at high production rates.

 Large volume production is possible.
 Relatively low labour cost per unit is obtainable.
 Parts require little or no finishing.
 Many different surfaces, colours, and finishes are available.
 Good decoration is possible.
 For many shapes this process is the most economical way to fabricate.
 Process permits the manufacture of very small parts which are almost impossible
to fabricate in quantities by other methods.
 Minimal scrap loss result as runners, gates, and rejects can be reground and
reused.
 Same items can be moulded in different materials, without changing the machine
or mould in some cases.
 Close dimensional tolerances can be maintained.
 Parts can be moulded with metallic and non-metallic inserts.
 Parts can be moulded in a combination of plastic and such fillers as glass,
asbestos, talc and carbon.
 The inherent properties of the material give many advantages such as high
strength-weight rates, corrosion resistance, strength and clarity.
2.1.3 Limitations of Injection Moulding
 Intense industry competition often results in low profit margins.

 Mould costs are high.
 Moulding machinery and auxiliary equipment costs are high.
 Lack of knowledge about the fundamentals of the process causes problems.
 Lack of knowledge about the long term properties of the materials may result in
long-term failures.
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2.2 Glossary – Technical terms used in Injection Moulding Process
ADDITIVE - A substance added to a plastic compound to alter its characteristics.

Examples are plasticizers, and flame retardants.
ALLOY - A combination of 2 or more plastics which form a new plastic. See BLEND.
AMORPHOUS - A plastic material in which the molecular structure is random and

becomes mobile over a wide temperature range. See CRYSTALLINE.
ANNEAL - To heat a moulded part up to a temperature just below its melting point and
slowly cooling it back; down to room temperature. This relieves moulded stresses. See
CONDITIONING.
ANISOTROPIC SHRINKAGE - Shrinkage that occurs more in one direction (usually the
direction of flow; reinforced materials shrink more across the direction of flow) than
another.
AUTOMATIC OPERATION - The term used to define the mode in which a moulding
machine is operating when there is no need for an operator to start each cycle.
BARREL - A metallic cylinder in which the injection screw (or plunger) resides in the
moulding machine. Also called CYLINDER.
BLEND - A mixture of 2 or more plastics.
BOSS - A projection of the plastic part, normally round, which is used to: strengthen an
area of a part; provide a source of fastening; or to provide an alignment mechanism
during assembly.
CARTRIDGE HEATERS - Pencil-shaped electrical heater devices sometimes placed in

moulds to raise the temperature level of the mould. Especially beneficial when moulding
high-temperature crystalline materials.
CAVITY - A depression or female portion of the mould which creates the external plastic
part surface.
CHECK RING - A ring shaped component that slides back and forth over the tip end of
the screw. The check ring eliminates the flow of molten material backwards over the
screw during the injection process.
CLAMP FORCE - The force, in tons, that the clamp unit of a moulding machine exerts to
keep the mould closed during the injection process.
CLAMP UNIT - That section of the moulding machine containing the clamping
mechanism. This is used to close the mould and keep it closed against injection pressure
created by the injection process. The clamp unit also contains the ejection mechanism.
COLD SLUG WELL - A depression (normally circular) in the ejection half of an injection
mould, opposite the sprue, designed to receive the first front, or "cold" portion, of
molten plastic during the injection process.
COMPRESSION RATIO - A factor that determines the amount of shear that is imparted to
plastic material as it travels through the barrel. It is determined by dividing the depth of
the screw flight in the feed section by the depth of the screw flight in the metering
section.
CONDITIONING - Exposing a moulded part to a set of conditions (such as hot oil) which
impart favorable characteristics to the product. See ANNEAL.
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COOLING CHANNELS - Drilled holes or channels machined into various plates or
components of an injection mould providing a flow path for cooling medium (such as
water) in order to control the temperature of the mould.
CORE - a) An extended or male portion of the mould which creates the internal plastic
part surface. b) A pin or protrusion designed to produce a hole or depression in the
plastic part.
COUNTERBORE - A recessed circular area. Commonly used to fit the head of an ejector
pin (return pin, sucker pin, etc.) in the ejector plate.
CRYSTALLINE - A plastic material in which the molecular structure becomes mobile only
after being heated above its melting point. See AMORPHOUS.
CUSHION - A pad of material left in the barrel at the end of the injection stroke. It is
excessive to the amount needed to fill the mould and acts as a focus point for holding
pressure against the cooling melt.
CYCLE - The total amount of time required for the completion of all operations needed to
produce a moulded part. Sometimes referred to as the "gate-to-gate" time, meaning the
time from when an operator first closes the gate until the time the operator closes the
gate again for starting the next cycle.
CYLINDER - (See BARREL)
DECOMPRESSION - A method of relieving pressure on the melt after preparing it for

injection during the upcoming cycle. This minimizes the drooling that occurs when a
shutoff nozzle is not utilized.
DEFECT - An imperfection in a moulded part that results in the product not meeting
original design specifications. These defects can be visual, physical, and/or hidden.
DRAFT - An angle (or taper) provided on the mould to facilitate ejection of the moulded
part.
EJECTOR HALF - That half of the mould which is mounted to the moving platen of the
injection machine. Sometimes called the "live" half or the "moveable" half because it
moves. This half of the mould usually contains the ejection system:
EJECTOR PIN - A pin, normally circular, placed in either half of the mould (usually the
ejector half) which pushes the finished moulded product, or runner system, out of a
mould. Also referred to as a "knockout" pin, for obvious reasons.
FEED THROAT - The area at the rear end of the injection unit that allows fresh plastic to
fall from the hopper into the heating barrel.
FEED ZONE - That area of the screw that is at the rear and receives fresh material from
the feed throat.
FILLER - Specific material added to the basic plastic resin to obtain particular chemical,
electrical, physical, or thermal properties.
FLASH - A thin film of plastic that tends to form at parting line areas of a mould. May
also be found in vent areas and around ejector pins. Flash is caused by too great a
clearance between mating metal surfaces, which allows plastic material to enter.
FLIGHT - The helical metal thread structure of the injection screw.
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GATE - An opening found at the entrance of a cavity (end of the runner system) which
allows material to enter.
GRANULATOR - A machine designed to grind up rejected pre-moulded plastic (products

or runners). The material generated by this process is called REGRIND.
GUIDE PINS - A pin (usually circular) which normally travels in a bushing in order to
provide alignment of two unattached components, such as the two halves of an injection
mould. Also called LEADER PINS.
HEATING CYLINDER - That section of the injection moulding machine in which the plastic
resin is heated to the proper moulding temperature prior to injection into the mould.
HEATING ZONE - An area of the heating barrel that is controlled by a temperature

controller attached to a set of heater bands. There are four major zones: rear, center,
front, and nozzle.
HEATER BANDS - Bracelet-shaped electrical heaters that are placed around the outside
circumference of the heating barrel.
HOPPER - A funnel-shaped container mounted over the feed throat of a moulding

machine. It holds fresh material to be gravity fed into the feed zone of the heating
barrel. Hoppers are normally designed to hold an average of 2 hours worth of material
for a given machine size.
HYDRAULIC CLAMP - A term used to describe the use a large hydraulic cylinder to open
and close the clamp unit of a moulding machine.
HYGROSCOPIC - A term applied to those plastics (such as ABS and NYLON) which absorb
moisture from the atmosphere.
INJECTION CAPACITY - A rating of the maximum amount of plastic material, in ounces, a

machine is capable of injecting in a single stroke of the injection screw or plunger. It is
based on the specific gravity of polystyrene as a standard.
INJECTION MOULDING - The process of pushing a molten plastic material into a

relatively cooled mould in order to produce a finished product.
INJECTION PRESSURE - That pressure which performs the initial filling of the mould. It is
supplied by the injection screw or plunger as it pushes material out of the heating barrel
and into the mould.
INJECTION UNIT - That section of the moulding machine which contains the injection
components, including the hopper, heating cylinder, screw (or plunger), nozzle, and
heater bands.
ISOTROPIC SHRINKAGE - Shrinkage that occurs equally in all directions. See

ANISOTROPIC SHRINKAGE.
KNOCKOUT PIN - See Ejector Pin
LAND - A term used to describe the area in which the gate, or vent, resides. It can also
be thought of as the "length" dimension in the "L, W, H" terminology used for describing
the dimensions of the gate or vent. See also SHUTOFF LAND.
L/D RATIO - The result of a calculation which divides the entire length of flighted area on
a screw by its nominal diameter.
LEADER PIN - See Guide Pin

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MANUAL OPERATION - The term used to define the mode in which a moulding machine
is operating when there is a need for an operator to start and finish each phase of the
total cycle.
MECHANICAL CLAMP - See TOGGLE CLAMP
MELT - A term given to describe the condition of molten plastic prior to injection into a
mould. A proper melt has the consistency of warm honey.
METERING ZONE - That area of the screw at the front end which contains properly
melted plastic that is ready to inject.
MOULD - The term given to the entire tool (cavity, core, ejectors, etc.) needed to
produce moulded parts from molten plastic material.
MONOMER - A molecular unit of an organic substance, usually in the form of a liquid or

gas. See POLYMER.
MOVING PLATEN - The platen of a moulding machine that travels (opens and closes). It
is connected to the clamp unit and is the mounting location for the "B", or traveling, half
of the mould.
NON-RETURN VALVE - A mechanism mounted in (or at) the nozzle of the injection
machine, which operates to shut off injection flow at the end of the injection cycle. This
eliminates material from the upcoming shot from drooling out of the nozzle when the
mould opens to eject parts from the previous shot.
NOZZLE - A device mounted at the end of the heating barrel which focuses plastic
material to flow from the machine into the mould.
PAD - See CUSHION
PARTING LINE - A plane at which two halves of a mould meet. Also applies to any other
plane where two moving sections come together and form a surface of a moulded part.
PLASTIC - A complex organic compound (usually polymerized) that is capable of being

shaped or formed.
PLATENS - The flat surfaces of a moulding machine onto which the two halves of the
mould are mounted. One is stationary and the other travels. There is a third platen
(stationary) at the clamp end of the machine which serves as an anchoring point for the
clamp unit.
PLUNGER - The injecting member of a non-screw design moulding machine. Plungers do

not rotate, (auger) to bring material forward in preparation for the next cycle. Nor do
they blend the material as a screw does.
POLYMER - A group of long chains of monomers, bonded together in a chemical reaction

to form a solid. This term is often used interchangeably with PLASTIC, but there can be
a difference.
PURGING - A process of injecting unwanted plastic material from the injection cylinder
into the atmosphere for the purpose of changing materials, changing colors, or removing
degraded material. Also, the name given to the mass of material that is purged.
RECIPROCATING SCREW - A helical flighted, metal shaft which rotates within the heating
cylinder of a moulding machine, shearing, blending, and advancing the plastic material.
After rotating, the screw is pushed forward which injects the plastic into the mould. Also,
simply referred to as "the Screw".
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REGRIND - Plastic material formed by granulating pre-moulded material. Regrind is
virgin material that has been exposed to at least one heating cycle.
RUNNER - Grooves or channels cut into either or both halves of the injection mould to
provide a path for the molten plastic material to be carried from the sprue to the gate(s)
of the cavity.
SCREW - See RECIPROCATING SCREW.
SCREW SPEED - The rotating speed of the screw as it augers new material towards the
metering zone. It is expressed in RPM (revolutions per minute).
SECONDARY OPERATION - Any activity performed after the moulding process required to
produce a finished product suitable for its designed purpose.
SEMI-AUTOMATIC OPERATION - The term used to define the mode in which a moulding
machine is operating when there is a need for an operator to start each cycle.
SHOT - A term given to the total amount of plastic material that is injected (or shot) into
a mould in a single cycle.
SHOT CAPACITY - See INJECTION CAPACITY.
SHUTOFF LAND - A raised area of the mould surface surrounding the cavity image. This
area is usually between 0.002 and 0.003 inch high, approximately 1/2 inch wide and is
used to focus clamping pressure on the mould. The use of a shutoff land reduces the
amount of tonnage required to keep a mould closed against injection pressure.
SLIDE - A section of the mould which is made to travel at an angle to the normal
movement of the mould. Used for providing undercuts, recesses, etc.
SPRUE - The plastic material that connects the runner system to the nozzle of the
heating cylinder of the moulding machine. It is formed by the internal surface of a
bushing that joins the mould to the machine's nozzle.
SPRUE BUSHING - A hardened bushing that connects the mould to the moulding
machine nozzle and allows molten plastic to enter the runner system.
STATIONARY PLATEN ("A") - The platen at the injection end of the moulding machine
that does not travel. It contains the "A" half of the mould and locates the mould to the
nozzle of the injection unit. The moving platen travels between this platen and
stationary platen "B".
STATIONARY PLATEN ("B") - The platen at the clamp end of the moulding machine that
does not travel. The moving platen travels between this platen and stationary platen "A".
STRESS - A resistance to deformation from an applied force. Moulded plastic products

tend to contain stresses moulded in as a result of forces applied during the injection
process. These stresses may result in fractures, cracks, and breakage if they are
released during use of the product.
SUCK BACK - See DECOMPRESSION.
SUPPORT PILLAR - A circular rod mould component used to support the ejector half of
the mould. It is required because of the tremendous amount of pressure exerted against
the "B" plate by the injection phase of the moulding process.
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THERMOCOUPLE - A device made of two dissimilar metals which are used to measure
the temperature of a heated area such as a barrel or nozzle. It sends a signal to a
controller which then turns off or on to control the temperature of that area.
THERMOPLASTIC -A plastic material which, when heated, undergoes a physical change.

It can be reheated, thus reformed, over and over again. See THERMOSET.
THERMOSET - A plastic material which, when heated, undergoes a chemical change and
"cures". It cannot be reformed, and reheating only degrades it. See THERMOPLASTIC.
TIE BARS - Large diameter rods that connect stationary platen "A" to stationary platen
"B". The moving platen contains bushings which are used for sliding over the tie bars,
allowing the moving platen to travel between the 2 stationary platens.
TOGGLE CLAMP - A term used to describe the use of a mechanical "scissors action"
system to open and close the clamp unit of a moulding machine. It is operated by a
relatively small hydraulic cylinder.
TRANSITION ZONE - That area in the center of the screw (between the feed zone and
metering zone) This section has a tapering flight depth condition which compresses the
plastic material in preparation for injection.
UNDERCUT - A recess or extension on the moulded part, located in such a way as to

prevent or impede ejection of the part by normal moulding machine operation.
VENT - A shallow groove machined into the parting line surface of a mould in order to
allow air and gases to escape from the cavity, or runner, as the molten plastic is filling
the mould. Sometimes also located on ejector and core pins.
VENTED BARREL - A heating barrel designed with an automatic venting port which allows
moisture and gases to escape from molten plastic prior to being injected into a mould.
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2.3 Types of Injection Moulding Machines – Hand, Plunger, Screw, Plunger-
Plunger, Screw-Plunger etc with their parts and functions.
There are various type of Injection Moulding Machine available based on their functions
and utilizations. The cost of the machines is increased depending on their functions and
size. The simplest Injection Moulding machine is a hand injection moulding machine with
a very low cost and the costliest machine may be a screw type automatic microprocessor
injection moulding machine.
2.3.1 Hand Injection Moulding Machine

2.3.2 Plunger Type Injection Moulding Machine
2.3.3 Screw Type Injection Moulding Machine
2.3.4 Plunger-Plunger Injection Moulding Machine
2.3.5 Screw-Plunger Injection Moulding Machine
2.3.1 Hand Injection Moulding Machine
This type of Injection Moulding Machines are the simplest vertical machine consists of
Barrel, Plunger, Band Heaters along with energy regulator, Rack & Pinion system for
Injecting the material by the plunger, a torpedo and nozzle. The clamping is done
manually on a working table. The machine is fitted on the working table. Heating is set
manually. The capacity of the machine is available from 0.5 Oz to 2 Oz. Once heating is
achieved the production starts manually. The quality of the product is completely depend
upon the skill ness of the operator. The heating set point is achieved by heat & trial
method. Although Temperature controller may be fitted on the machine, but the set point
is completely depend on the quantity of product produced by the operator. The cycle
time is completely variable and it depends on the competence of the operator. The
function of the torpedo is to help the material for proper melting and crate back pressure
for help in mixing.
2.3.2 Plunger Type Injection Moulding Machine
Vertical & Horizontal Plunger Type Injection Moulding Machine
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The Plunger type injection moulding machine is available horizontal or vertical type and
operated pneumatically or hydraulically. The clamping and Injection may be Semi or
automatic. In a semi Automatic type the clamping cylinder & the Injection cylinders are
operated by levers which is connected the pneumatic or hydraulic cylinders. In Automatic
type the cylinders are actuated automatically to a set timers.
2.3.3 Screw Type Injection Moulding Machine
The Screw type Injection Moulding Machine consists of a hopper, a reciprocating screw
and barrel assembly, and an injection nozzle. This system confines and transports the
plastic as it progresses through the feeding, compressing, degassing, melting, injection,
and packing stages.
A single screw injection Moulding machine for thermoplastics, showing the plasticizing
screw, a barrel, band heaters to heat the barrel, a stationary platen, and a movable
platen.
2.3.4 Plunger-Plunger Injection Moulding Machine

As the plastic industry developed a second type plunger machine appeared, known as
two stage plunger. This type of equipment involved two plunger units set on top of other
the one to plasticize the material and feed it to another cylinder that consist of a
chamber to heat the plastic material by conduction and plunger that operates as a
shooting plunger and push the plasticize material into the mould.
Advantages:
 Faster than conventional machine (single plunger)
 No pressure loss encountered in compacting the granules.
 Allows larger parts with more projected area.
Disadvantage:
 Extra construction for pre plasticizing so cost is more.
2.3.5 Screw-Plunger Injection Moulding Machine
Later still another variation appeared in which first plunger stage (also known as a pre
plasticizer) was replaced by a rotating screw. In this case the action of the screw serves
to work and melt (plasticize) the resin and feed it into the second plunger unit where the
injection ram forces it forward into mould.
Advantages:
 Better mixing and shear action of the plastic melt.
 Broader range of stiffer flow
 Heat sensitive material can be processed
 Colour change can be handled in shorter time.
 Lower stresses are obtained in the moulded form.
Disadvantages:
 Higher cost in extra construction for pre plasticising unit.

 Longer cycle time than reciprocating screw type machine.
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2.4 Screw – Nomenclature, types of screw, Ring-Plunger assembly, Screw drive
etc
2.4.1 Feed Zone
2.4.2 Transition Zone
2.4.3 Metering Zone
2.4.4 L/D Ratio
2.4.5 Compression Ratio
2.4.6 Helix Angle
2.4.7 Screw Plasticizing
2.4.8 Screw Operation
2.4.9 Back Pressure
2.4.10 Injection Speed
2.4.11 Screw Rotation Speed
2.4.12 Cushion
2.4.13 Screw Design Variables
2.4.14 What are the symptoms of wear in cylinders, screws and non-return
valves?
2.4.0 Screw Used in Injection Moulding Machines
SCREW PROFILE
The standard metering screw has three zones with a ring-plunger assembly. The feed
zone, where the plastic first enters the screw and is conveyed along a constant root
diameter; the transition zone, where the plastic is conveyed, compressed and melted
along a root diameter that increases with a constant taper; and the metering zone,
where the melting of the plastic is completed and the melt is conveyed forward along a
constant root diameter reaching a temperature and viscosity to form parts.
The screw profile is described as the length, in diameters or flights, of each of the three
sections of the screw. A 10-5-5 profile indicates 10 diameters in feed, 5 diameters in
transition and 5 diameters in meter. General purpose screws typically use a 10-5-5
profile.
2.4.1 Feed Zone
The feed section is located under the hopper and in the rear section of the screw. The
flight depth is at its maximum, and the material from the hopper fills the flight of the
screw. The feed section has a constant channel depth throughout its entire length. Since
the conveying action is caused by the difference in friction between the plastic and the
barrel wall and the plastic and the screw, the screw is always more highly polished than
the barrel. Normally, the barrel temperature is higher than the screw temperature.
Consequently, the material adheres to the barrel as it softens and slip upon the cooler
screw. The material is then compacted in the feed section and begins to melt. The
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majority of the melting occurs in the compression or transition section. In most moulding
metering screws, the feed section is approximately half the screw length.
2.4.2 Transition Zone
The transition or compression section where the channel depth is continually

decreased completes the compacting and heating of the plastic granules. Here all the
remaining air is released as a result of heat supplied by the cylinder heaters and
mechanical energy supplied by the rotation of the screw.
Normally a transition zone encompasses approximately 25% of the screw length.

When the material leaves the area under the hopper, it only partially fills the screw. After
about four turns the material is fully compacted. The material touching the barrel melts
by conduction.
Two types of heating are occurring. One is the convection of heat from the heater
barrel. The second is the conversion of mechanical energy from turning the screw, into
the energy, by shearing the plastic.
Since the same weight of material per unit cross section must flow through the
whole length of the extruder, and since the bulk density of the unmelted portion is less
than that of the melted portion, the unmelted portion must be moving at a faster rate.
2.4.3 Metering Zone
The metering section is also known as mixing zone helps for homogeneous mixing
of the materials and acts as a pump, removing the material plasticized in the transition
zone.
2.4.4 L/D Ratio
The L/D ratio is the ratio of the flighted length (Effective Length) of the screw to its
outside diameter. The ratio calculation is calculated by dividing the flighted length of the
screw by its nominal diameter. Although several injection moulding machine
manufacturers now offer a choice of injection units, most injection screws use a 20:1 L/D
ratio. But it may range from 18:1 to 24:1 and in the case of thermoset it may range
from 12:1 to 16:1.
The effect of changing the L/D ratio can be summarized in the following manner ... the
larger the L/D Ratio (longer flighted length), the -
 More shear heat can be uniformly generated in the plastic without degradation;
 Greater the opportunity for mixing, resulting in a better homogeneity of the melt;
 Greater the residence time of the plastic in the barrel possibly permitting faster
cycles of larger shots.
2.4.5 Compression Ratio
The ratio of the first feed zone channel depth to the last meter zone channel depth, or
first flight depth of feed zone to last flight depth of metering zone, referred to as
"compression ratio", typically ranges from 1.5:1 to 4.5:1 for most thermoplastic
materials. Most injection screws classified as general purpose have a compression ratio
of 2.5:1 to 3.0:1. Thermoset screws have a 1:1 ratio.
The higher the compression ratio, the greater the:
 Shear heat imparted to the resin

 Heat uniformity of the melt
 Potential for creating stresses in some resins
 More energy consumption
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2.4.6 Helix Angle
The helix angle is the angle of a screw flight relative to a plan perpendicular to the screw
axis. Although the helix angle is not commonly altered from the standard square pitch,
such a change can have a significant impact on processing.
The standard helix angle for most injection and extrusion screws is 17.6568º and is
calculated as follows (a square pitch screw):
arctangent of Lead
Helix Angle =
π x Diameter
A change to a smaller helix angle, hence more flight turns per diameter:
 Reduces the axial melting length

 Conveys stiffer materials with greater ease (and less torque)
 Reduces the rate at which material is conveyed.
2.4.7 Screw Plasticizing
In screw, the melting of the plastic is caused by the shearing action on the polymer
between the barrel and root of the screw. As the polymer molecules slide over each other
they convert the mechanical energy of the screw drive into the heat energy. The heat is
applied directly to the material. This process and the mixing action of the screw
contribute to its major advantages as a plasticizing method. These advantages are as
follows:
High shearing rates are obtained. Theses high rates lower the viscosity of the melt
making the material flow easier.
Good mixing is developed resulting in a homogenous melt. This usually means lower
injection pressure and hence lower clamp pressure.
 Flow is non laminar.

 Residence time in the cylinder is much less than in a plunger machine.
 Most of the heat is supplied directly to the material.
 Since relatively little heat is supplied from the heating bands compared to the
plunger machine the cycle can be delayed for a longer period before purging,
since the screw is not turning and little heat is being generated.
 The action of the screw reduces chances of material hold-up and subsequent
degradation.
 Machine can be used with heat sensitive materials, such as PVC.
 The screw is easier to purge than the plunger.
2.4.8 Screw Operation
The reciprocating screw is used to plasticize the plastic pellets using various RPMs, inject
the molten plastics as a plunger at various speeds and shot volumes, and control the
pressure level in the molten plastic charge in front of the screw.
2.4.9 Back Pressure

Back pressure is the amount of pressure exerted on the material volume ahead of the
screw, as the screw is pushed back in preparation for the next shot.
Setting the maximum back pressure

Typically, all machines have an adjustment for the maximum back pressure. This "screw-
back" stage stops when the screw reaches a preset position. The stop position is
manually set, based on the amount of material required to fill the mould's cavity and
runner system. When the machine is ready to inject the shot, the screw then plunges the
- 13 -
material ahead of the screw forward, injecting it into the mould. While the injected
material is cooled in the mould after the injection, the screw-back stage is re-initiated
and the moulding cycle repeated.
2.4.10 Injection Speed

The injection speed (or ram speed) is the forward speed of the screw during its injection
operation.
Setting the injection speed

For most engineering resins, the ram speed should be set to the fastest setting that the
part design and process will allow for technical and economic reasons. However, slower
injection speed at the beginning of injection may be necessary to avoid turbulent flow
and Jetting, as material passes through the restrictive areas such as the gates. The
injection speed should be reduced again toward the end of injection to avoid flashing at
the end of stroke, and to enhance the formation of homogenous weld lines after a
divided flow.
2.4.11 Screw Rotation Speed

The screw rotation speed (RPM) is the rate at which the plasticizing screw rotates. The
faster the screw rotates, the faster the material is compressed by the screw flights,
increasing the amount of shear heating.
2.4.12 Cushion
The cushion is the difference in the final forward position of the screw and its maximum
allowable forward position. If the screw were allowed to travel its full stroke and stop
mechanically against the nozzle, the cushion would be zero. Typically a cushion of 3 to 6
mm is used.
2.4.13 Screw Design Variables
In order to select the proper screw design for a particular resin (or resins), a basic
understanding of screw design variables and their effect on processing is essential.
Excluding the use of multiple flights (as used in barrier screws) and mixing sections,
there are five variables that may be utilized in the design of a metering screw that have
a bearing on how a solid resin becomes a melt. In addition to these variables, there are
barrier and mixing screw designs that can significantly affect processing results.
2.4.14 What are the symptoms of wear in cylinders, screws and non-return
valves?
In an injection moulding environment, the symptoms of wear and typical causes are:
SYMPTOM TYPICAL CAUSE

Screw rotating during injection Worn or damaged non-return valve and/or cylinder
allows screw to move forward without pushing the
plastic causing the screw to rotate
Inability of screw to hold a Worn or damaged non-return valve and/or cylinder

cushion permits screw to move forward without pushing and
packing the plastic in the mould
Longer than normal recovery Reduced plasticizing efficiency resulting from worn
time cylinder and/or screw
Increase in overall cycle time Caused by all of the above. Worn cylinder, screw and
non-return valve result in slower and inefficient
plasticizing
- 14 -
Defective, streaked or non- Poor melt quality resulting from worn cylinder and/or
uniform appearing parts screw
Metal particles in parts Flaking or peeling of screw plating or cylinder lining
Dark or burned specks in parts Cylinder and/or screw worn or pitted, allowing plastic to
gather in wear spots and degrade
Difficulty in achieving a colour Plastic hangs up in worn areas of cylinder or screw

change requiring repeated cycles to clear out
- 15 -
2.5 Moulds – Nomenclature of Moulds, Types of moulds used etc.
2.5.0 Nomenclature of Injection Mould

2.5.1 Two-Plate mould
2.5.2 Three-Plate mould
2.5.3 Cooling channels (circuits)
2.5.4 Moulded system
2.5.5 Cold runners
2.5.6 Hot runners
2.5.7 Gates
2.5.8 Ejection systems
2.5.0 Nomenclature of Injection Mould
FIGURE 1. A typical (three-plate) moulding system.
The mould system consists of tie bars, stationary and moving platens, as well as
moulding plates (bases) that house the cavity, sprue and runner systems, ejector pins,
and cooling channels, as shown in Figure 1. The mould is essentially a heat exchanger in
which the molten thermoplastic solidifies to the desired shape and dimensional details
defined by the cavity. A mould system is an assembly of platens and moulding plates
typically made of tool steel. The mould system shapes the plastics inside the mould
cavity (or matrix of cavities) and ejects the moulded part(s). The stationary platen is
attached to the barrel side of the machine and is connected to the moving platen by the
tie bars. The cavity plate is generally mounted on the stationary platen and houses the
injection nozzle. The core plate moves with the moving platen guided by the tie bars.
Occasionally, the cavity plate is mounted to the moving platen and the core plate and a
hydraulic knock-out (ejector) system is mounted to the stationary platen.
2.5.1 Two-plate mould

The vast majority of moulds consist essentially of two halves, as shown below. This kind
of mould is used for parts that are typically gated on or around their edge, with the
runner in the same mould plate as the cavity.
- 16 -
FIGURE.2 . A two-plate mould.
2.5.2 Three-plate mould
The three-plate mould is typically used for parts that are gated away from their edge.
The runner is in two plates, separate from the cavity and core, as shown in Figure 5
below.
FIGURE.3 A three-plate mould.
2.5.3 Cooling channels (circuits)
Cooling channels are passageways located within the body of a mould, through which a
cooling medium (typically water, steam, or oil) circulates. Their function is the regulation
of temperature on the mould surface. Cooling channels can also be combined with other
temperature control devices, like bafflers, bubblers, and thermal pins or heat pipes.
2.5.4 Moulded system
A typical moulded system consists of the delivery system and the moulded part(s), as
shown in Figure 4.
FIGURE 4. The moulded system includes a delivery system and moulded parts.
- 17 -
2.5.5 Cold runners
After moulding, the cold-runner delivery system is trimmed off and recycled. Therefore,
the delivery system is normally designed to consume minimum material, while
maintaining the function of delivering molten plastic to the cavity in a desirable pattern.
2.5.6 Hot runners
The hot-runner (or runner less) moulding process keeps the runners hot in order to
maintain the plastic in a molten state at all times. Since the hot-runner system is not
removed from the mould with the moulded part, it saves material and eliminates the
secondary trimming process.
2.5.7 Gates
Gating can be done a number of ways
2.5.8 Ejection systems
Ejection systems will push the part out of the mould when it is opened.
- Knockout pins
- Blades
- Stripper rings
- Air
- Hard stripping
- 18 -
2.6 Material Selection – Types of Materials, Criteria for selection of materials,
Material handling, Special care for engineering plastics etc.
2.6.0 Materials Selection for injection moulding

2.6.1 Resin data table
2.6.2 ABS
2.6.3 PA 12
2.6.4 PA 6
2.6.5 PA 66
2.6.6 PBT
2.6.7 PC
2.6.8 PC-ABS
2.6.9 PC-PBT
2.6.10 PE-HD
2.6.11 PE-LD
2.6.12 PEI
2.6.13 PET
2.6.14 PETG
2.6.15 PMMA
2.6.16 POM
2.6.17 PP
2.6.18 PPE-PPO
2.6.19 PS
2.6.20 PVC
2.6.21 SAN
2.6.0 Materials Selection for injection moulding
Material selection depends to a large extent on the functional constraints of the part.
Both amorphous and crystalline thermoplastic resins are used in injection moulding.
Short glass fibers are commonly used as reinforcements
Thermoplastic compounds commonly used in injection moulding include:
 Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)

 Acetal
 Acrylic
 Polycarbonate (PC)
 Polyester
 Polyethylene
 Fluoroplastic
 Polyimide
 Nylon
 Polyphenylene oxide
 Polypropylene (PP)
 Polystyrene (PS)
 Polysulphone
 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
The physical properties of the materials (density, thermal conductivity, melting

temperature, etc.) must be considered in light of the required mechanical properties of
the finished part (strength, stiffness, hardness, etc.)
- 19 -
This schematic illustrates the performance spectrum of a variety of plastic materials.
Various additives may be added to injection moulding compounds to accomplish various

purposes. This table summarizes some of them.
Additive Function Examples

Filler increase bulk density calcium carbonate, talc, limestone
Plasticizer improve processability, reduce phthalate esters, phosphate esters
product brittleness
Antioxidant prevent polymer oxidation phenols, aromatic amines
Colorant provide desired part application oil-soluble dyes, organic pigments
color
Flame retardant reduce polymer flammability antimony trioxide
Stabilizer stabilize polymer against heat or UV carbon black,
light hydroxybenzophenone
Reinforcement improve strength E-glass, S-glass, carbon, Kevlar
fibers
Processing temperature is an issue in material selection for injection moulding.
Polymer physical properties dictate temperature processing window (Tg < Tproc < Tdeg)
The operating temperature must lie in the range between the glass transition
temperature and the degradation temperature of the polymer.
Example: Nylon 6,6 has its glass transition at 240°C - 265°C, but its suggested
processing temperature range is 270°C - 305°C. Degradation occurs at temperatures
above 350°C or 400°C. The maximum use temperature of nylon 6,6 parts is about
150°C. (Note that this is considerably below the glass transition temperature.)
- 20 -
Example: Material Selection Guidelines for Radiator End Cap
Material Selection Guidelines

Fatigue Strength Semi-crystalline e.g. Nylon 66 is superior
Impact Strength Polycarbonate is good but it has poor fatigue strength
High Temperature Phenolics have good high temperature performance, but they have
poor impact strength
Solvent Resistance Phenolics, PPS, Nylon
Cost Phenolics < Nylon < PPS
Semi-crystalline polymers like nylons are superior to amorphous polymers in fatigue

strength. Some amorphous polymers like polycarbonate have good impact strength. But
polycarbonate has very poor fatigue strength and it is notch sensitive. For high
temperature environments, phenolics offer a good option: however the impact strength
of phenolics is very low. For solvent environments, phenolics, polyphenylene sulfide and
nylon are good choices. Finally, from the cost point of view, phenolics are cheaper than
nylon and nylon is cheaper than polyphenylene sulfide. Nylon is chosen as the material
for the radiator end cap.
2.6.1 Resin data table
Generic Melt Temperature Mould Temperature

Name (ºC) (ºC)
Min. Rec. Max. Min. Rec. Max.
ABS 200 230 280 25 50 80
PA 12 230 255 300 30 80 110
PA 6 230 255 300 70 85 110
PA 66 260 280 320 70 80 110
PBT 220 250 280 15 60 80
PC 260 305 340 70 95 120
PC-ABS 230 265 300 50 75 100
PC-PBT 250 265 280 40 60 85
PE-HD 180 220 280 20 40 95
PE-LD 180 220 280 20 40 70
PEI 340 400 440 70 140 175
PET 265 270 290 80 100 120
PETG 220 255 290 10 15 30
PMMA 240 250 280 35 60 80
POM 180 225 235 50 70 105
PP 200 230 280 20 50 80
PPE-PPO 240 280 320 60 80 110
PS 180 230 280 20 50 70
PVC 160 190 220 20 40 70
SAN 200 230 270 40 60 80
Commonly used Plastics Materials and their parameters for Injection Moulding
2.6.2 ABS (Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene)
Typical Applications
 Automotive (instrument and interior trim panels, glove compartment doors, wheel
covers, mirror housings, etc.)
 Refrigerators, small appliance housings and power tools applications (hair dryers,
blenders, food processors, lawnmowers, etc.)
 Telephone housings, typewriter housings, typewriter keys
 Recreational vehicles such as golf carts and jet skis.
- 21 -
Injection Moulding Processing Conditions:
Drying: ABS resins are hygroscopic and drying is required prior to processing.
Suggested drying conditions are 80 - 90ºC for a minimum of 2 hours.
Resin moisture content should be less than 0.1%
Melt 210 - 280ºC;
Temperature:
Mould 25 - 70ºC. (Mould temperatures control the gloss properties; lower
Temperature: mould temperatures produce lower gloss levels)
Injection 500 - 1,000 bar (7,250 - 14,500 psi)
Pressure:
Injection Moderate - high
Speed:
2.6.3 PA 12 (Polyamide 12 or Nylon 12)
 Gear wheels for water meters and business machines

 Cable ties
 Cams
 Slides
 Bearings
Injection Moulding Processing Conditions
Drying: The moisture content must be below 0.1% prior to processing. If the
material is exposed to air, drying in a hot air oven at 85ºC for 4 -5 hours is
recommended (3-4 hours in a desiccant dryer). If the container is
unopened, it may be used directly for moulding after 3 hours of
equilibration to shop floor temperature.
Melt 240 - 300ºC; Not to exceed 310ºC for standard grades and 270ºC for flame
Temperature: retardant grades
Mould 30 - 40ºC for unreinforced grades; for thin walled or large surface area
Temperature: components, 80 - 90ºC may be used; 90 - 100ºC for reinforced grades.
Increasing the mould temperature increases the crystallinity level. It is very
important to precisely control the mould temperature.
Injection Up to 1,000 bar (14, 500 psi) Low hold pressures and high melt
Pressure: temperatures are recommended.
Injection High (high speeds give better finish on glass-filled grades)
Speed:
Runners and Gates
Runner diameters for unfilled grades may be as small as 3 - 5 mm because of the

material's low viscosity. Reinforced grades require larger diameters (5 - 8 mm). The
runner shape should be the full round type. Sprues should be as short as possible.
A variety of gates may be used. Small gates for large parts should be not be used, in
order to avoid highly stressed components or excessive shrinkage. The thickness of the
gate should preferably be equal to the part thickness. When using submarine gates, the
minimum recommended diameter is 0.8 mm.
Hot runner moulds may be used effectively but precise temperature control is necessary
to prevent material drooling or freezing off at the nozzle. When hot runners are used, the
size of the gates may be smaller than in the case of cold runners.
- 22 -
2.6.4 PA 6 (Polyamide 6, Nylon 6, or Polycaprolactam)
Applications
Used in many structural applications because of its good mechanical strength and
rigidity. It is used in bearings because of its good wear resistance.
Injection Moulding processing conditions
Drying: Since PA 6 absorbs moisture readily, care should be taken to ensure its
dryness prior to moulding. If the material is supplied in watertight
packaging, the containers should be kept closed. If the moisture content is
>0.2%, drying in a hot air oven at 80ºC for 16 hours is recommended. If
the material has been exposed to air for more than 8 hours, vacuum drying
at 105ºC for more than 8 hours is recommended.
Melt 230 - 280ºC; 250 - 280ºCfor reinforced grades
Temperature:
Mould 80 - 90ºC. Mould temperature significantly influences the crystallinity level
Temperature: which in turn affects the mechanical properties. For structural parts, a high
degree of crystallization is required and mould temperatures of 80 -
90ºCare recommended. High mould temperatures are also recommended
for thin-wall parts with long flow lengths. Increasing the mould temperature
increases the strength and hardness, but the toughness is decreased. When
the wall thickness is greater than 3 mm, a cold mould is recommended (20
- 40ºC), which leads to a higher and more uniform degree of crystallinity.
Glass reinforced resins are always processed at mould temperatures greater
than 80ºC
Injection Generally between 750 - 1,250 bar (~11,000 - 18,000 psi) (depends on
Pressure: material and product design)
Injection High (slightly lower for reinforced grades)
Speed:
Runners and Gates
The gate location is important because of very fast freeze-off times. Any type of gate
may be used; the aperture should not be less than 0.5*t (where "t" is the thickness of
the part). When hot runners are used, the size of the gates can be smaller than when
cold runners are used, because premature freeze-off is prevented. When using
submarine gates, the minimum diameter of the gate should be 0.75 mm.
2.6.5 PA 66 (Polyamide 66, Nylon 66, or Poly (hexamethylene adipamide))
Applications
Competes with PA 6 for most applications. PA 66 is heavily used in the following:
 The automotive industry

 Appliance housings
 Where impact resistance and strength are required
Injection Moulding Processing conditions
Drying: Drying is not required if the material is sealed prior to moulding; however,
if the containers are left open, drying in a hot air oven at 85ºC is
recommended. If the moisture content is > 0.2%, vacuum drying at 105ºC
for 12 hours is recommended.
Melt 260 - 290ºC ; 275 - 280ºC for glass filled grades; melt temperatures above
Temperature: 300ºC should be avoided
Mould 80ºC suggested. Mould temperature affects crystallinity level which in turn
- 23 -
Temperature: affects physical properties. In the case of thin walled parts, crystallinity
changes with time if mould temperatures of less than 40ºC are used. In
such cases, annealing may be needed to retain dimensional stability.
Injection Generally between 750 - 1,250 bar (~11,000 - 18,000 psi), depends on
Pressure: material and product design
Injection Speed: High (slightly lower for reinforced grades)
Runners and Gates
The gate location is important because of very fast freeze-off times. Any type of gate
may be used; the aperture should not be less than 0.5*t (where "t" is the thickness of
the part). When hot runners are used, the size of the gates can be smaller than when
cold runners are used, because premature freeze-off is prevented. When using
submarine gates, the minimum diameter of the gate should be 0.75 mm.
2.6.6 PBT (Polybutylene Terephthalates)
 Household appliances (e.g., food processor blades, vacuum cleaner parts, fans,
hair dryer housings, coffee makers)
 Electronics (e.g., switches, motor housings, fuse cases, key caps for computer
keyboards, connectors, fiber optic buffer tubing)
 Automotive (e.g., grilles, body panels, wheel covers, and components for doors
and windows)
Drying: This material is sensitive to hydrolysis at high temperatures. It is therefore

important to dry the material prior to moulding. Suggested drying
conditions (in air) are 120ºC for 6 - 8 hours (or 150ºC for 2 - 4 hours).
Moisture levels must be below 0.03%. When using a desiccant dryer, drying
at 120ºC for 2.5 hours is recommended.
Melt 225 - 275ºC ; aim: 250ºC
Temperature:
Mould 40 - 60ºC for unreinforced grades. For other grades, a wide range of
Temperature: temperatures can be used, depending on the grade (15 - 120ºC). Cooling
channels should be properly designed to minimize part warpage. The heat
removal must be fast and uniform. Cooling channels of 12 mm diameter are
recommended.
Injection Moderate (up to maximum of 1500 bar / 21750 psi).
Pressure:
Injection Speed: Fastest possible speeds should be used (due to fast solidification of PBTs)
Runners and Gates
Full round runners are recommended to impart maximum pressure transmission (rule of
thumb: runner diameter = part thickness + 1.5 mm). A wide variety of gates may be
used. Hot runners may also be used, taking care to avoid drool and material degradation.
Gate diameters or depths should preferably be between 0.8 - 1.0 * t where "t" is the part
thickness. When using submarine gates, the minimum recommended diameter is 0.75
mm.
- 24 -
2.6.7 PC (Polycarbonate)
 Electronic and business equipment (e.g., computer parts, connectors)

 Appliances (e.g., food processors, refrigerator drawers)
 Transportation (e.g., head lights, tail lights, instrument panels)
Drying: PC resins are hygroscopic and pre-drying is important. Recommended

drying conditions are 100 - 120ºC for 3 to 4 hours. Moisture content must
be less than 0.02% prior to processing.
Melt 260 - 340ºC ; higher range for low MFR resins and vice-versa
Temperature:
Mould 70 - 120ºC ; higher range for low MFR resins and vice-versa
Temperature:
Fill Pressure: As high as possible for rapid moulding
Injection Speed: Slow injection speeds when small or edge gates are used; high speeds for
other types of gates
2.6.8 PC|ABS (Polycarbonate-Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene Blend)

 Computer and business machine housings

 Electrical applications
 Cellular phones
 Lawn and garden equipment
 Automotive components (instrument panels, interior trim, and wheel covers)
Injection moulding processing information
Drying: Drying is required prior to processing. Moisture content should be less than
0.04 % to ensure stable processing parameters. Drying at 90 - 110ºC for 2
to 4 hours is recommended.
Melt Temperature: 230 - 300ºC
Mould 50 - 100ºC
temperature:
Injection Pressure: Part dependent
Injection Speed: As high as possible
2.6.9 PC|PBT (Polycarbonate | Polybutyleneterephthalate Blend)
 Gear cases and automotive (bumpers)

 Applications that require chemical and corrosion resistance, high heat resistance,
high impact strength over wide temperature ranges, and high dimensional
stability
Drying: 110 - 135ºC for approximately 4 hours

Melt Temperature: 235 - 300ºC ; Depends on specific grade
Mould Temperature: 37 - 93ºC
- 25 -
6.1.10 PE-HD (High Density Polyethylene)
Major use is in blow-moulding (packaging) applications such as:
 Containers in refrigeration units

 Storage vessels
 Household goods (kitchenware)
 Seal caps
 Bases for PET bottles
Injection Moulding Processing conditions
Drying: Not normally necessary if stored properly.

Melt temperature: 220 - 260ºC ; for high molecular weigh resins, the suggested melt
temperature range is 200 - 250ºC
Mould 50 - 95ºC (higher temperatures for wall thickness of up to 6 mm;
temperature lower temperature for wall thicknesses greater than 6 mm.)
The cooling rate should be uniform to minimize shrinkage variations. For optimum cycle
times, the cooling channel diameters should be at least 8 mm and must be within a
distance of 1.3 d from the mould surface (where "d" is the diameter of the cooling
channel).
Injection 700 - 1,050 bar (10,000 - 15,000 psi)
pressure:
Injection speed Fast injection speeds are recommended; profiled speeds reduce
warpage in the case of components with a large surface area.
Runners and Gates
Diameters of runners range from 4 - 7.5 mm (typically 6 mm). Runner lengths should be
as short as possible. All types of gates may be used. Gate lands should not exceed 0.75
mm in length. Ideally suited for hot runner moulds; an insulated hot tip runner is
preferred when there are frequent color changes.
2.6.11 PE-LD (Low Density Polyethylene)
 Closures
 Bowls
 Bins
 Pipe couplings
Drying: Not usually necessary

Melt 180 - 280ºC
Temperature:
Mould 20 - 40ºC
Temperature:
For uniform and economic heat removal, it is recommended that the
cooling channel diameters be at least 8 mm and the distance from the
surface of the mould to the edge of the cooling channel be not more than
1.5 times the diameter of the cooling channel.
Injection Up to 1,500 bar (21,750 psi)
Pressure:
Pack Pressure: Up to 750 bar (10,850 psi)
Injection Fast speeds are recommended; profiled speeds can limit warpage problems
Speed: of large surface area parts.
- 26 -
Runners and Gates
All conventional types may be used; PE-LD is well suited for hot runner moulds. Insulated
hot tip runners are preferred for frequent colour changes.
2.6.12 PEI (Polyetherimide)
 Automotive (engine components: temperature sensors, fuel and air handling

devices
 Electrical/electronics (connector materials, printed circuit boards, circuit chip
carriers, explosion proof boxes)
 Packaging applications
 Aircraft (interior materials)
 Medical (surgical staplers, tool housings, non-implant devices)
Injection moulding processing information
Drying: PEI absorbs moisture and can cause material degradation. Moisture
content should be less than 0.02%. Suggested drying conditions are 150ºC
for 4 hours in a desiccant dryer (6 hours for reinforced and blended
grades)
Melt Temperature: 340 - 400ºC unreinforced grades
340 - 415ºC reinforced grades
Mould 107 - 175ºC ; Aim: 140ºC
Temperature:
Injection Pressure: 700 - 1500 bar (~10,000 - 22,000 psi) Typical
Injection Speeds: As high as possible
2.6.13 PET (Polyethylene Terephthalate)
 Automotive (structural components such as mirror backs, and grille supports,

electrical parts such as head lamp reflectors and alternator housings)
 Electrical applications (motor housings, electrical connectors, relays, and switches,
microwave oven interiors)
 Industrial applications (furniture chair arms, pump housings, hand tools)
Injection moulding processing conditions
Drying: Drying is essential prior to moulding. PETs are very sensitive to

hydrolysis. Recommended drying conditions are 120 - 165ºC(248 - 329
F) for 4 hours. The moisture content should be less than 0.02%.
Melt For unfilled grades:265 - 280ºC
Temperature:
For glass reinforced grades:275 - 290ºC
Mould 80 - 120ºC
Temperature:
(preferred range: 100 -110ºC;
Injection (300 - 1,300 bar ; 4,350 - 19,000 psi)
Pressure:
Injection speed: High speeds without causing embrittlement
- 27 -
Runners and Gates
All conventional types of gates may be used; gates should be 50 - 100% of the part
thickness.
2.6.14 PETG (Glycol-modified PET; Copolyesters)
PETGs offer a desirable combination of properties such as clarity, toughness, and

stiffness. Applications include:
 Medical devices (test tubes and bottles)

 Toys
 Displays
 Lighting fixtures
 Face shields
 Refrigerator crisper pans
Injection moulding processing conditions
Drying: Drying is essential for PETG prior to injection moulding. The moisture
level must be below 0.04%. Drying temperature is not to exceed 66ºC.
Drying at approximately 65ºC for 4 hours is recommended.
Melt Temperature: 220 - 290ºC; The melt temperature is grade specific
Mould 10 - 30ºC; Recommended: 15ºC
Temperature:
Injection Pressure: 300 - 1,300 bar (4,350 - 19,000 psi)
Injection speed: High speeds without causing embrittlement
2.6.15 PMMA (Polymethyl Methacrylate)
 Automotive (signal light devices, instrument panels)

 Medical (blood cuvettes)
 Industrial (video discs, lighting diffusers, display shelving)
 Consumer (drinking tumblers, stationery accessories)
Drying: PMMA is hygroscopic and must be dried prior to moulding. Drying at

90ºC for 2-4 hours is recommended.
Mould 35 - 70ºC
Temperature:
Injection Speed: Moderate
2.6.16 POM (Polyacetal or Polyoxymethylene)
Applications
Acetals have a low coefficient of friction and good dimensional stability. This makes it
ideal for use in gears and bearings. Due to its high temperature resistance, it is used in
plumbing (valve and pump housings) and lawn equipment.
- 28 -
Drying: Not usually required but resin should be stored in a dry atmosphere.
Melt Temperature: 190 - 230ºC for homopolymer; 190 - 210ºC for copolymer
Mould 80 - 105ºC; Higher mould temperatures are preferred for precision

Temperature: moulding which reduce post-moulding shrinkage
Injection 700 - 1,200 bar (~10,000 - 17,500 psi)
Pressure:
Injection Rate: Medium - High
Runners and Gates
Any type of gate may be used. When using tunnel gates, the short type is preferred.
Insulated, hot tip runners are preferred for homopolymers; both internally and externally
heated hot runners may be used in the case of copolymers.
2.6.17 PP (Polypropylene)
 Automotive (mostly mineral-filled PP is used: dashboard components, ductwork,

fans, and some under-hood components)
 Appliances (door liners for dishwashers, ductwork for dryers, wash racks and lids
for clothes washers, refrigerator liners)
 Consumer products (lawn/garden furniture, components of lawn mowers,
sprinklers)
Drying: Not normally necessary if proper storage is used

Melt Temperature: 220 - 275ºC ; not to exceed 275ºC
Mould Temperature: 40 - 80ºC; suggested: 50ºC The crystallinity level is determined by the
mould temperature.
Injection Pressure: Up to 1,800 bar (26,000 psi)
Injection Speed
Typically, fast injection speeds are used to minimize internal stresses; if surface defects
occur, slow speed moulding at a higher temperature is preferred. Machines capable of
providing profiled speed is highly recommended.
Runners and Gates
In the case of cold runners, typical diameters range from 4 - 7 mm. Full round sprues
and runners are recommended. All types of gates can be used. Typical pin gate
diameters range from 1 - 1.5 mm, but diameters as low as 0.7 mm may be used. In case
of edge gating, the minimum gate depth should be half the wall thickness and the width
should be at least double the thickness. Hot runners can readily be used for moulding PP.
2.6.18 PPE|PPO (Polypropylene Ether Blends)
 Household appliances (dishwasher, washing machine)

 Electrical applications, such as control housings, fiber-optic connectors
- 29 -
Drying: Recommend drying before moulding for approximately 2 - 4 hours at

100ºC. PPOs have low levels of moisture absorption can typically be
moulded as received.
Melt Temperature: 240 - 320ºC (higher ranges for resins with higher levels of PPO)
Mould 60 - 105ºC
Temperature:
Injection pressure: 600 - 1,500 bar (8,700 - 21,750 psi)
Runners and Gates
All gates can be used; tab and fan gates are preferred
2.6.19 PS (Polystyrene)
 Packaging
 House wares (tableware, trays)
 Electrical (transparent housings, light diffusers, insulating film)
Drying: Not usually required unless stored improperly. If drying is needed, the
recommended conditions are 2-3 hours at 80ºC
Melt Temperature: 180 - 280ºC ; upper limit is 250ºCfor flame retardant grades
Mould Temperature: Suggested: 40 - 50ºC
Injection Pressure: 200 - 600 bar (3,000 - 8,700 psi)
Injection Speed: Fast speeds are recommended
Runners and Gates
All types of conventional gates may be used.
2.6.20 PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride)
 Water distribution piping
 Home plumbing
 House siding
 Business machine housings
 Electronics packaging
 Medical apparatus
 Packaging for foodstuffs
Drying: Not usually necessary as PVC absorbs very little water.

Mould Temperature: 30 - 50ºC
Injection Pressure: Up to 1,500 bar (21,750 psi)
Packing Pressure: Up to 1,000 bar (14,500 psi)
Injection Speed: Relatively slow, to avoid material degradation
- 30 -
Runners and Gates
All conventional gate types may be used; pin-point and submarine gates are used for
moulding small components and fan gates are typically used for thick sections. The
minimum diameter of pin-point or submarine gates should be 1 mm and the thickness of
fan gates should not be less than 1 mm.
Sprue should be as short as possible; typical runner sizes are 6 - 10 mm and should have
a full round cross-section. Insulated hot runners and certain types of hot sprue bushings
may be used with PVC.
2.6.21 SAN (Styrene Acrylonitrile)
 Electrical (receptacles, mixer bowls, housings, etc. for kitchen appliances,
refrigerator fittings, chassis for television sets, cassette boxes)
 Automotive (head lamp bodies, reflectors, glove compartments, instrument panel
covers)
 Household appliances (tableware, cutlery, beakers)
 Cosmetic packs
Drying: Under improper storage conditions, SAN absorbs moisture; it is

recommended that it be dried at 80ºC for 2-4 hours prior to
moulding.
Melt 200 - 270ºC; 230 - 260ºCfor most applications; lower end of the
Temperature: range is used for moulding thick wall components
Mould 40 - 80ºC; SAN solidifies rapidly at higher temperatures; in case of
Temperature: reinforced grades, the mould temperatures should not be less than
60ºC
The cooling system must be well designed because the mould
temperature affects the parts appearance and shrinkage and
warpage.
Injection 350-1,300 bar (5,000 - 20,000 psi)
Pressure:
Injection Speed: High speeds are recommended
Gates
All conventional gate types may be used. The gates must be of proper size which aid in
processing and do not cause streaks, burn marks, or voids.
- 31 -
2.7. Clamping Systems – Manual, Toggle, Hydraulic, Hydro-Mechanical & Tie-bar
less clamping etc.
2.7.1 Manual Clamping

2.7.2 Toggle Type Clamping
2.7.3 Hydraulic Clamping
2.7.4 Hydro-Mechanical
2.7.5 Tie-bar less Clamping
The function of clamping unit is to clamp the Injection Mould. The clamping Pressure is
set more than the Injection Pressure so that the mould does not open during plastic melt
Injection.
2.7.1 MANUAL CLAMPING
Manual clamping in only seen in the case of manual or Hand Injection Moulding Machine
or some time in pneumatic Injection Moulding Machine. The proper clamping is depend
on the skill of the operator. The Clamping force is direct and not measured. The position
of the sprue with respect to nozzle axis is critical. The ejection of the part from the mould
is difficult.
2.7.2 TOGGLE TYPE CLAMPING
A toggle is mechanically device to amplify force. In a moulding machine, which consists

of two bars joined, together end to end with a pivot .The end of one bar is attached to a
stationary platen, and the other end of a second bar is attached to the movable platen.
When the mould is open, the toggle is in the shape of a V. When pressure is applied to
the pivot, the two bars form a straight line.
ADVANTAGE
1. Low cost and lower horsepower needed to run.

2. Positive clamp of the mould
DISADVANTAGE
1. Do not read the clamp force.

2. Clamping is more difficult.
3. Higher maintenance as lubricant is provided.
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2.7.3 HYDRAULIC CLAMPING
A clamping unit actuated by hydraulic cylinder, which is directly connected to the

moving, closed the mould. In this case ram of hydraulic system is attached to moving
platen. There are two halves in hydraulic cylinder, which is actually inlet and outlet of oil.
When oil goes to the cylinder with pressure oil pushes the ram to forward direction by
which moving platen moves and mould closed and when oil comes from the cylinder the
ram come back and mould is open.
ADVANTAGE
Clamp speed easily controlled and stopped at any point.
Direct read out of clamp force.
Easy adjustment of clamped force and easy mould set up.
Low maintenance as part is self lubricated.
DISADVANTAGE
1. It is higher cost and more expensive than toggle system.
2. None positive clamp.
2.7.4 HYDRO-MECHANICAL
This Clamping System is combination of Toggle & Hydraulic Clamping System. To move
the toggle a hydraulic cylinder is operated.
- 33 -
2.7.5 TIE-BAR LESS CLAMPING
Tie-Bar less clamping system is basically Hydraulic clamping system without any tie bar.
The platen is moved on a rail system.
The main advantage of this system there is no limitation of mould platen size. As there is
no tie bar so the mould dimension is not so important. Also mounting of the mould is
easy and it is very useful when products eject from the mould is manual.
Advantages Of Tie-Bar-Less Machines:
 Much larger mould mounting area.

 Larger stroke compared to the toggle type machines.
 Full machine capacity can be utilised.
 Smaller machines can mould larger components.
 Saves floor space.
 Saves electrical energy because of reduction in the size of machine.
 Has the capacity to reduce weight of the moulded component because tie-bar
stretching is not there.
 Machine becomes very flexible for future modification.
 Easy access to mould cavity's because of the absence of the tie bars.
 Robotic arm movement becomes easy.
 Fewer moving parts so lesser wear and tear so longer life for machines.
 Lower lubrication required.
 Removal of mould plates much simple.
 Greater stability.
- 34 -
2.8. Hydraulic Machine operation Sequences
Injection moulding is a cyclic process. During the injection moulding process, the
machine undertakes a sequence of operations in a cyclic fashion. A process cycle is one
complete operation of an injection moulding machine.
Process cycle
The basic injection moulding machine operations are shown in the series of diagrams
below.
1 The mould closes and the screw begins

moving forward for injection.
2 The cavity fills as the reciprocating screw

moves forward, as a plunger.
3 The cavity is packed as the screw

continuously moves forward.
4 The cavity cools as the gate freezes off and

the screw begins to retract to plasticize
material for the next shot.
5 The mould opens for part ejection.
6 The mould closes and the next cycle begins
- 35 -
2.9. Machine selection – Based on Shot weight, Clamping, Injection &
Theoretical calculation
2.9.0 How to Select a Plastic Injection Moulding Machine
2.9.1 Shot weight
2.9.1.1 Definition of shot weight
2.9.1.2 Shot weight in terms of the resin to be used
2.9.1.3 Relation of shot weight to injection volume
2.9.1.4 Selecting a machine with sufficient shot weight
2.9.2 Selecting a machine which is not too big
2.9.3 Barrel residence time
2.9.4 Clamping force
2.9.5 Determining Projected Area & Clamp Force
2.9.6 Injection pressure
2.9.7 Injection volume
2.9.8 Injection speed
2.9.9 Accumulator
2.9.10 Injection rate
2.9.11 Screw rotary speed
2.9.12 Screw motor torque
2.9.13 Plasticizing capacity
2.9.14 Mould opening stroke
2.9.15 Mould height (thickness)
2.9.16 Minimum Mould Height
2.9.17 Maximum daylight
2.9.18 Space between Tie bars
2.9.19 Platen size
2.9.20 Platen thickness
2.9.21 Tie bar diameter
2.9.22 Dry cycle time
2.9.23 Electric motor rating
2.9.24 Electric heater rating
2.9.25 Total power
2.9.26 Number of heating zones
2.9.27 Oil tank capacity
2.9.28 Hopper capacity
2.9.29 System pressure
2.9.30 Screw and Barrel
2.9.31 Cold start interlock
2.9.32 Low pressure mould protection
2.9.33 Nozzle type
2.9.34 Hydraulic oil temperature control
2.9.35 Hydraulic oil contamination control
2.9.36 Safety features
2.9.37 Metal detector option
2.9.0 How to Select a Plastic Injection Moulding Machine
2.9.1 Shot weight
Shot weight is an important attribute of the injection unit of an Injection Moulding

Machine. Expressed in ounces or grams, this is by far the most commonly used single
attribute to select a plastic injection moulding machine.
The reason is simple. A moulder has an article at hand to be moulded. Once the plastic
material is selected, it has a weight. An injection moulding machine with sufficient shot
weight is then selected.
- 36 -
2.9.1.1 Definition of shot weight
The shot weight is the measured (therefore actual) weight of the plastic 'injected' when
the nozzle is free-standing (not held against the mould). The plastic used is usually
polystyrene (PS) with a specific gravity (S.G.) of 1.05. This is specified in the
specification as PS.
2.9.1.2 Shot weight in terms of the resin to be used
If the article to be moulded is made of a resin different than PS, then the shot weight in
the specification could not be used immediately, but must be calculated as follows:
Shot weight in terms of a resin =ºC* b/1.05

where b = S.G. of the resin,
ºC= shot weight in terms of PS (S.G. = 1.05)
Resin Abbreviation S.G. at room

temperature
General Purpose Polystyrene GPPS (PS) 1.04 - 1.09
High Impact Polystyrene HIPS 1.14 - 1.20
Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene ABS 1.01 - 1.08
Acrylonitrile Styrene AS (SAN) 1.06 - 1.10
Low Density Polyethylene LDPE 0.89 - 0.93
High Density Polyethylene HDPE 0.94 - 0.98
Polypropylene PP 0.85 - 0.92
Plasticized Polyvinyl Chloride (soft) PPVC 1.19 - 1.35
Unplasticized Polyvinyl Chloride (rigid) UPVC 1.38 - 1.41
Polyamide-6 PA-6 1.12 - 1.15
Polyamide-66 PA-66 1.13 - 1.16
Polymethyl Methacrylate PMMA 1.16 - 1.20
Polycarbonate PC 1.20 - 1.22
Polyoxymethylene (Polyacetal) POM 1.41 - 1.43
Polyethylene Terephthalate PET 1.29 - 1.41
Polybutylene Terephthalate PBT 1.30 - 1.38
Cellulose Acetate CA 1.25 - 1.35
Polyphenylene Oxide, modified PPO-M 1.04 - 1.10
Polyphenylene Sulfide PPS 1.28 - 1.32
Table 1. Specific gravity of resins at room temperature
Example 1: POM has an S.G. of 1.42. It is to be moulded in an Injection Moulding

Machine with a shot weight of 80 gms (in PS). This machine has a shot weight of
80 * 1.42 / 1.05 = 108.19 gms of POM.
Example 2: PP has an S.G. of 0.90. It is to be moulded in an Injection Moulding Machine

with a shot weight of 80 gms (in PS). This machine has a shot weight of
80 * 0.90 / 1.05 = 68.57 gms of PP.
2.9.1.3 Relation of shot weight to injection volume (Swept Volume)
Shot weight is not equal to injection volume (Swept Volume). Injection volume (Swept
Volume) multiplying with the S.G. of PS, Shot weight is measured. Injection volume is
theoretical. Injection volume multiplying with the S.G. of PS provides a higher value than
actual shot weight due leakage pass the screw during injection. Also, the non-return
valve at the tip of the screw moves backward a little before it reaches the closed
position.
- 37 -
Some manufacturers prefer to use injection volume as the starting point to state the shot
weight of their machines, instead of using measured shot weight.
2.9.1.4 Selecting a machine with sufficient shot weight
Shot weight should not be equal to the combined weight of the article (or articles for a
multi cavity mould) plus runners that could be injection moulded. The latter is set at 85%
of the shot weight for articles with low requirement, 75% of shot weight for articles with
high requirement, e.g. crystal parts. The discrepancy is due the much higher injection
pressure when there is a mould. High requirement moulding uses high injection pressure.
Example 3: Figurines made of UPVC (S.G. 1.38) with a combined weight of figurine plus
runners of 40 gms. are to be moulded. What size of machine is sufficient?
Shot weight in terms of PS = 40 * 1.05/1.38 = 30.43 gms. Using the 85% guide line, the
machine shot weight needed = 30.43/0.85 =35.80 gms.
2.9.2 Selecting a machine which is not too big
An injection moulding machine of a specified shot weight can be used to mould article(s)
including the runners weighing from 35% to 85% of the shot weight. The lower limit
comes from bending on the platens, barrel resident time of the resin and electric power
consumption per kg of processed material.
A small article using a small mould puts undue bending on the mould platens, causing
them to deflect (which affects product quality), and to break in the extreme.
If a big machine is used to mould small articles, the melt in the barrel could degrade due
to unduly long residence time. Barrel residence time could be estimated as follows.
2.9.3 Barrel Residence Time
= (weight of melt in barrel * cycle time) / (actual shot weight)
Weight of melt in the barrel is estimated to be the weight in two times the injection
volume.
Moulding small parts with a big machine is inefficient in energy usage per kg of material
processed, also known as specific power consumption.
Example 4: The same figurine in example 3 is to be moulded in a big machine. What is

the biggest machine that could be used?
Using the 35% rule, the biggest machine that could be used has a shot weight =
30.43/0.35 = 86.94 gms.
Example 5: What is the residence time of UPVC (S.G. 1.38) in a machine with screw
diameter of 55 mm, injection stroke of 250 mm, shot weight (PS) of 567 g, and a cycle
time of 10 s moulding shots weighing 260 g?
Volume of melt in the barrel is estimated to be two times the injection volume = 2 *
3.1416 * 5.5 * 5.5 * 25 / 4 = 1188 cm3
Barrel residence time = 1188 * 1.38 * 10 / 260 = 63 s
Having multi cavities per mould to increase the articles' weight and to increase the mould
size are solutions to using bigger machines. Alternatively, lowering the barrel
temperature would help avoid degradation due to long residence time.
- 38 -
2.9.4 Clamping force
Clamping force is an important attribute of the clamping unit of an Injection Moulding

Machine. It is the maximum force the machine is capable of to keep the mould closed
against the cavity pressure during injection. Insufficient clamping force gives rise to flash
at the mould joint. Most Injection Moulding Machines today use their clamping force (in
tonnes) in their model name.
It is advisable to use a sufficient clamping force below the maximum. The sufficient
clamping force is proportional to the projected area of the cavity.
How Much Force is required?
The answer to this question depends on how much injection pressure is required to inject
a specific plastic material into a mould. This is determined by the viscosity (the thickness
value) of the material. Viscosity is a value that must be correctly understood, and an
explanation follows.
Thicker materials require greater injection pressures and are difficult to flow. There are
flow ranges in which each material will fall, and these can be classified as "high flow",
"average flow", and "low flow". The Melt Flow Index test determines the flow rate of any
plastic, and the material suppliers make this information readily available on their
material information sheets. These index numbers may range, for instance, from 5 to 20.
The lower numbers signify that the specific material does not flow easily so would be
classified as low flow. The higher numbers signify a material that flows very easily so
would be classified as high flow.
It is not as important to remember a specific flow number as it is to know in what range

a material falls; high flow, average flow, or low flow. Then, understanding that it requires
more injection pressure to inject a low flow material than a high flow material, it is
understood that a low flow material will require much more clamp force to keep the
mould closed against that higher injection pressure.
A comparison of two materials will show the difference. A product moulded of

polycarbonate (a low flow plastic) may require an injection pressure of 15,000 psi, while
that same product moulded of acetal (a high flow plastic) may require only 5,000 psi.
Therefore, the polycarbonate product will require a clamp force on the mould that is
approximately three times (3) that for the acetal product.
The method used for determining the required clamp force is to take the
projected area of the part to be mounded and multiply that number by a factor
of from 2 to 8.
2.9.5 Determining Projected Area & Clamp Force
Projected area is calculated by multiplying length times width. The sketch that follows is
an example.
The projected area of this part is found by multiplying the length dimension (6.00") times
the width dimension (also 6.00"). The depth dimension ( no dimension) is only important
if it is more than 1 inch. This will be explained later.
- 39 -
So, for this particular product, the Projected Area is determined by multiplying 6" times
6". The result is an area of 36 square inches.
Clamp Force requirements can now be calculated by multiplying the 36 square inches
by a factor of between 2 and 8 tons per square inch. The lower numbers can be used for
high flow materials and the higher numbers can be used for low flow (stiff) materials.
For this example, polycarbonate has been selected as the material for mouding.
Polycarbonate is fairly stiff and a lower flow material, so the clamp factor used must be
towards the high side. Experience has shown that a clamp factor of 5 tons per square
inch is adequate for polycarbonate. That means that the 36 square inch projected area
found above must be multiplied by the clamp factor of 5 tons per square inch, to result in
a total clamp tonnage requirement of 180 tons (36 x 5 = 180). There should be a safety
factor of 10% added, so the final clamp force needed is 198 tons. The machine with the
closest rating for this product would be a 200 ton machine.
It must be noted that these numbers are only correct if there is a shutoff land
surrounding the part. If that land does not exist the clamp tonnage will have to be
doubled or tripled, or more! This may result in mould damage, machine damage, and
longer cycle times.
Summarizing, the total clamp force required for a specific product is determined by
finding the projected area of that product
[Projected area = length x width]
and multiplying that area by a clamp factor of between 2 and 8. If in doubt, use 5.
[Projected Area x 5 = Clamp Force required]
What about that "D" dimension?
The "D" dimension only becomes important if the plastic part is more than 1 inch deep.
That is not the thickness of the wall, but the total depth of the part. For every inch of
depth over 1 inch the total clamp force must be increased by 10%. So, if the part shown
above was 2 inches deep the clamp force would be increased by 18 tons (10% increase
for every inch over 1") to a total of 198. Add 10% for safety factor and the required force
increases to 217.8 tons. The nearest machine size to that requirement would probably be
a 225 ton machine.
The clamping force needed could be estimated in several ways.
The conservative method is to multiply the projected cavity area by a constant which is
different for each material. For example, for GPPS, the constant is 1.0 to 2.0 tonnes/in 2
for thick wall articles, 3.0 to 4.0 tonnes/in2 for thin wall articles. 1.0 tonne/in2 = 0.155
tonne/cm2 = 15.4 MN/m2.
Table 2 lists the constants for commonly used resins.
Example 6: A GPPS cup of diameter 79 mm is to be moulded. The cup is 0.6 mm at its

thinnest section. Find a conservative clamping force which would be sufficient.
The projected area of the cup (and runner) is 3.1416 * 7.9 2 / 4 = 49 cm2. This cup
belongs to the thin wall domain. The conservative clamping force is 0.62 * 49 = 30.4
tonnes.
A more accurate method takes into account the flow path length and wall thickness. Flow
path is the length traveled by the resin from the sprue gate to the furthest point in the
mould cavity. This is also known as L/T Ratio.
- 40 -
See Figure 1. If the wall thickness of a part varies, take its minimum wall thickness.
Example 7: The same GPPS cup has a flow path length of 104 mm. Find a more accurate
clamping force needed.
Flow path to thickness ratio (L/T Ratio) = 104 / 0.6 = 173. From Figure 2, at 0.6 mm
wall thickness, the cavity pressure is 550 bar.
1 bar = 1.02 kg/cm2. The clamping force = 550 * 1.02 * 49 = 27,500 kg = 27.5 tonnes.
The above calculation has not accounted for viscosity. It turns out to be still correct as
the viscosity factor for GPPS is 1.0. The viscosity factor for common resins is listed in
Table 3.
Example 8: The same cup as in the above example is to be made out of ABS. Find the
clamping force needed.
Using the viscosity factor of 1.5, the clamping force needed = 1.5 * 27.5 tonnes = 41.3
tonnes.
Table 2. Simple clamping force estimation
Resin tonnes/in2 tonnes/cm2 MN/m2

PS (GPPS) 1.0 - 2.0 0.155 - 0.31 15.4 - 30.9
PS (GPPS) (thin walls) 3.0 - 4.0 0.465 - 0.62 46.3 - 61.8
HIPS 1.0 - 2.0 0.155 - 0.31 15.4 - 30.9
HIPS (thin walls) 2.5 - 3.5 0.388 - 0.543 38.6 - 54.0
ABS 2.5 - 4.0 0.388 - 0.62 38.6 - 61.8
AS (SAN) 2.5 - 3.0 0.388 - 0.465 38.6 - 46.3
AS (SAN) (long flows) 3.0 - 4.0 0.465 - 0.62 46.3 - 61.8
LDPE 1.0 - 2.0 0.155 - 0.31 15.4 - 30.9
HDPE 1.5 - 2.5 0.233 - 0.388 23.2 - 38.6
HDPE (long flows) 2.5 - 3.5 0.388 - 0.543 38.6 - 54.0
PP (Homo/Copolymer) 1.5 - 2.5 0.233 - 0.388 23.3 - 38.6
PP (H/Co) (long flows) 2.5 - 3.5 0.388 - 0.543 38.6 - 54.0
PPVC 1.5 - 2.5 0.233 - 0.388 23.3 - 38.6
UPVC 2.0 - 3.0 0.31 - 0.465 30.9 - 46.3
PA6, PA66 4.0 - 5.0 0.62 - 0.775 61.8 - 77.2
PMMA 2.0 - 4.0 0.31 - 0.62 30.9 - 61.8
PC 3.0 - 5.0 0.465 - 0.775 46.3 - 77.2
POM (Homo/Copolymer) 3.0 - 5.0 0.465 - 0.775 46.3 - 77.2
PET (Amorphous) 2.0 - 2.5 0.31 - 0.388 30.9 - 38.6
PET (Crystalline) 4.0 - 6.0 0.62 - 0.93 61.8 - 92.6
PBT 3.0 - 4.0 0.465 - 0.62 46.3 - 61.8
CA 1.0 - 2.0 0.155 - 0.31 15.4 - 30.9
PPO-M (unreinforced) 2.0 - 3.0 0.31 - 0.465 30.9 - 46.3
PPO-M (reinforced) 4.0 - 5.0 0.62 - 0.775 61.8 - 77.2
PPS 2.0 - 3.0 0.31 - 0.465 30.9 - 46.3
- 41 -
Figure 1. Flow path length is measured from tip of sprue to an extremity of the article
Figure 2. Cavity pressure as a function of wall thickness and flow path length
Thermoplastics Viscosity
factor
GPPS (PS) 1
PP 1 - 1.2
PE 1 - 1.3
Nylons (PA6 or PA66), 1.2 - 1.4
POM
Cellulosics 1.3 - 1.5
ABS, ASA, SAN 1.3 - 1.5
PMMA 1.5 - 1.7
PC, PES, PSU 1.7 - 2.0
PVC 2
Table 3. Viscosity factor
As stated in an Injection Moulding Machine specification, injection pressure means the

maximum pressure in the barrel during injection, not the maximum hydraulic pressure.
The two are related by the ratio of the screw cross section area to the injection cylinders
area. Usually, injection pressure is higher than the maximum hydraulic pressure by about
10 times. Where there is a choice of screws for a given injection unit, the smaller
diameter screw produces the higher injection pressure. A high injection pressure helps in
moulding engineering thermoplastics. Material manufacturers publish minimum and
maximum injection pressures in the specification of the materials.
Maximum Injection Pressure The injection pressure is required to overcome the

resistance to flow of melt in the mould. It depends on melt viscosity, flow ratio and
mould temperature. Set pressure is higher than actual pressure during filling phase. The
- 42 -
relief valve is actuated on reaching set pressure during pressure phase. Higher injection
pressure is required for processing high viscosity materials like PC, RPVC, TPU etc. At
present new generation machines are capable of giving maximum injection pressure of
2200 bar or even 2500 bar.
Injection units are normally offered with the option of three screws (A, B & C) of different
diameter.
A screw (lower dia) gives maximum injection pressure of around 1800 - 2400 bar.
- is recommended for moulding of Engineering parts of higher flow ratio with high viscous
polymer & Commodity items of low flow ratio with commodity polymers.
B screw (medium dia) gives maximum injection pressure of around 1500 - 1800 bar
with max. shot weight/volume higher than that of A.
- is recommended for moulding of Engineering Parts Of Lower Flow Ratio With High
Viscosity Polymer & Commodity Items Of Medium Flow Ratio With Medium Wall
Thickness In Commodity Polymer.
C screw (higher dia) gives maximum injection pressure of around 1300 - 1500 bar
with max. shot weight/volume higher than that of B.
- is recommended for moulding of Commodity Items Of Medium / High Flow Ratio With
Thin / Thick Wall Thickness From Commodity Plastics.
It should be noted that the maximum flow ratio of the part to be moulded should be
lower than the maximum possible flow ratio of the polymer at the maximum injection
pressure of the injection unit. Refer the table for maximum flow ratio of various polymer.
2.9.7 Injection volume (Swept Volume)
Injection volume is theoretical. It equals the cross section area of the screw multiply with
the injection stroke.
Injection volume (cm3) = 3.1416 * (d2 / 4) * i

where d = diameter of screw , in cm
(~= diameter of barrel)
i = injection stroke, in cm
Due to leakage pass the screw tip and the backward movement of the non-return valve,
the actual injection volume is about 90% of the theoretical injection volume. To convert
the actual injection volume to shot weight, the resin S.G. at plasticizing temperature is
used. See Table 4.
Resin Abbreviation S.G. at plasticizing

temperature
General Purpose Polystyrene GPPS (PS) 0.886 - 0.901
High Impact Polystyrene HIPS 0.895 - 0.917
Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene ABS 0.895 - 0.908
Acrylonitrile Styrene AS (SAN) 0.907 - 0.917
Low Density Polyethylene LDPE 0.730 - 0.740
High Density Polyethylene HDPE 0.752 - 0.772
Polypropylene PP 0.712 - 0.737
Plasticized Polyvinyl Chloride (soft) PPVC 1.050 - 1.389
Unplasticized Polyvinyl Chloride (rigid) UPVC 1.134 - 1.219
Polyamide-6 PA-6 0.958 - 0.995
Polyamide-66 PA-66 0.958 - 0.995
- 43 -
Polymethyl Methacrylate PMMA 0.996 - 1.012
Polycarbonate PC 1.018 - 1.037
Polyoxymethylene (Polyacetal) POM 1.187 - 1.214
Polyethylene Terephthalate PET 1.129 - 1.172
Polybutylene Terephthalate PBT 1.102 - 1.113
Cellulose Acetate CA 1.074 - 1.104
Polyphenylene Oxide, modified PPO-M 0.873 - 0.890
Polyphenylene Sulfide PPS 1.075 - 1.109
Table 4. Specific gravity of resins at plasticizing temperature
Instead of using shot weight and the 35% to 85% rule in selecting an Injection Moulding
Machine, some manufacturers recommend using injection volume and the following rule.
For low requirement moulding, use between 20% to 80% of the injection unit injection
volume. For high requirement, use between 40% to 60%.
2.9.8 Injection speed
As stated in an Injection Moulding Machine specification, injection speed is the maximum

speed of the screw the machine is capable of during injection. It is expressed in cm/s.
Injection speed affects the injection time. Moulding thin-walled articles requires high
injection speed so that the melt does not solidify before the cavity is completely filled.
Through controlling hydraulic oil flow, some machines have multiple injection speeds
available during injection. The constant melt front theory stipulates the best moulding
occurs when the leading edge of the melt (the melt front) moves in the cavity at constant
speed. Since the mould cavity varies in cross sectional area, this requires multiple
injection speeds during injection. Some machines have as many as ten.
Maximum injection speed
Modern injection moulding machines are equipped with variable delivery or multiple
pumps which are capable of delivering sufficient oil to injection hydraulic cylinder to give
high enough injection speed for filling mould cavities rapidly.
Further, higher injection speed can be achieved by the use of hydraulic accumulator
(normally offered as optional). Higher injection speed can push the melt to furthest part
of mould at shorter time before the freezing of melt (increase in melt viscosity) on
account of lower mould temperature.
During filling phase, injection speed is required to be under control with out disturbing
the pressure setting. Therefore, set pressure has to be higher than actual pressure so
that the relief valve is not actuated. On actuation of relief valve, there would be no
control on injection speed. Thin walled commodity plastics items can be moulded with
high injection speed.
Shear sensitive engineering polymers are likely to be overheated on account of excessive

shearing due to high melt velocity. Hence, injection speed will have to be limited to suit
the polymer characteristics. In modern machine injection speed can be set in multi
stages - stroke controlled (up to 10 stages).
2.9.9 Accumulator
Some Injection Moulding Machines have an accumulator as an option to boost injection

speed. An accumulator is an energy storing device that stores up pressurized hydraulic
oil in a phase of low demand to be used in the injection (high demand) phase. It evens
out the load on the electric motor and reduces its overloading. While increasing the
electric motor and hydraulic pump sizes (available as an alternative by some
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manufacturers) does increase injection speed by about 25%, an accumulator does so
with about three times increase.
Figure 3. Accumulator
2.9.10 Injection rate
As an alternative to injection speed, some Injection Moulding Machine specifications use

injection rate. Injection rate is the maximum volume swept out by the screw per second
during injection. It is expressed in cm3/s.
Injection rate = injection speed * 3.1416 * (d/2)2,
where d = screw diameter in cm.
Note that injection speed is independent of screw diameter, but injection rate is.
2.9.11 Screw rotary speed
Screw rotary speed is specified as a range in rpm. Screw rotary speed by itself is not as
critical as screw surface speed. The two are related by the screw diameter.
Screw surface speed (mm/s)
= 3.1416 * screw diameter (mm) * screw rotary speed (rpm) / 60
Each plastic material has a recommended maximum screw surface speed which must not
be exceeded. For example, UPVC should not experience a screw surface speed of higher
than 200 mm/s.
Abbreviation Optimum surface Maximum surface

speed (mm/s) speed (mm/s)
GPPS (PS) 800 950
HIPS 850 900
ABS 550 650
AS (SAN) 400 450
LDPE 700 750
HDPE 750 800
PP 750 850
PPVC 150 200
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UPVC 150 200
PA-6 400 500
PA-66 400 500
PMMA 350 400
PC 400 500
POM (Copolymer) 200 500
POM (Homopolymer) 100 300
PET 300 400
PBT 300 350
CA 400 500
PPO-M 400 500
PPS 200 300
Table 5. Optimum and maximum surface speed of resins
Example 9: What is the maximum rpm for a 60 mm diameter screw injecting UPVC?
Maximum rpm = 60 * 200 / (3.1416 * 60) = 64.
2.9.12 Screw Motor Torque
The hydraulic motor that turns the screw has a rated torque, expressed in Newton-meter
(Nm) in SI unit. It represents the maximum amount of turning moment the motor can
produce at the specified hydraulic pressure. A viscous material needs a high torque and a
low rotary speed, vice versa for an easy-flowing material.
A higher torque is needed for screw C (large diameter) than screw A (small diameter).
The proportional pressure valve is used to adjust the motor torque to the needed value
during feeding.
2.9.13 Plasticizing Capacity
Plasticizing capacity is the amount of PS that an Injection Moulding Machine can

uniformly plasticize, or raise to a uniform moulding temperature, in one hour at
maximum screw rotary speed and zero back pressure. Since it is rated in PS, an
amorphous material, a higher plasticizing capacity is needed for semi-crystalline
materials. Although the barrel heaters also contribute to melt the plastic, their capacities
are not counted in plasticizing capacity.
To check if the plasticizing capacity of an Injection Moulding Machine is not being

exceeded, calculate the weight of component and sprue per shot W (g) divided by screw
rotation time t (s), and convert the quotient to kg/hour:
W * 3600/(t * 1000).
This must be less than the plasticizing capacity of the machine.
Since cycle time is longer than screw rotation time, the shot weight S (g) of a machine
and its plasticizing capacity G (kg/hr) set a lower limit on cycle time Tmin (s) as follows.
Tmin = S * 3600/(G * 1000).
It is particularly important to match shot weight and plasticizing capacity in the case of
fast cycling machines producing thin walled or closed tolerance components.
Plasticizing capacity could be increased by a larger electric motor and hydraulic pump.
The next five attributes relates to the dimensions of the mould the machine could
accommodate. They indirectly relate to the maximum dimension of the moulded part.
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2.9.14 Mould Opening Stroke
Mould opening stroke is the displacement of the moving platen from mould close to
mould open. Mould opening stroke determines the maximum height H of the moulded
part the machine is capable of. The relationship is
Mould Opening Stroke >= 2H + Sprue Length L
In a hot runner system, L = 0.
The inequality allows for a clearance for gravity, the robot arm or human hand to remove
the part.
Figure 4. Mould opening stroke
2.9.15 Mould Height (Mould Thickness)
Mould height is left over from the days when presses are vertical. In a horizontal press, a
more appropriate description is mould thickness.
Figure 5. Mould height, width and length
In a toggle clamp Injection Moulding Machine specification, mould height is expressed as

a range, from the minimum to the maximum mould height the machine could
accommodate. The difference is the mould height adjustment the machine is capable of.
In a direct hydraulic clamp Injection Moulding Machine specification, mould height is

expressed as a number, the minimum mould height the machine could accommodate.
The actual mould height must be bigger than the machine minimum mould height for the
mould to be closed and clamped. Otherwise, a smaller machine (to be exact, a smaller
clamping unit) is called for.
The actual mould height must be less than the machine maximum mould height for the
mould to fit in. Otherwise, a bigger machine is called for.
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Figure 6. Mould height
2.9.16 Minimum Mould Height
With hydraulic clamp machine there can be only one specification of minimum mould
height. However, with toggle clamp machine, the shut mould height has to be between
minimum mould height and maximum mould height of machine.
If the shut mould height is lower than the minimum mould height of the machine then
the additional back plate of suitable thickness should be provided on the mould to
build up the shut mould height equal to more than the minimum mould height of the
machine.
2.9.17 Maximum Daylight
The maximum opening between the fixed and moving platens when the clamp is wide
open. It is related to mould opening stroke and minimum/maximum mould height as
follows.
For a Toggle Clamp Machine,
Maximum Daylight = Mould Opening Stroke + Maximum Mould Height.
For a direct hydraulic clamp machine,
Maximum Daylight = Mould Opening Stroke + Minimum Mould Height.
2.9.18 Space between Tie bars
The mould must fit within the space between tie bars. This space is expressed in
horizontal and vertical dimensions.
Refer to Figures 5 and 7. The mould width must fit within the horizontal space between
tie bars if the mould is lowered from above. The mould length must fit within the vertical
space between tie bars if the mould is slit in from the side. It is advised that there is a
clearance of 25 mm on each side for a small mould, and 50 mm for a big mould. This is
to avoid banging of the heavy mould against the tie bars during loading, denting them
and subsequently affecting the bearing in the moving platen which travels over them.
Figure 7. Space between tie bars
Tie bar less Injection Moulding Machines do not have this restriction.
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2.9.19 Platen size
The platens are thick steel plates to back up the moulds with. It is advisable that the
moulds do not protrude beyond the platen limits to avoid bending the moulds during
injection. Too small a mould would put undue bending stress on the platens, breaking
them in the extreme case. Some manufacturers offer a choice of platen sizes for machine
of a given clamping force. A car bumper is an example where a very wide platen is
needed.
2.9.20 Platen thickness
The moving platen and fixed platen must have sufficient stiffness to transmit the forces
of the tie bars to the mould with minimum deflection. For a given geometry, a flat
platen’s deflection is proportional to the cube of its thickness. Especially for the moving
platen, a compromise has to be struck between weight and thickness.
Space between tie bars is related to platen size. If this space is increased without
increasing the platen thickness, the platen under the same load deflects more. In short,
one must not consider space between tie bars alone, but must consider it together with
platen stiffness.
Platen deflection causes the mould to deflect which in turn changes the shape and
dimensions of the moulded article.
Figure 8. Platen deflection is affected by platen thickness and size
Some machine makers put ribs on a platen to increase its stiffness while minimizing its
weight. Since there is no standard rib patterns, comparison of platen stiffness across
manufactures is not easy.
Figure 9 Ribbed stationary platen

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2.9.21 Tie bar diameter
Most Injection Moulding Machines with tie bars have four of them, except small machines
below about 20 tonnes, which have two. Together, their tension forces hold the mould
halves together against cavity pressure during injection.
If the tie bar tensions are even, the stress in each of them is given by
stress = clamping force * 1000/(3.1416 * (d2/4) * 4)

= clamping force * 1000/(3.1416 * d2),
where stress is in kg/mm2
clamping force is in tonnes,
diameter d in mm.
High tensile steel has a breaking stress of more than 90kg/mm 2. Mild steel has a
breaking stress of 20kg/mm2. A tiebar breaks if its stress exceeds the breaking stress.
More often then not, a tiebar breakage is due to uneven tensions among them. This is
caused by
a. non-parallel mould faces,

b. non-symmetrical cavity with respect to the sprue,
c. misadjustment of the mould height adjustment
mechanism of a toggle clamp machine.
When the mould expands due to higher temperature, it stretches the tiebars more than
when the mould was set up when it was at room temperature.
Example 10: In a 125 Tonne Machine has four tie bars, each with diameter 75 mm. The
clamping force is 125 tonnes. High tensile steel is used. What is the safety factor built
into tie bars of this machine?
Assuming even tension, each tie bar has stress
= 125 * 1000/(3.1416 * 752) = 7.07 kg/mm2.
The safety factor is 90/7.07 = 12.7.
Usually a safety factor of 10 or more is common in an industrial design. An example is

the stress in the cables hauling a fully loaded lift up and down. Tie bar breakage occurs
at the root of a thread where the radius is smaller and there is stress concentration.
2.9.22 Dry Cycle Time
Dry cycle time is the mould closing time plus mould opening time plus idle time. Dry
cycle time is the ultimate cycle time as there is no cooling period. An alternative
expression is cycle rate, the number of cycles per minute.
Running a machine at the maximum possible cycle rate is not desirable if the machine is
not running smooth and stable. This is another example why an attribute should not be
evaluated by itself alone
2.9.23 Electric Motor Rating
The hydraulic system is driven by an electric motor. It converts electrical energy to

mechanical energy at certain efficiency. An electrical motor is rated in terms of kW or hp
which denotes its maximum power delivery under the specified conditions like
temperature of its windings. Some manufacturers offer a bigger pump size as an
alternative. The motor size is also increased.
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It is important not to confuse the power rating of the electric motor to energy efficiency.
A lower power does not by itself mean an Injection Moulding Machine is more energy
efficient than another with a higher rating. It means it is overloaded more during the
moulding cycle. A three-phase motor is about 90% efficient over a wide range of power
rating.
The moulding cycle demands widely varying hydraulic power in its different phases. At
the electric motor, this translates to a similar demand in electrical power. Usually, the
injection phase is the most demanding phase of the cycle. An electric motor is rated at
below that power, requiring it to run above its rating in the injection phase.
For an Injection Moulding Machine without an accumulator, the injection phase presents
an overload to the electric motor. Most motors could be overloaded to two times its rated
torque for short periods. Since a three phase motor runs at a relatively constant speed,
even at overload, the extra power comes from increased torque. Because power = rotary
speed * torque, the extra power comes from increased torque. Since motor current is
proportional to torque, an overloaded motor heats up (proportional to the square of
current) more than it is rated at, reducing its long-term reliability. A motor with a higher
power is overloaded less.
The story is different if the Injection Moulding Machine has an accumulator which does
allow the electric motor to have a lower rating. Hydraulic energy is stored into the
accumulator in phases of low demand to be used in the injection phase. In short, it evens
out the motor loading during the cycle and reduces its overloading.
A motor with a high rating does not use up more energy. How much energy is used
depends on the load (the work to be done) which in turn depends on the electric drive,
hydraulic drive and hydraulic circuit design.
The current per phase drawn by a three phase motor at its rated power is i m (A)
= motor power rating (kW)*1000 / (3*single phase power voltage(V) *efficiency*power

factor)
= motor power rating (hp)*746 / (3*single phase power voltage(V) *efficiency*power
factor)
For most three phase motors,
efficiency = 0.88 - 0.91,
power factor = 0.84 - 0.88.
Example 11: An Injection Moulding Machine is driven by a 30 hp three phase motor. Find
the current per phase it draws when the single phase power voltage is 220 V.
Assume an efficiency of 0.91 and a power factor of 0.88. The current drawn per phase at
the rated power of 30 hp is im = 30*746/(3*220*0.91*0.88) = 42.3 A.
Figure 10 Power demand during the moulding cycle
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2.9.24 Electric Heater Rating
Electric band heaters along the barrel provides the initial heat up to the resin at start up.
It also supplements the heating by plastication (when the screw rotates) during the
moulding cycle. A higher rating per heater has the advantage of shortening the initial
heat up time.
Usually, there are one to two band heaters per heating zone. As much as possible, the
heaters are evenly distributed among the three phases.
The maximum current drawn by the band heaters is
ih (A) = electric heater rating (kW)*1000 / (3*single phase voltage(V)).
Example 12: An Injection Moulding Machine has 6 band heaters each rated at 1.2 kW.
The 6 heaters are distributed 2 to a phase in the three phase electrical system. Find the
maximum current per phase it draws when the single phase power voltage is 220 V.
ih = 6*1.2*1000 / (3*220) = 10.9 A.
2.9.25 Total Power
This equals the electric motor rating plus the electric heater rating. It is for planning the
current in the electric power connection. However, motor overloading is not accounted
for in total power as the motor rating is used.
it = im + ih.
Example 13: What is the total current per phase needed when installing An Injection
Moulding Machine it = 42.3 + 10.9 = 53.2 A.
2.9.26 Number of Heating Zones
The number of heating zones is defined by the number of thermocouples installed on the
barrel. If discrete temperature controllers are used, it is the same as the number of
temperature controllers. Usually, a temperature controller controls one to two electric
band heaters.
More heating zones provide better control of temperature along the barrel length. Since a
bigger machine has a longer barrel, it also has more heating zones.
2.9.27 Oil Tank Capacity
Oil tank capacity has significance in cooling and number of barrels of oil to purchase.
More oil in a bigger tank reduces the temperature of the oil since the heat generated is
spread out more. Furthermore, a bigger tank has a bigger cooling surface.
Hydraulic oil comes in 200 litre barrels. An oil tank of 220 litre capacity requires the user
to purchase two barrels.
2.9.28 Hopper Capacity
Once a hopper is filled to capacity, for how long could it be left alone before refilling? A
bigger hopper capacity requires less attention by the operator.
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However, when moulding hygroscopic resin, a hopper must not be filled for the resin to
remain in the hopper for more than an hour. The weight of resin (kg) to be fed into the
hopper should be less than
actual shot weight (g) * 3600 / (cycle time (s) * 1000).
Example 13: The weights of each component and the runners are 14g and 12g
respectively. The machine is producing 6 components per cycle with a cycle time of 24s.
How much should a hopper be filled so that the resin does not stay in the hopper for
more than an hour?
The required weight = (6 * 14 + 12) * 3600 / (24 * 1000) = 14.4kg
Since plastic materials comes in 25-kg bags, half a bag would satisfy the requirement.
2.9.29 System pressure
The most common hydraulic system pressure used in An Injection Moulding Machine is
140 bars, which approximately equals to 140 kg/cm2. This is limited by the vane pump.
By its very design, vane pump has unbalanced pressure within, which limits it from
reaching a higher pressure.
A higher system pressure of 170 bars or even 200 bars are used with piston pump, which
demands cleaner hydraulic oil to work with. At a high system pressure, either cylinder
diameter could be reduced to get the same force or higher force could be obtained from
the same cylinder diameter. With a higher force, response to the control signals is faster.
2.9.30 Screw and Barrel
Nitrided screw and barrel
To protect the screw and barrel from wear and corrosion by the melt, especially acidic
plastic materials like PVC and acetate, nitride treatment of the screw and barrel is
common. Nitriding hardens the screw and barrel surface.
Bimetallic screw and barrel
Glass fiber is getting popular as a material mixed with other resins. It is very abrasive.
Bimetallic screw and barrel are used in this case. For the barrel, an inner tube of
tungsten carbide (Xaloy 800) is used. For the screw, Colmony is sprayed onto the flight
and tungsten carbide onto the land to protect the metal below from abrasion. Naturally,
the non-return valve needs similar protection against abrasion. Bimetallic screw and
barrel is about 3 times more expensive than nitrided screw and barrel.
Figure 11. Bimetallic screw
Honed and chrome plated tie bars made of tensile steel
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The moving platen slides on the tie bars back and forth every cycle. Having a honed and
chrome plated surface reduces wear.
Held by the nuts at both ends of each tie bar, the tie bars provide the tensile force to the
clamping cylinder to hold the mould halves together. Tie bars made of high tensile steel
could provide the tons of force needed. It has a higher breaking stress than mild steel.
2.9.31 Cold start interlock
When starting up the heaters and before the barrel temperature reaches the set
temperature, it is important that the screw does not turn to feed and to plasticize as the
screw and barrel could be damaged by the pellets. Many machines have such an interlock
to prevent the screw from turning before the set temperature is reached.
2.9.32 Low pressure mould protection
A part moulded in the previous cycle that has not been properly ejected could damage
the mould when it closes again. Low pressure mould protection closes the mould at low
pressure. Opposed by the jammed article, the mould mould not close completely in the
preset time. This function would stop the closing and sound an alarm. It is not designed
to protect the human body part, which is done by the interlocks at the safety gates.
2.9.33 Nozzle type
Simple nozzle, spring shut-off nozzle and hydraulic shut-off nozzle are the common
types. Simple nozzle is suited to plastic materials that degenerates with heat, e.g. PVC.
Being simple, it does not have stagnation points to accumulate stale plastic.
Spring shut-off nozzle is suited to plastics with low viscosity, e.g. nylon. The spring
action closes the nozzle during feeding. Springs tends to lose its elasticity over time
when strained at high temperature.
Hydraulic shut-off valve provides a positive shut-off through actuating a hydraulic

cylinder.
2.9.34 Hydraulic oil temperature control
Hydraulic oil must be maintained at between 40 and 50oC. This is done by control of the
cooling water flow.
Too high an oil temperature reduces the oil viscosity, and ages the rubber sealing rings
faster. For consistent product quality and to improve the Injection Moulding Machine's
reliability, it is worth investing in the closed loop temperature control of hydraulic oil, if it
is available as an option.
2.9.35 Hydraulic oil contamination control
Contamination and metal filings from cylinder/piston wear degrade the hydraulic oil.
Hydraulic oil is filtered at the pump inlet and optionally filtered on return. A differential
pressure sensor across the filter raises an alarm when the oil is too contaminated and
must be replaced. Alternatively, an optical device immersed in the oil detects how dirty
the oil is.
2.9.36 Safety features
The safety gate protects the human operator from mould closing. Once the safety gate is
opened, a mechanical stop is lowered and/or electrical and/or hydraulic circuits are
broken to prevent the mould from closing. The more methods of interlocking the safer is
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the machine. Some manufactures only provide mechanical and/or hydraulic locks as
options.
Some machines provide the same safety features at the front as well as the back safety
gates.
2.9.37 Metal detector option
When a resin is recycled, it may be contaminated with pieces of metal. A magnetic

grating in the hopper prevents ferromagnetic metals from entering the barrel. Even
better, a metal detector signals even when non-ferromagnetic metal passes through the
hopper. A pump then removes the contaminated pellets.
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2.10. Melt Behavior – Plastic melt behavior in side the barrel and mould
2.10.0 How does plastic flow?

2.10.1 Material behaviour
2.10.2 Visco-elastic behavior
2.10.3 Melt shear viscosity
2.10.3.1 Newtonian fluid vs. non-Newtonian fluid
2.10.3.2 Shear-thinning behaviour
2.10.3.4 Shear rate distribution
2.10.3.5 Effects of temperature and pressure
2.10.4.1 Pressure drives the melt
2.10.4.2 Circular channel flow
2.10.4.3 Strip channel flow
2.10.4.4 Factors that influence injection pressure requirements
2.10.5 Pressure-driven flow
2.10.5.1 Pressure gradient and melt speed
2.10.6 Flow conductance
2.10.7 Melt flow length
2.10.8 Injection pressure vs. fill time
2.10.9 Flow instability
2.10.0 How does plastic flow?
2.10.1 Material behaviour

Molten thermoplastic exhibits viscoelastic behaviour, which combines flow characteristics
of both viscous liquids and elastic solids. When a viscous liquid flows, the energy that
causes the deformation is dissipated and becomes viscous heat. On the other hand, when
an elastic solid is deformed, the driving energy is stored. For example, the flow of water
is a typical viscous flow, whereas the deformation of a rubber cube falls into the elastic
category.
Deformation
In addition to the two types of material flow behavior, there are two types of
deformation: simple shear and simple extension (elongation), as shown in (a) and (b)
below. The flow of molten thermoplastics during injection moulding filling is
predominantly shear flow, as shown in (c), in which layers of material elements "slide"
over each other. The extensional flow, however, becomes significant as the material
elements undergo elongation when the melt passes areas of abrupt dimensional change
(e.g., a gate region), as shown in (d).
FIGURE 1. (a) Simple shear flow. (b)

Simple extensional flow. (c) Shear flow
in cavity filling. (d) Extensional flow in
cavity filling.
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2.10.2 Visco-elastic behavior
In response to an applied stress (force per unit area), molten thermoplastics exhibit
viscoelastic behavior, which combines characteristics of an ideal viscous liquid with those
of an ideal elastic solid. In other words, under certain conditions, molten thermoplastics
behave like a liquid, and will continuously deform while shear stress is applied, as shown
below. Upon the removal of the stress, however, the materials behave somewhat like an
elastic solid with partial recovery of the deformation, as shown in (b) and (c). This
viscoelastic behavior stems from the random-coil configuration of polymer molecules in
the molten state, which allows the movement and slippage of molecular chains under the
influence of an applied load. However, the entanglement of the polymer molecular chains
also makes the system behave like an elastic solid upon the application and removal of
the external load. Namely, on removal of the stress, chains will tend to return to the
equilibrium random-coil state and thus will be a component of stress recovery. The
recovery is not instantaneous because of the entanglements still present in the system.
FIGURE 2. (a) Ideal viscous liquid deforms continuously under applied stress. (b) Ideal
elastic solid deforms immediately upon the application of stress, but fully recovers when
the stress is removed. (c) Molten thermoplastic deforms continuously under the applied
stress (like a viscous liquid), but it also recovers partially from the deformation upon
removal of the applied stress (like an elastic solid).
2.10.3 Melt shear viscosity
What is shear viscosity?

Melt shear viscosity is a material's resistance to shear flow. In general, polymer melts are
highly viscous due to their long molecular chain structure. The viscosity of polymer melt
ranges from 2 to 3,000 Pas (water 10-1, glass 1020). Viscosity can be thought of as the
thickness of a fluid, or how much it resists flow. Viscosity is expressed as the ratio of
shear stress (force per unit area) to the shear rate (rate change of shear strain), as
shown in the equation and diagram below:
where
FIGURE 3. The definition of polymer melt

viscosity, illustrated by a simple shear flow
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2.10.3.1 Newtonian fluid vs. non-Newtonian fluid
For Newtonian fluids, viscosity is a temperature-dependent constant, regardless of the

shear rate. A typical example of Newtonian fluid is water. However, for non-Newtonian
fluids, which include most polymer melts, the viscosity varies, not only with temperature,
but with the shear rate.
2.10.3.2 Shear-thinning behavior
When the polymer is deformed, there will be some disentanglement, slippage of chains
over each other, and molecular alignment in the direction of the applied stress. As a
result, the resistance exhibited by polymer to flow decreases with the deformation, due
to the evolution of its microstructure (which tends to align in the flow direction). This is
often referred to as shear-thinning behavior, which translates to lower viscosity with a
high shear rate. Shear-thinning behavior provides some benefits for processing the
polymer melt. For example, if you double the applied pressure to move water in an open-
ended pipe, the flow rate of the water also doubles, since the water does not have shear-
thinning behavior. But in a similar situation using a polymer melt, if the pressure is
doubled, the melt flow rate may increase from 2 to 15 times, depending on the material.
2.10.3.4 Shear rate distribution
Having introduced the concept of shear viscosity, let us look at the shear rate distribution
in the cavity during injection moulding. Generally speaking, the faster the adjacent
material elements move over each other, the higher the shear rate is.
FIGURE 4. (a) A typical velocity profile with relative flow element movement and (b) the
corresponding shear rate distribution in injection moulding filling.
Therefore, for a typical melt flow velocity profile, shown in (a), it is clear that the shear
rate is highest at the mould-melt interface (or at the melt-solid interface if there is a
frozen polymer layer). On the other hand, the shear rate approaches zero at the center
line because there is no relative material element movement due to flow symmetry, as
shown in Figure 4 (b). Shear rate is an important flow parameter since it influences the
melt viscosity and the amount of shear (viscous) heating. The typical shear rate
experienced by the polymer melt during the injection moulding process ranges from 10 2
to 105 second-1.
2.10.3.5 Effects of temperature and pressure
Since the mobility of polymer molecular chains decreases with decreasing temperature,
the flow resistance of polymer melt also greatly depends on the temperature. As shown
in Figure 5, the melt viscosity decreases with increasing shear rate and temperature due
to the disentanglement and alignment of the molecules and enhanced mobility of
polymer molecules, respectively. In addition, the melt viscosity also depends on the
pressure. The higher the pressure, the more viscous the melt becomes.
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FIGURE 5. The viscosity of polymer melt
depends on the shear rate, pressure, and
temperature.
Rheological material properties contains a mathematical description of the shear viscosity

as a function of shear rate, temperature, and pressure. For a discussion on how high
pressure increases the level of viscosity, see Pressure dependence of viscosity.
Pressure-Volume-Temperature (PVT) Behaviour
PVT behavior refers to the change in specific volume with temperature and pressure
changes.
The specific volume is defined as volume per unit mass. The specific volume, v of a
polymer changes with variations in temperature and pressure.
Volumetric expansion data for polymeric materials are obtained under equilibrium. Such
data represent fundamental thermodynamic properties of the material and reflect the
transitions as the material moves from glassy to crystalline to melt state.
In the figure, as the pressure and the temperature change from P and T to P ' and T', the
volume of the same mass m changes from V to V'.
P V T data can be measured using standard equipment. The specimen is heated in an

enclosed cell and the change in its volume is measured when it is subjected to a range of
pressures.
Specimens may be either in the form of polymer pellets or they may be cut from the
moulded plaques.
PVT behavior of materials plays a critical role in relating processing to the final part
performance.
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The shrinkage of a moulded plastic part can be as much as twenty percent by volume
when measured between the processing temperature and the ambient temperature.
Semi-crystalline polymers have higher shrinkage than amorphous polymers because of

the ordering and folding of chains in a semi crystalline polymer below its freezing point.
This leads to a greater difference in specific volume ( v) between the melt phase and
the solid phase for semi-crystalline materials. The presence of fillers like talc or short
glass fibers reduces the difference in specific volume ( v) between the melt phase and
the solid phase.
Viscosity
Viscosity behavior of materials is important in determining the flow length and the
amount of viscous heating generated during the melt flow.
Most polymer melts exhibit shear-thinning behavior, which translates to lower, viscosity
with higher shear rate. Hence the viscosity of the melt varies across the thickness of the
part due to the variation in shear rate.
Melt viscosity decreases with temperature but the sensitivity varies among
thermoplastics. For example, the viscosity of polystyrene and polypropylene are
considerably more sensitive to temperature than that of polyethylene. At pressures of
several thousand p s i the viscosity increases with pressure. The presence of fillers
increases melt viscosity.
The viscosity is critical for determining the injection pressure with a given rate or the flow
length with a given maximum pressure.
The viscosity of a polymer melt is adequately described by the Cross-model. This model
treats viscosity as a function of temperature (T), pressure (P), and shear rate ( ).
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This model handles both the Newtonian and the shear thinning flow regimes. The
transition between the two regimes is characterized by t*.
t* is the shear stress at which shear thinning behavior begins to manifest itself. The
slope of the shear-thinning region can be characterized in terms of a shear thinning
index, n.
This model is often adopted for simulating the filling stage of injection moulding.
Cooling time is a function of mould wall temperature, melt temperature, material

properties and part wall thickness.
2.10.4.1 Pressure drives the melt

Pressure is the driving force that overcomes the resistance of polymer melt (see
Pressure-driven flow), pushing the polymer to fill and pack the mould cavity. If you place
a number of pressure sensors along the flow path of the polymer melt, the pressure
distribution in the polymer melt can be obtained, as schematically illustrated in Figure 6
below.
FIGURE 6. Pressure decreases along

the delivery system and the cavity.
Equations
Based on a simplification of classic fluid mechanics theory, the injection pressure required
to fill the delivery system (the sprue, runner, and gate) and cavities can be correlated
with several relevant material, design, and processing parameters. In the following
equations, P is the injection pressure and n is a material constant (the power-law
coefficient), which typically ranges from 0.15 to 0.36 (with 0.3 being a good
approximation) for a variety of polymer melts. Figure 7 shows injection pressure as a
function of several of these parameters.
FIGURE 7. Injection pressure as a function

of melt viscosity, flow length, volumetric
flow rate, and part thickness
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2.10.4.2 Circular channel flow
The melt flow in the sprue, runner, and cylindrical gates
2.10.4.3 Strip channel flow
Such as melt flow in a thin cavity
2.10.4.4 Factors that influence injection pressure requirements
The following diagrams illustrate the design and processing factors that influence
injection pressure.
Variable Higher injection pressure Lower injection pressure

required required
PART DESIGN
Part thickness Thin Part Thickness Thick Part Thickness
Part surface area More Surface Area Less Surface Area
GATE DESIGN
Gate size Restrictive Gate Generous Gate
Flow length Long Flow Length Short Flow Length
PROCESSING CONDITIONS
Melt temperature Colder Melt Hotter Melt
Mould-wall Temp. Mould is Cool Mould is Hot
Injection Speed Improper Speed Optimized Speed
MATERIAL SELECTION
Melt flow index Low MFI High MFI
2.10.5 Pressure-driven flow
Flow of molten thermoplastics (in injection moulding filling) is driven by pressure that
overcomes the melt's resistance to flow. Molten thermoplastics flow from high pressure
areas to the low pressure areas, analogous to water flowing from higher elevations to
lower elevations. During the injection stage, high pressure builds up at the injection
nozzle to overcome the flow resistance of the polymer melt. The pressure gradually
decreases along the flow length toward the polymer melt front, where the pressure
reaches the atmospheric pressure, if the cavity is vented properly.
FIGURE 8. Evolution of pressure

distribution within the cavity during filling
and early packing
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2.10.5.1 Pressure gradient and melt speed
The higher the pressure and resultant pressure gradient (pressure drop per unit flow
length) at the melt entrances, the faster the material flows. Therefore, increased flow
length requires increased entrance pressure, in order to generate the same pressure
gradient to maintain the polymer melt speed, as shown in Figure 9 below.
FIGURE 9. The relationship of melt velocity to the pressure gradient.
2.10.6 Flow conductance
The speed of the melt also depends on the flow conductance, an index of how easily the
melt can flow. Flow conductance, in turn, is a function of the geometry (e.g., wall
thickness, surface features) and the melt viscosity. The flow conductance increases with
increasing wall thickness and decreases with increasing melt viscosity, as shown below.
FIGURE 10. The relationship of flow FIGURE 11. The melt flow length depends
conductance to the wall thickness and on the part thickness and temperature.
viscosity.
2.10.7 Melt flow length
During injection moulding, the distance that the material can flow, with certain
processing conditions and wall thickness, is dependent on the thermal properties and
shear properties of the material. This behavior can be characterized by the melt flow
length, as illustrated in Figure 11.
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2.10.8 Injection pressure vs. fill time
For injection moulding, if the injection pressure required to fill the cavity is plotted
against the fill time, a U-shaped curve typically results, with the minimum value of the
required injection pressure occurring at an intermediate fill time, as illustrated below. The
curve is U-shaped because, on the one hand, a short fill time involves a high melt
velocity and thus requires a higher injection pressure to fill the mould. On the other
hand, the injected polymer cools more with a prolonged fill time. This results in a higher
melt viscosity and thus requires a higher injection pressure to fill the mould. The shape
of the curve of injection pressure versus fill time depends very much on the material
used, as well as on the cavity geometry and mould design.
FIGURE 12. U-shaped curve of injection

pressure vs. fill time.
2.10.9 Flow instability
Finally, it should be pointed out that the dynamics of cavity filling may sometimes
become quite complicated because of the interaction of the melt velocity (or,
equivalently, the shear rate), the melt viscosity, and the melt temperature. Recall that
the melt viscosity decreases with increasing shear rate and temperature. It is possible
that high shear rate and shear heating resulting from a higher melt velocity will drive the
viscosity down, so that the flow velocity actually increases. This will create a greater
shear rate and temperature rise, and is an inherent instability of highly shear-sensitive
materials.
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2.11. Machine Operation – Setting of Process parameters, Mould Setting, Semi
& Automatic Operation
Setting Machine Process Conditions
Before setting process conditions, you should make sure the moulding machine is in
proper working order, and that the mould you plan to use was designed for the particular
machine you plan to use. Follow the step-by-step procedure provided below to control
the settings on machine.
Step 1 - Set the melt temperature
Melt temperature is one of the most important factors in moulding plastic parts. If it is
too low, the resin might not be completely melted or it might be too sticky to flow. If the
melt temperature is too high, the resin could degrade, especially if the resin is POM or
PVC. Suggested melt and mould temperatures for specific materials are available from
the resin supplier. Appropriate melt and mould temperatures for several materials are
listed in Resin data table. The resin table also contains links to descriptions of resins,
their general properties, and typical applications.
Setting heater band temperatures
Most melting of the resin occurs because of the frictional heating from the screw rotation
inside the barrel. The barrel heater bands serve mainly to keep the resin at the
appropriate temperature. Typically there are three to five temperature zones or heater
bands on the cylinder. The rules for setting the heater band temperatures are as follows:
 The temperature should gradually decrease from the nozzle zone to the zone
nearest the hopper.
 The last temperature zone, nearest the hopper, should be about 40º to 50ºC
lower than the calculated melt temperature, to give better transport of plastic
pellets during plasticization.
The heater band at the nozzle zone should be set to the calculated melt temperature,
and should keep the temperature uniform. Improper heater band temperature settings
may cause drooling at the nozzle, and degradation or colour change, especially for PA
materials. Here is an example of PS having melt temperature 235ºC A process engineer
can use this melt temperature to set the heater band temperature as follows:
 235ºC at the nozzle zone

 235ºC at the front zone
 210ºC at the first middle zone
 195ºC at the second middle zone
 180ºC at the rear zone
Step 2 - Set the mould temperature
Suggested melt and mould temperatures for specific materials are available from the
resin supplier.
The mould temperature can be measured by using a thermometer. As illustrated below,

the average cavity surface temperature will be higher than the temperature of the
coolant during production. Thus, you should set the coolant temperature to be 10º to
20ºC lower than the required mould temperature. If the mould temperature is 40º to
50ºC or more, consider insulation plates between the mould and the clamping plates, for
energy savings and process stabilization.
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FIGURE 2. Temperature-time curve at
various locations in the mould. a) Mould
cavity surface. b) Cooling channel wall. c)
Cooling channel outlet. d) Cooling channel
inlet.
Use the lowest temperature setting to achieve the shortest cycle time. However, you
might try using higher temperatures to improve the appearance of the part. A higher
mould temperature produces a higher gloss and more crystallization.
Considering temperature difference
For parts with a deep core, a lower coolant temperature is needed for the core (moving
plate) in order to minimize the temperature difference between the mould surfaces on
the core and cavity. A lower surface temperature difference will produce parts with
higher quality, at a lower cost. By a rule of thumb, the coolant temperature for fixed and
moving plates should not differ by more than 20ºC. This is related to thermal expansion,
which can be determined only by the user. A large temperature difference results in
differential mould plate thermal expansion, which may cause alignment problems in
guide pins, especially in large moulds. The mould will sometimes lock up for this reason.
The cycle time can be increased to reduce the required coolant temperature difference.
Step 3 - Set the switch-over position
The switch-over position is the ram position where the filling (injection) stage switches to
the post-filling (packing or holding) stage. The cushion distance is the distance from the
switch-over position to the farthest position that the end of the screw can reach, as
shown in Figure 3. Thus, the switch-over position determines the cushion distance. The
cushion should contain adequate material for post-filling the part. An insufficient cushion
could cause sink marks. The typical cushion distance is about 5 to 10 mm.
At this step, set the switch-over position to fill about two-thirds of the mould. This
prevents damage to the press or the mould.
FIGURE 3. Screw positions at various stages
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Step 4 - Set the screw rotation speed
Set the Screw rotation speed to the level required to plasticize the resin. Plasticizing
should not prolong the cycle time. If it does, increase the speed. The ideal speed causes
plasticizing to complete at the latest possible point in the cycle without prolonging the
cycle time. Resin vendors supply the suggested screw rotation speed for specific resins.
Step 5 -Set the back pressure
The recommended Back pressure is about 5 to 10 MPa. Back pressure that is too low can
result in inconsistent parts. Increasing the back pressure will increase the frictional
contribution to the melt temperature and decrease the plasticization time. Use a higher
back pressure to achieve a shot volume that is a larger percentage of the injection
machine's capacity, in order to speed up plasticization. Use a lower back pressure for a
smaller percentage shot volume because the material will remain in the barrel longer (for
many cycles) before it reaches the screw head.
Step 6 - Set the injection pressure to the machine maximum
The injection pressure is the pressure of the melt in front of the screw. The injection
pressure should be as low as possible to reduce part internal stress. On the machine, set
the injection pressure to the machine maximum. The purpose is to completely exploit the
injection velocity of the machine, so that the pressure setting valve does not limit the
velocity. Because the switch-over to holding pressure occurs before the mould is
completely filled, no damage will be done to the mould.
Step 7 - Set the holding pressure at 0 MPa
For now, set the holding pressure at 0 MPa, so the screw will stop when it reaches the
switch-over position. This will prevent mould or press damage. In Step 17, the holding
pressure is increased to its final setting.
Step 8 - Set the injection velocity to the machine maximum
With the highest possible injection velocity, you can expect less flow resistance, longer
flow length, and improved strength in weld lines. However, you may need to create vents
once you do this.
Proper venting minimizes defects
Insufficient venting causes compression of air trapped in the cavity. This results in very
high temperatures and pressures in the cavity, causing burn marks, material
degradation, and short shots. You should design a venting system to avoid or minimize
the defects caused by trapped air in the mould.
A higher injection pressure requirement will slow the injection velocity, thus resulting in a
longer filling time.
The actual filling time on the shop floor may be shorter if there is a booster or
accumulator attached to the injection unit, or may be longer if the injection velocity is
not set to the maximum. Also note that the shop floor filling time often refers to "the
time while the screw is moving," which includes filling time and holding time. The actual
filling time should stop at the switch-over position.
Step 9 - Set the holding time
The ideal holding time setting is the gate freezing (sealing) time or the part freezing
time, whichever is shorter. The gate and part freezing times can be calculated or
estimated.
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Step 10 - Set ample remaining cooling time
Cooling time can be calculated or estimated. The cooling time consists of the holding time
and the remaining cooling time, as shown in Figure 4. first estimate of the cooling time
can be 10 times the filling time. For example, if the predicted filling time is .85 seconds,
the initial holding time would be 8.5 seconds and the additional cooling time would be 8.5
seconds. This ensures that the part and runner system will be sufficiently solid for
ejection.
FIGURE 4. Cycle time and its components
Step 11 - Set the mould open time
The mould open time is usually set at 2 to 5 seconds. This includes mould opening,
ejection of parts from the mould, then mould closing, as shown in Figure 4. The cycle
time is the sum of the filling time, cooling time, and mould open time.
Step 12 - Mould a short-shot series by increasing injection volume
For now, fill only two-thirds of the mould. The holding pressure should already be set at 0
MPa, so that mould filling stops when the screw reaches the switch-over position, thus
protecting the mould structure and the press. Next, increase the volume in increments of
5 to 10 percent, up to 95 percent of mould filling.
In order to prevent material from escaping from the open nozzle, relieve the back
pressure created during plasticizing by drawing back the screw a few millimeters,
immediately after the rotation has stopped.
Step 13 - Switch to automatic operation
The purpose of an automatic operation is to obtain stability in the process.
Step 14 - Set the mould opening stroke
The mould opening stroke is comprised of the core height, the part height, and the
capsize space, as shown in Figure 5. You should minimize the mould opening stroke. The
mould opening speed should be slow at the very beginning, then accelerate, then slow
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down again at the end of the stroke. The sequence of the mould closing speed is similar
to the mould opening speed: slow, fast, slow.
FIGURE 5. Required mould opening
Step 15 - Set the ejector stroke, start position, and velocity
Relieve any slides first. The ejector travel should be, at a maximum, the core height. If
the machine is equipped with a hydraulic ejector, set the start position at the point where
the part is clear of stationary mould parts. (When the ejector velocity is equal to the
opening speed, the part remains where it was in relation to the stationary mould part.)
Step 16 - Set the injection volume to 99% mould filled
When the process has stabilized (when the same parts are produced each time), adjust
the switch-over position to 99 percent of filling. This will exploit the maximum injection
speed in as large a part of the injection as possible.
Step 17 - Increase the holding pressure in steps
Increase the holding pressure in steps of approximately 10 MPa in the melt. If the first
step does not fill the mould completely, increase the injection volume.
De-mould and remove the part. Write the holding pressure on it. This holding pressure
series forms a good basis for a more thorough examination. You can then discuss the
possibilities and limitations with the customer.
Choose the lowest acceptable holding pressure, as this minimizes the internal stresses in
the part and saves material, as well as operating costs. A high holding pressure can
cause excessive residual stresses that could warp the part. Moulded-in residual stresses
can be released somewhat by annealing at around 10ºC below the heat deflection
temperature.
If the material cushion is completely used (see Screw positions at various stages), the
last part of the holding pressure time will not be effective. This calls for a change in the
injection stroke position, in order to increase the injection volume.
Calculating injection pressure
The hydraulic pressure in the injection cylinder can be read on the machine manometer.
However, the injection pressure in front of the screw is more important. To calculate the
injection pressure you will need to multiply the hydraulic pressure by the resin/hydraulic
pressure ratio. This ratio is usually found on the moulding machine near the injection unit
or in the instruction manual for the machine. The ratio is usually in the range of 7 to 15,
as shown in below.
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FIGURE 6. Resin/hydraulic pressure ratio for a Ø 30 mm screw is 11.1
Step 18 - Minimize the holding time
A quick way to find the minimum holding time is by setting a longer holding time, then
reducing the holding time until sink marks appear.
If consistent part dimensions are essential, use the following more accurate
determination of the holding pressure time. From a curve of part weight versus holding
time, determine when the gate or the part freezes. For example, Figure 7 shows that the
holding pressure does not influence the part weight after nine seconds. This is minimum
holding time.
FIGURE 7. Determination of the gate/part freezing time by weighing parts manufactured

at various holding pressure times
Step 19 - Minimize the remaining cooling time
Reduce the remaining cooling time until the maximum surface temperature of the part
reaches the heat deflection temperature of the material. The heat deflection temperature
can be provided by the resin supplier.
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2.12 Process controls – Process parameters with respect to product
quality
In brief, the injection moulding cycle can be broken down into four phases: fill, pack,
hold, and cooling/plastication. The process begins with the mixing and melting of
resin pellets. Molten polymer moves through the barrel of the machine and is forced
(injected) into a steel mould. As the plastic fills and packs the mould, the part takes
shape and begins to cool. The moulded part is then ejected from the mould, ready for
finishing steps and assembly.
While machine selection, material properties, and part design all affect the outcome of
injection moulding, five processing variables specific to injection moulding can have as
much or more impact on the success of this process. These variables are:
Injection Speed,
Plastic Temperature,
Plastic Pressure,
Cooling Temperature and Time.
Control of these variables during each of the four phases of the injection moulding
process can help improve part quality, reduce part variations, and increase overall
productivity.
In Phase 1 Fill-the screw advances and plastic flows into the mould. Flow characteristics
are determined by melt temperature, pressure, and shear rate. Injection Speed--the rate
at which the ram (screw) moves--is the most critical variable during fill. A polymer flows
more easily as injection speed is increased. However, injection speed that is too high can
create excessive shear and result in problems such as splay and jetting. More
importantly, heat from a higher shear rate can degrade the plastic, which adversely
affects the properties of the moulded part.
The way in which plastics flow during fill is also affected by their viscosity, or resistance
to flow. Polymers with high viscosity are thick and taffy like; those with low viscosity are
thinner and flow more easily. Melt temperature affects viscosity and to achieve the best
results should be maintained within the temperature range recommended by the
supplier.
Plastic pressure, another variable, increases sharply during fill. The molten plastic can, in
fact, be under much greater pressure than is indicated by hydraulic pressure. It is
important to understand the flow characteristics during fill of the material being used and
to operate the process consistently.
Phase 2 Pack-is when the plastic melt is compressed and more material is added to
compensate for any shrinkage during cooling. Approximately 95% of the total resin is
added during fill, with the remaining 5% added during the pack phase.
Plastic pressure is the primary variable of concern during the pack phase. The screw
maintains pressure in the melt, compensating for shrinkage, which can cause sinks and
voids. Variations in cavity pressure are a primary cause of deviations in plastic parts.
It is important to completely fill the mould -avoiding over packing or under packing-since
packing pressure determines part weight and part dimensions. Over packing can cause
dimensional problems and difficulty in ejecting the part, while under packing can result in
short shots, sinks, part-weight variations, and warpage.
Phase 3 Hold -is affected by all five of the process variables described earlier: injection
speed, plastic temperature, plastic pressure, and cooling temperature and time. After the
mould is packed, the plastic is held in the mould until it is partially solidified and the gate
freezes. The drop in plastic pressure reflects the amount of shrinkage that occurs from
- 71 -
cooling. One way to optimize this phase is to decrease the hold time until the part weight
changes. At that point, the gate is no longer sealed and resin backflows out of the mould.
If hold continues after the gate seals, cycle time increases, using more time and energy
to produce the part. The key is to maintain pressure on the plastic until the gate freezes.
Phase 4 Cooling and plastication -is generally the longest part of the moulding cycle--
up to 80% of the cycle time. Optimizing cooling time can yield substantial gains in
productivity. Because the gates are sealed during this phase, cooling temperature and
time are the only variables at work. The key to optimizing the cooling phase is to balance
the desire to cool quickly against the amount of moulded-in stress the final part can
withstand.
Cycle time
Typical process cycle time varies from several seconds to tens of seconds, depending on
the part weight, part thickness, material properties, and the machine settings specific to
a given process.
The injection moulding cycle can be divided

into several stages. They are mould closing,
filling, packing, cooling, mould opening and
ejection as shown here.
Cooling Time is a major fraction of the total

cycle time.
Cooling time is a function of :
 Mould Wall Temperature

 Melt Temperature
 Material Properties
 Part Wall Thickness
The equation shown here gives a rough

estimate of the minimum cooling time
needed before part ejection.
is the thermal diffusivity of the material,

h, is the plate thickness, capital Tw is the
mould wall temperature, capital Tm is the
melt temperature, capital Te is the ejection
temperature.
An example calculation has been shown

here with typical values for the different
variables. In the example, the minimum
cooling time for the part centerline to reach
the ejection temperature is calculated to be
23 seconds.
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The graph shows a typical pressure profile
for injection moulding. In this example, the
cycle time is 35 seconds. Filling requires just
a few seconds. A slight increase in pressure
occurs when the mould is closed. Filling
raises the pressure; during packing the
mould is held at this pressure. When gate
freeze off occurs, melt can no longer be
forced into the cavity and the pressure
drops. When the part cools below its glass
transition temperature, the mould can be
opened and the part ejected. At this stage,
the pressure drops to ambient level.
This graph shows a typical temperature

profile for injection moulding of
thermoplastic ABS. Two curves are shown.
The solid line represents the temperature
inside the part, and the dashed line
represents the temperature near the gate.
The glass transition temperature for ABS is
100 °C to 110 °C. When the gate
temperature drops below this level, gate
freeze-off occurs. The inside of the part cools
more slowly than the gate section. When the
centerline temperature reaches the ejection
temperature, the part can be ejected.
This plot shows the variation of estimated

cooling time with the wall thickness of the
part.
Cooling time increases in a non-linear

fashion with increasing part wall thickness.
The cooling time for a semi-crystalline

material like Polybutylene Terephthalate is
always higher than that for an amorphous
material like a blend of Polycarbonate and
ABS.
- 73 -
2.13 Microprocessor Control – Open Loop & Close Loop
2.13.1 Why Microprocessor Required?

2.13.2 Microprocessor Control
2.13.3 Open Loop Control
2.13. 4 Closed Loop Control
2.13. 5 Hydraulic Control Valves
2.13. 6 Stroke Control
2.13. 7 Temperature Control
2.13. 8 Position control
2.13. 9 Injection speed control
2.13. 10 Screw rotary speed control
2.13. 11 Hydraulic pressure control
2.13. 12 Back pressure control
2.13. 13 Nozzle pressure/temperature control
2.13. 14 Cavity pressure control
2.13.1 Why Microprocessor Required?

To ensure consistency of quality of injection moulded parts one has to look at the
controls like pressure, speed, stroke and temperatures. This is the repeatability of the
product quality with close tolerance on dimension and weight throughout long production
run. The injection moulding process control is quite complex because of the interplay
among the process parameters, i.e., melt temperature, viscosity, pressure, speed,
residence time etc.
The value of the parameters set can "drift" on account of
 Any variation in the material

 Density,
 MFI,
 Molecular Weight, etc.
 Inaccuracies in repetition of set values of hydraulic valves like

 Pressure relief valve and
 Flow control valve.
This drift upsets the process balance and repeatability. In turn, this can result in
inconsistent quality of moulded part. Therefore, the parameters are required to be
"controlled" to get quality moulded part.
So, the desired control is wanted to be achieved, but the microprocessor alone is not
enough and it requires the matching support from the hydraulic control gears. The
microprocessor is brain and the hydraulic power is drawn for well-designed injection
moulding machines. Microprocessor control offers improved accuracy, efficiency
and versatility because of its high speed reasons, programmability and
computational ability.
2.13.2 Microprocessor Control
The advanced semi-conductor technology enables to get large scale integrated logic
circuit in a tiny silicon wafer enclosed in a small plastic case. This microprocessor has
replaced conventional hardwired contractor logic circuits.
The microprocessor based programmable logic controls include:
 Microprocessor to perform logic operation

 Memory to hold program and data
 Input output device, i.e., alpha numeric keypad etc.
 Peripheral device, i.e., limit switches, digital switches, proximity
 Switches, thumbwheel switches.
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One can actually change the programmes of microprocessor to change the sequence or
programme at a later date quite easily in this machine. Normally core pulling ejector
programmes require alteration to suit the design of the mould.
In addition, the microprocessor in injection moulding machines has to perform very

complex and powerful operations involving logic, probability, computation and decision
making. In this operation all the relevant data are represented and processed in a digital
form precisely at high speeds.
The microprocessor is capable of accepting, processing and giving an output in both

analogue and digital signals. Analogue signal is comparable to time shown by two hands
of a mechanical watch; digital signal can be compared to the time shown on a digital
quartz watch.
Analogue input/output include temperature, pressure, speed distance, etc.
Digital input signal include those received from light switches or proximity switches push
button etc.
In injection moulding machine multiple monitoring is required and therefore, more than
one microprocessor are used within the control system. Besides, the microprocessors
communicate with each other with a common data memory, thus providing a common
pool of data for efficient coordination of mechanisms and processes through out of the
machines.
The developments of proportional valve (hydraulic) providing cut out of pressure and flow
proportional to the strength of input signal enabled the automatic setting of process
pressure or flow sequentially in a cycle.
The microprocessor can carry out following functions.
 Sequence control
 Process control
 Monitoring control
 Alarm function
 Display of current as well as past status of actual process parameters
 Graphic display
It would be found that the sequence control function is divided into sixty four steps. It
follows in logical progression. When all the conditions of one step have been fulfilled, the
command is passed on to next step. This guarantees interruption of the cycle, should an
electronic, hydraulic or operating fault develop. Visual digital indicators signal the
instantaneous operational condition of the machine thereby assisting in locating the
cause of the interruption.
2.13.3 Open Loop Control
At times, one may want the process to operate at a fixed value of temperature. The
control used is called open loop control. In open loop control the actuator is influenced
only by the set value for the process. There is no feedback on the effect of the input
signal. In open loop control the attempt is made successfully to hold process parameters
and environment at constant level so that the uniform repeatability is achieved in the
process. Open loop controls may be designed with analogue or digital operating devices.
Typical examples of open loop control are the setting of
 Screw speed,
 Clamp closing speed,
 Cooling time etc.
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2.13.4 Closed Loop Control
There could also be occasions when one wants to conduct a sort of orchestra for
temperature control. That is, if there is a disturbance in process at any point, one wants
to take corrective action so that the process temperature is not disturbed. In this case
closed loop control system is used.
In closed loop control the effect of disturbance or deviation in the process is opposed
automatically by an error signal which is generated continuously by comparing the actual
value with set value. Therefore, it reduces a feed back sensor to measure the actual
value continuously.
The closed loop controller
 Measures actual process value continuously.

 Compares actual value with that of set value to generate feed back continuously.
 And provides controlled output to actuator continuously.
Let us look at some typical applications for closed loop controls.
 Set temperature of plasticizing cylinder.
 Pressure transducer in mould cavity provides feed back to generate error signal
which in turn ensures correction on the valve setting.
 Closed loop control of injection speed requires the monitoring of injection pressure
necessary to maintain the injection speed constant.
Linear transducer connected to screw measures injection speed and provides feedback to
generate error signal which in turn corrects the speed.
Normally following parameters are controlled in closed loop.
 Cylinder temperature
 Multiple stages of injection speed
 Multiple stages of following pressure
 2 stages of back pressure
 2 stages of screw rpm
Sophistication of closed loop control
Nowadays, Injection Moulding Machine barrel temperature controls are always closed
loop. Occasionally, nozzle temperature control uses a simpler temperature controller and
may even be open loop.
Time control is considered open loop, e.g. the control of injection time.
In the control of Injection Moulding Machine, there are many variables that could be
controlled in closed loop. By measuring the controlled variable and taking control action
to correct any deviation from the set value, closed loop control guarantees good
repeatability of the controlled variable despite changes in the uncontrolled variables, e.g.
variation in the quality of reground materials, humidity of the plastic pellets.
2.13.5 Hydraulic Control Valves
By hydraulics, we mean the transmission and control of forces and movement (speed) by
means of fluid.
The conventional hydraulic valve includes on-off solenoid controlled directional valves,
manually setable pressure control valve and manually setable flow control valve.
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Proportional Valve for Pressure & Flow Control
It has a proportional solenoid which responds to the incoming variable signal and
provides smooth and proportional hydraulic output like pressure, flow, direction,
acceleration, deceleration, etc. There are proportional pressure control valves,
proportional flow control valves and proportional directional and flow control valves.
Contact less position transducer, if incorporated in the proportional valve can scan the
position of solenoid aperture and provide the feedback signal to reach the correct
position. Hence, position transducer improve the accuracies of proportional valve. The
linearisation of the characteristics can be incorporated in the (microprocessor) control
card.
2.13.6 Stroke Control
How the stroke of injection moulding machine is controlled. For stroke control Linear
Encoder is used which provides very precise control of stroke. It consists of a glass scale
with fine graduation and reference mark and a scanning unit. This is a little complicated
but worth knowing.
One would see that the scanning unit consists of a light source, a condenser lens,
scanning reticule with index graduation and photovoltaic cells. The scanning unit is fixed
in a position and the scale is moved. The lines of the scale coincide alternately with the
lines or spaces in the index graduation. The periodic fluctuation of light intensity is
converted by photovoltaic cell into electrical signals. These signals result from the
averaging of large number of lines. The two sinusoidal signals with 90 degree phase shift
and one reference signal are converted to square wave form. These signals are processed
to produce the counting pulse. The actual position is derived from counted pulse and the
calculated angle value. This result is transmitted to the machine controls.
2.13.7 Temperature Control
As an experienced moulder one should also know the importance of keeping temperature
in control. Thermocouple actuated temperature control systems are used in injection
moulding machine. Earlier version of ON-OFF temperature controllers are now obsolete
and are not used any more on injection moulding machine. This type of controller is
unable to control the overshooting of melt temperature which is due to process
dynamics.
To overcome this defect proportional temperature controllers were developed. It provides

anticipatory action as the temperature reaches the proportional band. The ON-OFF action
in the proportional band before reaching the set value is able to reduce the extent of
overshot and maintain the temperature within the proportional band. These controllers
were solid state discreet unit. The temperature deviation is indicated in a deviation
meter.
Further improvement in temperature controller resulted in Three Term Controller called

proportional, integral, derivative (PID) controller. This provides anticipatory action based
on the rate of change of process temperature (Derivative) and the corrective action
based on difference between set temperature and actual temperature (Error integrator)
in the proportional band. This provides very accurate control of temperature. For power
supply to heater, electromechanical contactor is replaced by semiconductor relay or
thyristor units. It is fast responding, virtually maintenance free noiseless in operation.
2.13.8 Position control
In an Injection Moulding Machine, screw position, mould position, ejector position and
mould height adjust position are measured, either by limit switches, proximity switches
or potentiometers. Potentiometers offer position measurement throughout the whole
stroke, while the former two only measure whether discrete positions have been reached.
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Depending on the stroke, a resolution of 0.1 mm is expected from potentiometer (the
limit actually comes from the resolution of the A/D (analog to digital) converter).
Some manufacturers use a rotary encoder and rack and pinion to measure movement in
order to avoid the cost of the A/D converter. In this case, the resolution of the encoder
and the rotary to linear conversion factor determine the resolution of the movement.
Screw position is measured to break down the injection stroke into stages each with a
different speed/pressure. It is also used to measure shot size during feeding and
decompression.
Mould position is measured to break down the mould movement into slow-fast-slow
stages to reduce vibration in mould closing and mould opening. Mould position is also
used in low pressure mould protection.
Ejector position is measured to short cycle the ejection stroke, especially in multiple
ejection.
In a toggle clamped Injection Moulding Machine, the stroke of the mould height adjust
mechanism could be measured by a potentiometer.
2.13.9 Injection speed control
It is important that injection speed is controlled to obtain a high quality part. This could
be done in open loop, semi-closed loop or closed loop.
The open loop approach uses the ordinary proportional flow valve. A voltage proportional
to the desired flow rate is applied. Through the injection cylinder, the desired flow rate is
mapped into the desired injection speed.
The semi-closed loop method uses the closed-loop proportional flow valve. The loop is
closed as far as the spool position is concerned. The movement of the spool within the
valve controls the rate of oil flow through it.
The closed loop method uses the linear screw speed to close the loop. Either a velocity
transducer is used or the screw speed is derived from potentiometer readings in fixed
intervals of time. The proportional flow valve is adjusted to nullify any deviation from the
desired speed. Unless the control is done by dedicated electronics, closed loop speed
control demands very much of the machine controller.
2.13.10 Screw rotary speed control
Screw rotary speed is monitored or controlled so as to control the screw surface speed to
below a value appropriate for the resin. A speedometer, the kind used in a bicycle, is the
usual analog measuring device. A chart converts screw rotary speed to screw surface
speed which is a function of screw diameter.
Figure 1. Screw rotary speed to screw surface speed chart
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2.13.11 Hydraulic pressure control
Closed loop hydraulic pressure control provides more consistent injection pressure,
holding pressure and back pressure from cycle to cycle. Note that hydraulic pressure
control is not a good substitute for melt pressure control or cavity pressure control.
The signal from the pressure sensor adjusts the proportional pressure valve to nullify any
deviation from the desired value
2.13.12 Back pressure control
As the screw rotates, it is forced backward by the melt at the tip of the screw. This
backward motion forces oil out of the injection cylinders through a flow control valve,
which creates a back pressure on the screw.
The back pressure sensor is mounted at the back of the injection cylinder. The same
sensor is used for hydraulic pressure control.
Figure 2. Hydraulic/back pressure transducer location
2.13.13 Nozzle pressure/temperature control
Pressure and temperature are the two most important measurable process variables in
injection moulding. It could be used to control the injection fill, pack and hold pressures.
Figure 3. Nozzle pressure sensor
2.13.14 Cavity pressure control
Located where the action is, cavity pressure control provides the most accurate injection
fill, pack and hold pressures. In some cases, a temperature sensor is located within the
same housing, providing temperature of the melt in the cavity as well.
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Figure 4. Cavity pressure sensor location
The cavity pressure curve clearly shows the injection fill, pack, and hold phases. In
Figure 5, 1-2-3 is the injection phase, 3-4 is the pack phase and 4-5-6 is the hold phase.
Point 3 is when the mould is completely filled. As the screw advances beyond 3, cavity
pressure rises steeply as the melt is being compressed. At 4, injection pressure is
reduced to holding pressure which keeps the mould filled as it cools and shrinks. At 5,
the melt at the gate is frozen and the hold pressure could be removed.
Figure 5. Cavity pressure curve
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2.14 Post Moulding Operation
2.14.1 Heat inserting
2.14.2 Chrome Plating
2.14.3 In Mould Insert Moulding
2.14.4 Post Mould Inserting
2.14.5 Drilling
2.14.6 Polishing
2.14.7 Assembly
Benefits of In House post moulding Operations
Reduced costs – by carrying out post moulding operations in house, and utilising lean
manufacturing tools, we can greatly reduce component costs and the complexity of work
that our customers would ordinarily undertake.
High level of quality – performing post-moulding operations on products helps ensure

that a high level of quality is maintained. By checking parts from the moment they leave
a press, to final assembly, quality levels can be maintained and ensure that components
are only assembled to the highest standards.
Reduction of Customer’s stock holding – Assembly of components will reduce the

cost of customers stock holding due to delivery of an assembly rather than a range of
components.
Reduced production times – post moulding operations mean there is very little time
between the production of components and their assembly. This means that a great deal
of time can be saved when components would normally be transported, or stored, in
between moulding and assembly operations.
2.14.1 Heat inserting
Example of a jig for heat inserting
Heat inserting is an example of the post mould process of inserting. The addition of
inserts into a part increases the functionality of a part by which components can be
assembled. The actual insert that is incorporated into the moulding can take a variety of
forms and be either metal or a pre-formed plastic insert. A good example for the
application of metal inserts is for instances where the part needs to be screwed to
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another part or to some other fixing. In this case the plastic might not be a strong
enough material to be threaded, or screwed into, so metal (usually brass) threaded
inserts are heat inserted into the part which can then provide the necessary strength.
The process of heat inserting a part is not very complicated but ensuring that each part
is inserted in exactly the same way is more complex. To ensure that there is no
variation in the location that the inserts are placed jigs are used to hold the work piece
firmly in place. Each insert will be located individually by using a heat gun that heats up
the insert and with it the plastic around it. This means the plastic becomes soft enough
for the insert to be pressed into place and when the plastic cools again the insert will be
held in place. The heat gun is also equipped with distance stops to ensure that every
insert is positioned consistently in the component.. To further ensure parts are inserted
correctly rigorous quality checks are carried out on all inserted parts to ensure a high
level of quality is maintained.
Benefits of Heat Inserting
Increased functionality – by adding inserts to mouldings the part can more easily be
used for its designed purpose. For example by adding threaded inserts parts can be
easily be screwed to their fixings or other parts, increasing their functionality.
Low part degradation – the process of heat inserting means that the heating/melting
of the part is very localised to where the insert will be pressed in. this means that parts
do not suffer warping, or any other distortion effects, due to being heated again.
High level of quality – due to the known challenges with heat inserting extra
measures are taken to ensure the processes is repeated to as high a level as possible,
meaning part quality is kept very high.
2.14.2 Chrome Plating
Some examples of chrome plated mouldings
Chrome plating of plastic is significantly more difficult than performing the same
operation on a metal, but it will provide excellent results when the right process is
utilised. Due to the chrome plating process requiring the part to be electrically
conductive, a series of steps are required before the chrome can be deposited onto the
surface of the product.
The first step to be carried out is to etch the surface with a chemical so that the
subsequent layers of nickel and chromium will adhere. A large proportion of plastic parts
that will be chrome plated will be moulded from ABS as this gives a very good surface
finish to plate onto. ABS is also used because the butadiene molecules on the surface of
the material can be chemically removed. This removal of butadiene molecules leave
microscopic undercuts n the surface of the ABS and this acts as a very good key on to
which the first layer can be attached.
The next process that will be carried out is to attach a layer of nickel (with a catalyst)
onto the surface of the part. This layer of nickel will be what becomes electrically
conductive and allows the chrome to be electroplated to it. This layer is applied by
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means of dipping the product. The key that was put into the surface of the part will
ensure the nickel remains attached when the part is removed from the bath.
Once the layer of nickel has dried the part can be plated by electroplating. This involves
applying a negative charge to the part being plated and dipping it into a solution of the
metal it is to be plated with, which has a positive charge. The positively charged
metallic ions are attracted to the negatively charged part and once they come into
contact with the part they revert back to their metallic form again. The part is removed
from the solution and left to cool.
To ensure a good quality finish after chrome plating a part must be moulded to a very
high quality. Any defects that are on the surface of the part after injection moulding will
stand out after plating. Also, any stresses in the moulded components will show up as a
defect when chrome plated. Unlike other finishing methods chrome plating does not fill
in scratches or other defects. Instead the chrome will form a thinner layer over the
defects and, in effect, magnify the problem. For this reason rigorous quality checks are
carried out on all products so that money is not wasted plating a part that has a defect.
Benefits of Chrome Plating
Metal finish - Metal finishes can be very popular and, by coating plastics, advantage
can be taken of characteristics from both materials.
Wear resistant – as chrome is a metal rather than a plastic its wear resistance
properties are much greater than those of the plastic it covers. This means for
applications where a part might be handled repeatedly, such as a shower handset, a
chrome finish is likely to wear better than its plastic counterpart.
Electrically conductive parts – by chrome or nickel plating a part it is possible to

give a plastic component the ability to conduct electricity. This gives the advantage of
being able to create electrical components that are light weight and less costly to
produce than completely metal parts.
Attractive mouldings – by applying chrome finish to mouldings a
2.14.3 In Mould Insert Moulding
Moulded in speaker contacts
In mould insert moulding is the process by which a metal, or preformed plastic, insert is
incorporated in to the component during the moulding stage.
With in mould insert moulding the inserts will be very strongly attached to the rest of
the component. This happens because strong mechanical bonds are created between
the inserts and the mouldings. Inserts are designed so that when the polymer is
moulded around it, it will be securely fastened in place. This can be achieved by
incorporating plates that stick out from inserts, threads on the sides of the inserts or by
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the overall shape of the insert. By calculating the degree of shrinkage that will occur
during the cooling cycle designers can ensure there is a very tight fit of polymer around
the insert and give the strongest possible join.
When inserts are used during the moulding stage standard moulding machines can
make it difficult for operators to put inserts into their correct place in the tool. For this
process vertical press machines and vertical machines with a rotary table are most
effective.
Benefits Of In Mould Insert Moulding
Reduced post-moulding operations – With in mould insert moulding the need for
post moulding operations is greatly reduced. This helps with ease of assembly and
reduces the labour necessary for products.
Increased part consistency – Insert Moulding has major benefits in the consistency
of parts produced. As the inserts are placed in the same locations in tools for every
cycle each of the mouldings produced will be exactly the same. This helps reduce costs,
as rejected parts will be kept to a minimum.
Ease of assembly – Due to inserts being incorporated into parts during the moulding
stage this eases the assembly of the part. Instead of having to place fittings to attach
parts fittings can be incorporated during the moulding stage so that parts can be simply
clipped together.
Reduced production time – when vertical moulding machines, that are equipped with
a rotary table, are used for production there is the opportunity to have two halves of the
lower part of the tool. This means that production is almost constant with mouldings
being formed at the same time as fresh inserts are being loaded into the second half of
the tool. This lowers overall production times and can also reduce the amount of labour
needed.
2.14.4 Post Mould Inserting
Use of post moulded inserts A typical post moulding insert
Post mould inserting is the process by which a metal, or preformed plastic, insert is
incorporated into a moulding by means of a secondary process once the component has
already been moulded.
To place inserts into a part once it has already been moulded requires the use of
secondary operations equipment. This equipment includes heat guns, powered presses or
automated drills. To ensure every insert is positioned in exactly the same location,
custom jigs are used so that the moulding will be held in the same position for each
inserting procedure.
As with in-mould insert moulding the inserts are specially designed so that they will be
held securely in place after the inserting process. The inserts cannot be designed with
anchoring pieces extending from them but they can be designed so that they have
threads, or cuts, in the side of them. This means that when the plastic cools around the
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insert it will be securely held in place. For operations that do not use heat the insert will
be designed with deep threads on the sides so that they will be held tightly when
screwed into place.
Post mould inserting can be a time consuming additional process for some components,
but the time taken is more than offset when it goes onto final assembly.
Benefits of Post Mould Inserting
Ease of assembly – by adding inserts to a moulding the ease by which it can be

assembled is greatly increased. Inserts such as clips or screw bolts can be incorporated
into mouldings which greatly assist assembly operations and subsequent product
performance.
Increased part functionality – besides adding inserts to aid assembly inserts that
improve a parts functionality can also be used. For example, terminal fittings for wires, or
seals to make parts watertight.
Increased component value – any second operation carried out on a part will add
value to it. By adding inserts to help assembly or increase functionality, product value
will be raised. This helps to compensate for the extra time involved in second operations
and ensure products remain cost effective.
Good part consistency – to carry out post mould inserting jigs are used to hold
mouldings while they are inserted. This means that the repeatability of the operation is
very good and all parts inserted will be of the same quality.
2.14.5 Drilling
The drilling of parts is used to remove any unnecessary polymer that may have been
necessary in the moulding process. By removing this extra material in house it means a
ready-to-assemble moulding can be provided to the customer, or the part can be
assembled with other mouldings.
2.14.6 Polishing
For products that have a high quality gloss finish a post moulding polishing operation is
often a useful extra process. Even though the finish produced by the moulding tool may
be of a very high quality, a polishing operation to remove any dust from the product
before final packaging gives a part the high gloss finish that will have been specified..
Polishing operations are carried out on a soft-polishing wheel with high quality wax to
ensure that a part is polished to a perfect finish without leaving any marks.
2.14.7 Assembly
For products that require assembly we are able to carry out this operation in our
assembly facility. We can demonstrate examples of assemblies where we mould all the
separate components in house and assemble the parts either as a whole in the assembly
facility or as a step by step process on the press as each part is produced. By carrying
out assembly in house we can reduce costs for our customers while still producing
products to a high standard.
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2.15 Faults and Remedies
2.15.1 Air traps (voids and bubbles)
2.15.2 Black specks/black streaks
2.15.3 Brittleness
2.15.4 Burn marks
2.15.5 Delamination
2.15.6 Dimensional variation
2.15.7 Discoloration
2.15.8 Fish eyes
2.15.9 Flash
2.15.10 Flow marks
2.15.11 Jetting
2.15.12 Ripples
2.15.13 Short shot
2.15.14 Shrinkage and warpage
2.15.15 Silver streaks
2.15.16 Sink marks and voids
2.15.17 Weld lines and meld lines
2.15.1 Air traps (voids and bubbles)
An air trap is air that is caught inside the mould cavity. It becomes trapped by
converging polymer melt fronts or because it failed to escape from the mould vents, or
mould inserts, which also act as vents. Air-trap locations are usually in areas that fill last.
Lack of vents or undersized vents in these last-to-fill areas are a common cause of air
traps and the resulting defects. Another common cause is race-tracking (the tendency of
polymer melt to flow preferentially in thicker sections), caused by a large thickness ratio.
FIGURE : Air trap locations indicated by the computer-predicted melt-front

advancements.
Problems caused by air traps
Entrapped air will result in voids and bubbles inside the moulded part, a short shot
(incomplete fill), or surface defects such as blemishes or burn marks. To eliminate air
traps, you can modify the filling pattern by reducing the injection speed, enlarging
venting, or placing proper venting in the cavity.
Remedies
Alter the part design

 Reduce the thickness ratio.
This will minimize the race-tracking effect of polymer melt.
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Alter the mould design
Pay close attention to the proper placement of vents.
 Place vents in the areas that fill last.

Vents are typically positioned at discontinuities of mould material, such as at
parting surfaces, between the insert and mould wall, at ejector pins, and at mould
slides.
 Re-design the gate and delivery system.

Changing the delivery system can alter the filling pattern in such a way that the
last-to-fill areas are located at the proper venting locations.
 Make sure the vent size is large enough so that the air present in the cavity
can escape during injection.
Be careful, however, that the vent is not so large that it causes flash at the edge
of the moulding. The recommended vent size is 0.025 mm for crystalline
polymers, and 0.038 mm for amorphous polymers.
Adjust the moulding conditions

 Reduce the injection speed.
High injection speeds can lead to jetting, which causes air to become entrapped in
the part. Lowering the injection speed will give the air displaced by the melt
sufficient time to escape from the vents.
2.15.2 Black specks/black streaks
Black specks and black streaks are dark spots or dark streaks found on the surface or
throughout a moulded part. Brown specks or streaks refer to the same type of defect,
except the burning or discoloration is not as severe.
FIGURE . Black specks (left) and black streaks (right)
Causes of black specks/black streaks
Black specks and black streaks are caused by overheated (degraded, burned) material or
by contamination of the resin.
 Material degradation
Overheated materials can degrade and lead to black streaks. Material that stays in
the nicked rough surfaces of the barrel wall and screw surfaces for a prolonged period
of time after heating will char and degrade, resulting in the defect.
 Material contamination
Contaminants in the air or material, such as dirty regrind, foreign material,

different color material, or a lower melt-temperature material, are what most
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often lead to black specks and black streaks. Airborne dirt can also cause dark
spots on the surface of a moulded part.
Other defects resulting from the same causes
 Brittleness
 Burn marks
 Discoloration
Remedies
 Handle the material carefully

Make sure no contaminated materials, such as dirty regrind, are blended into the
original material.
Put the cover on the hopper and all bins of material. Airborne dirt can
contaminate the original material, leading to black spots.
 Clean the ejectors and slides. The streaks could by caused by the grease or
lubricants on the slides or ejectors.
 Improve the venting system. If the black specks are found at the end of flow
paths or blind spots, they are likely caused by a poor venting system.
Compressed air trapped in the cavity is sometimes ignited, leading to the
defect.
 Clean or polish any nicked surface on the runner system to keep dirt from
lodging in these areas.
 Clean the mould before moulding.
Select a proper machine
 Size a proper injection machine for a specific mould.

The typical shot size should be between 20 and 80 percent of machine injection
capacity. For temperature-sensitive materials, the range should be narrowed
down more. Plastics simulation software can help you select the right size
injection machine for a specific mould. This will help avoid resin remaining in the
heated barrel for prolonged periods of time.
 Check for scratched or dented barrel/screw surfaces that trap material.

This could lead to the material becoming overheated or burned.
 Check for local overheating by a run-away heater band or a malfunctioning

temperature controller.

 Lower the barrel and nozzle temperature.
Material degradation can result from a high melt temperature.
 Purge and clean the injection unit.

The black streaks might be caused by contamination from the barrel wall or the
screw surface. When moulding with two materials, after switching from one
material to the other, the old material might not be purged from the barrel
completely. This could generate defects during the moulding of the second
material.
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 Avoid recycling rejected parts with black specks and black streaks.
Recycling such parts could lead to further contamination, unless they'll be used for
parts that are in black or for which such defects are acceptable.
2.15.3 Brittleness
A brittle moulded part has a tendency to break or crack. Brittleness results from material
degradation leading to shorter molecular chain length ( thus lower molecular weight). As
a result, the physical integrity of the part is substantially less than the specification.
FIGURE . Degraded part tends to be brittle and break easily
Causes of brittleness
Brittleness is caused by material degradation due to
 Improper drying conditions

 Improper temperature setting
 Improper runner system and gate design
 Improper screw design
 Weld line weakness
 Black specks/black streaks

 Burn marks
 Discoloration
Remedies
Adjust the material preparation
 Set proper drying conditions before moulding.

Brittleness can be caused by excessive drying time or drying temperature such as
at full heat for several days. Excessive drying either drives off volatiles in the
plastic, making it more sensitive to processing, or degrades the material by
reducing the molecular weight. Material suppliers can provide optimum drying
conditions for the specific materials.
 Reduce regrind material. The brittleness could be caused by too much

reground material added into the original virgin material.
 Change to a high-strength material since low-strength materials tend to

become more brittle if processed improperly.
 Enlarge the sprue, runner, and/or gate.

Restrictive sprue, runner, gate, or even part design could cause excessive shear
heating that aggravates an already overheated material, causing material
degradation.
 Select a proper machine/machine component
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 Get a better screw design for the material you're using to achieve a better
mixed melt temperature.
 Contact material suppliers to get the right screw design information to avoid
improper melt mix or overheating that leads to material degradation.
Adjust moulding conditions

 Reduce the barrel temperature and nozzle temperature.
If the barrel and nozzle temperature are too high, the material in the barrel will be
overheated, leading to thermal degradation and the color change.
 Reduce the back pressure, screw rotation speed, or injection speed. since
shear heating can result in material degradation.
 Within the limit not to overheat the material, increase melt temperature,
mould temperature or injection pressure if the weld line has a tendency to
crack. See Weld lines and meld lines for more information.
2.15.4 Burn marks
Burn marks are small, dark or black spots that appear near the end of the flow path of a
moulded part or in the blind area where the air trap forms.
FIGURE . Burn marks
Causes of burn marks
 Entrapped air
If the injection speed or injection pressure is too high, the air trapped in the
runner system and cavity cannot be released to the atmosphere through the
venting system properly within a very short filling time. Air traps also occur in
improperly vented systems when race-tracking behavior is significant.
Consequently, the air will be compressed, resulting in a very high pressure and
temperature, and which will cause the polymer to degrade on the surface near the
end of the flow path or the blind area.
 Material degradation
Burn marks can also result from the degraded (charred) materials being carried
downstream and then appearing on the surface of the moulded part or near the
venting areas. Material degradation is caused by:
 High melt temperature
Excessive melt temperature can be caused by improper barrel temperature

setting, a broken thermocouple, or a malfunctioning temperature controller.
 High screw rotation speed
If the screw speed is too high during the plasticization period, it will create too
much frictional heat, which could degrade the material.
 Restrictive flow path
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When the melt flows through restrictive nozzle, runner, gate, or part sections, it
creates a lot of shear (frictional) heat, which could degrade the material.

 Brittleness
 Discoloration
Remedies

 Place an adequate venting system throughout the mould to help vent out the
entrapped air.
Vents are especially important near the end of the flow path and in the blind area.
The recommended venting size is 0.025 mm for crystalline polymers, and 0.038
mm for amorphous polymers.

degradation.

 Reduce the likelihood of burn marks by avoiding excessive melt temperatures
during the moulding process:
 Reduce the injection pressure.
 Reduce the injection speed.
 Reduce the screw rotation speed.
 Decrease the barrel temperature.
 Check the band heaters on the barrel and nozzle, and calibrate the
thermocouple.
2.15.5 Delamination
Delamination (sometimes called lamination or layering) is a defect in which the surface of

a moulded part can be peeled off layer by layer.
FIGURE . Delamination causes layer-wise peel-off on the surface of a moulded part
Causes of delamination
Delamination can be caused by several factors, including:
 Incompatible materials blended together

 Too much mould release agent being used during the moulding process
 Low melt temperature in the cavity
 Excessive moisture
 Sharp corners at the gate and runner
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Remedies
Change the material preparation

 Avoid using foreign material or contaminated regrind material in the moulding
process.
 Alter the mould design
 Smooth all of the corners at the gate and runner.
Sharp corners can tear apart melt flow and cause lamination.

 Avoid using excessive mould release agent to fix the de-moulding problem.
Delamination can be caused by excessive use of mould release agent. You should
repair the ejection system or other problems to eliminate the difficulty of de-
moulding instead of over-using the mould release agent.
 Follow the pre-dry instructions for the specific material and pre-dry the
material properly before moulding.
Excessive moisture heats up and forms steam, which results in lamination on the
surface.
 Increase the barrel temperature and mould temperature.

If the melt temperature is too low, layers of material are formed because they
can't bond to each other. When ejected or subjected to stress, they separate from
each other.
2.15.6 Dimensional variation
Dimensional variation is a defect characterized by the moulded part dimension varying

from batch to batch or from shot to shot while the machine settings remain the same.
FIGURE . Dimensional variation is an unexpected change of part dimension
Dimensional variation can be caused by
 Unstable machine control

 A narrow process window
 Improper process conditions settings
 A broken check ring (within the injection unit)
 Unstable material property
Remedies
 Improve the material preparation

Contact the material vendor and change the material lot if the material has patch-to-
patch variation.
 Pre-dry the material before moulding if the material is too wet.
 Limit the percentage of regrind material added to the origin material.
 The irregular particle size can cause different levels of mixed melt material,
and lead to unstable moulded part dimensional variation.
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Change a mould design/component
 Fix or adjust the ejection system if the moulded part is bowed or distorted during
ejection.
 Design a proper runner and gate system for a specific mould and material.
Use plastic injection moulding simulation software to optimize the runner system
dimension to assure a smooth melt flow into the cavity.
Change a machine component

 Replace the check ring if it is broken or worn out.
 Replace heater bands or the thermocouple if it is out of order and causes unstable
melt flow.

 Increase the injection and packing pressure.
Make sure enough material is delivered into the cavity during the filling and
packing stages.
 Increase the injection and packing time to be sure enough material is delivered
into the cavity during filling and packing stages.
 Make sure the mould temperature is even by checking the cooling system.
 Set-up screw metering and injection stroke, screw rotation speed, and back
pressure properly so that they fall within the process window.
2.15.7 Discoloration
Discoloration is a color defect characterized by a moulded part's color having changed

from the original material color.
Causes of discoloration
This defect can be caused by either material degradation or contamination from the
following problems:
 The material staying in the barrel too long.

 The barrel temperature being too high, causing the color to change.
 Contamination caused by reground material, different color material, or
foreign material.

 Brittleness
 Burn marks
Remedies
Handle the material carefully

 Maintain proper housekeeping for origin materials and regrind materials storage
to avoid contaminated materials.

 Add an adequate venting system.
- 93 -
To avoid discoloration (or burn mark) due to poor venting or air traps, use the
recommended venting size: 0.025 mm for crystalline polymers, and 0.038 mm for
amorphous polymers.
Select a proper machine

 Use a different size injection moulding machine.
The typical shot size should be between 20 and 80 percent of machine injection
capacity. For temperature-sensitive materials, the range should be narrowed
down, depending on the material. Plastics simulation software can help you select
the right size machine for a specific mould. This will help avoid the resin
remaining in the heated barrel for prolonged periods of time.

 Clean the hopper completely.
It's important to avoid foreign material or different color materials mixing
together before moulding.
 Purge the injection unit completely if there is any material changing.
 Reduce the barrel temperature and nozzle temperature.
If the barrel and nozzle temperature are too high, the material in the barrel will be
overheated, leading to thermal degradation and the color change.
2.15.8 Fish eyes
Fish eyes are a surface defect that results from unmelted materials being pushed with
the melt stream into the cavity and appearing on the surface of a moulded part.
FIGURE . Unmelted materials in the melt stream causes fish eyes
Causes of fish eyes
Fish eyes are caused by:
 Low barrel temperature
If the barrel temperature is too low to melt the materials completely, the
unmelted pellets will merge with the melt stream, marring the surface of the part.
 Too much regrind
The shape and size of regrind is irregular compared with original material, and can
trap more air and cause the material to blend unevenly.
If a high-melt-temperature material is blended into the original material, the

blended material may stay in pellet form, and cause fish eyes during the moulding
process.
 Low screw rotation speed and back pressure
- 94 -
If the screw rotation speed and the back pressure setting are set too low, there
might not be enough frictional heating to melt the material completely in the
barrel before the injection.
Remedies
Improve the material preparation

 Limit or eliminate regrind for practical moulding, depending on part quality
requirements.
Adding ten percent of regrind is a good start, if regrind is allowed.
 Store different materials separately and keep covers on the containers or bags to
avoid blending different materials.
Material suppliers usually provide the information about barrel temperature, back
pressure, and screw rotation speed for specific materials. If you've followed suppliers'
recommendations and are still experiencing problems, try making the following
adjustments.
 Increase the barrel temperature.
 Increase the back pressure to blend melt materials evenly.
 Increase the screw rotation speed during the plasticization stage to create more
frictional heat to melt materials.
2.15.9 Flash
Flash is a defect where excessive material is found at locations where the mould
separates, notably the parting surface, movable core, vents, or venting ejector pins.
FIGURE . Flash
Causes of flash
Low clamp force
If the clamp force of the injection machine is too weak to hold the mould plates
together during the moulding process, flash will occur.
Gap within the mould
Flash will occur if the parting surface does not contact completely, due to a
deformed mould structure, parting surface defect, improper machine and mould
set up, or flash or foreign material stuck on the parting surface.
Moulding conditions
Improper moulding conditions, such as a high melt temperature (which makes a

thinner melt) or high injection pressure, will cause flash.
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Improper venting
An improperly designed venting system, a very poor venting system, or a venting

system that is too deep, will cause flash.
Remedies
Adjust the mould set-up

 Set up the mould to seal properly. A mismatch or undesirable gap between the
cavity and core sides of the mould will result in flash.
 Make sure the mould plates are strong enough to avoid deformation during
moulding.
 Add pillar support or thicken the mould plates if there is any deformation of
the mould plate during the moulding process.
 Check for adequate venting dimensions.

 Clean the mould surface.

 Flash can be caused by the mould surface not sealing well due to foreign
material remaining between the parting surfaces.
 Mill out the surface to keep the sealing pressure of land area around the
cavities high enough.
Adjust the machine settings

 Set up the machine and mould to seal properly. Flash can be caused by a poor
seal between the cavity and core sides of the mould, and machine platens that
are not parallel.
 Increase the injection moulding machine size. Flash can result from insufficient
machine clamp force.
 Adjust the clamp force if the machine capacity does have enough clamp force.

 Decrease the barrel temperature and nozzle temperature.
A high melt temperature reduces the melt viscosity, making a thinner melt, which
causes flash. But beware: avoid melt temperatures so low such that the resulting
high injection pressure required causes flash.
 Reduce the injection and packing pressure to reduce the clamp force
requirement.
 Reduce the feed setting (stroke length) to reduce metering (over-fill).
 Increase the injection time or slow down the injection speed.
2.15.10 Flow marks
A flow mark or halo is a surface defect in which circular ripples or wavelets appear near
the gate.
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FIGURE . Flow marks
Causes of flow marks
Flow marks are caused by cold material near the gate or lack of compensated material
during the packing stage. The problem can usually be attributed to:
 Low melt temperature

 Low mould temperature
 Low injection speed
 Low injection pressure
 Small runner stem and gate
According to a recent visual analysis using a glass-inserted mould, the flow mark defect
can also be due to cooling of the flow front portion on a cavity wall and the repeated
phenomena of "getting over" and cooling with the subsequent melt. This is discussed in
Ripples.
Remedies

 Change the size of the cold well in the runner system to trap the cold material
during the filling stage.
The proper length of the cold well is usually equal to that of the runner diameter.
 Increase the runner system and gate size for the specific mould and material.
Flow marks are sometimes caused by a restrictive runner system and gate size
that freeze-off prematurely so that the material cannot be compensated during
the packing stage.
 Shorten the sprue length or use a hot runner design instead of a cold runner
design.

 Increase the injection pressure and packing pressure.
 Increase the barrel and nozzle temperature.
 Increase the mould temperature.
2.15.11 Jetting
Jetting occurs when polymer melt is pushed at a high velocity through restrictive areas,
such as the nozzle, runner, or gate, into open, thicker areas, without forming contact
with the mould wall. The buckled, snake-like jetting stream causes contact points to form
between the folds of melt in the jet, creating small-scale "welds".
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FIGURE . Jetting vs. normal filling pattern.
Effects of jetting
Jetting leads to part weakness, surface blemishes, and a multiplicity of internal defects.
Contrast this with a normal filling pattern, in which melt advances in a progressive
pattern from the gate to the extremities of the cavity, as illustrated above.
Remedies


You'll often find that the trouble lies with the gate design.
Direct the melt against a metal surface.
 Use an overlap gate or a submarine gate as shown in Figure below.
FIGURE . Using an overlap gate to avoid jetting
 Slow down the melt with a gradually divergent flow area.

A tab or fan gate provides a smooth transition from the gate to the cavity. This
reduces the melt shear stress and shear rate.
FIGURE . Using a tab gate (left) and a fan gate (right) to avoid jetting
 Enlarge the size of the gate and runner or reduce the gate-land length.
You can also relocate or redesign the gate in one of the following ways to reduce
jetting.

 Adjust the ram-speed profile.
- 98 -
Use an optimized ram-speed profile so that melt-front velocity is initially slow
when the melt passes through the gate, then increases once a dispersed,
"tongue" shaped material is formed near the gate. Figure below illustrates this
technique.
 Adjust the barrel temperature to increase or decrease the melt temperature

incrementally.
The explanation for this is not well understood, but might be related to the die-
swell effect and the change of the melt properties (such as viscosity and surface
tension). For example, for most polymers, die swell increases as temperature
decreases, while some materials, such as rigid PVC, exhibit increasing die swell as
temperature increases.
FIGURE. Adjust ram-speed profile to avoid jetting.
2.15.12 Ripples
Ripples are the wavelets or small fingerprint-like waves near the edge or at the end of
the flow.
FIGURE . Ripples
Cause of ripples
According to a recent visual analysis using a glass-inserted mould, the ripple defect is
due to the flow front portion of the melt cooling on a cavity wall, and the repeated
phenomena of the subsequent melt "getting over" and cooling, as shown in the below.
Flow-front velocity and mould temperature have a stronger influence on the formation of
ripples compared to the shape of the gates and the melt temperature.
- 99 -
FIGURE . (1) Normal filling with no ripples. (2) Generation of ripples with cold mould wall
and low melt-front velocity.
Remedies
Actions that increase the melt-front velocity or mould/melt temperature will help to
eliminate the ripples.
Modify the part design

 Increase the part thickness.
Change the mould design

 Make sure the runner system, including the sprue, runners, and gates, is
adequate for the specific part.
 Place an adequate venting system throughout the entire mould, especially around
the end of the flow path.
 Make sure the venting system is large enough that the air present in the cavity
can escape during injection. Be careful, however, that the venting system is not
so large that it causes flash at the edge of the moulding. The recommended
venting size is 0.025 mm for crystalline polymers, and 0.038 mm for amorphous
polymers.

 Increase the mould temperature.
 Increase the injection speed.

This will create more viscous heating and reduce the melt viscosity.
 Increase the injection pressure.

Be careful not to exceed the machines's capacity. The operating injection pressure
should normally be limited to 70 to 85 percent of the maximum injection pressure
to prevent accidental damage to the machine's hydraulic system.
 Increase the melt temperature.

Be careful not to introduce material degradation due to prolonged exposure at an
elevated temperature.
2.15.13 Short shot
A short shot is a moulded part that is incomplete because insufficient material was
injected into the mould. In some cases, short shots are intentionally produced to
determine or visualize the filling pattern. But problematic short shots occur when the
- 100 -
polymer melt cannot fill the entire cavity (or cavities)-most commonly at thin sections or
extremities.
Causes of short shot
Any factors that increase the resistance of polymer melt to flow or prohibit delivery of
sufficient material into the cavity can cause a short shot. These factors include:
 Insufficiently-sized restrictive-flow areas, such as gates, runners, and thin

walls.
 Low melt and/or mould-wall temperatures.
 A lack of vents to bleed the air trapped inside the cavity.
 Insufficient machine injection pressure (resulting from high melt resistance
and a restricted flow path), volume, and/or ram speed.
 Machine defects such as an empty hopper, blocked feed throat, or a worn non-
return (check) valve that causes loss of injection pressure or leakage of
injection volume.
 Premature solidification of the polymer melt due to Hesitation, poor filling
pattern, or prolonged injection time.
Remedies
Several factors influence the polymer's ability to fill the entire cavity. Proper remedial
actions can be taken when the cause of a short shot is pinpointed. Here are some
suggestions.
It's important to facilitate the flow of injected polymer melt; doing so can alleviate short
shots.
 Strategically increase the thickness of certain wall sections (as flow leaders).

 A properly designed delivery system (sprue, runner, and gate) will facilitate a
more balanced filling pattern. If needed, modify design in the following ways.
 Fill the thick areas before filling the thin areas. Doing so will avoid hesitation,
which causes early solidification of polymer.
 Increase the number and/or size of gates to reduce the flow length.
 Increase the size of runner systems to reduce resistance.
 Entrapped air inside the mould cavity can also lead to short shots
.
 Place vents at the proper locations, typically near the areas that fill last.
This should help vent the displaced air.
 Increase the size and number of vents.
Look closely at the factors that control how material is injected into the mould.
 Increase the injection pressure.
Do not exceed the machine's capability. To prevent accidental damage to the
machine's hydraulic system, limit the operating injection pressure to 70 to 85
percent of the maximum injection pressure.
 Increase the injection speed. Within the machine limits, this will create more
viscous heating and reduce the melt viscosity.
 Increase the injection volume.
- 101 -
 Increase the barrel temperature and/or the mould-wall temperature. Higher
temperatures will promote the flow of material through the cavity. Be careful
to avoid material degradation due to prolonged exposure at an elevated
temperature.
The moulding machine might also be the culprit if you're experiencing problematic
short shots.
 Check the hopper for sufficient material supply or a clogged feed throat.
Inspect the non-return valve and barrel for excessive wear.
Wear can lead to loss of injection pressure and leakage of injection volume.
2.15.14 Shrinkage and warpage
Shrinkage is inherent in the injection moulding process. Shrinkage occurs because the
density of polymer varies from the processing temperature to the ambient temperature.
During injection moulding, the variation in shrinkage both globally and through the cross
section of a part creates internal stresses. These so-called residual stresses act on a part
with effects similar to externally applied stresses. If the residual stresses induced during
moulding are high enough to overcome the structural integrity of the part, the part will
warp upon ejection from the mould or crack with external service load.
The shrinkage of moulded plastic parts can be as much as 20 percent by volume, when
measured at the processing temperature and the ambient temperature. Crystalline and
semi-crystalline materials are particularly prone to thermal shrinkage; amorphous
materials tend to shrink less. When crystalline materials are cooled below their transition
temperature, the molecules arrange themselves in a more orderly way, forming
crystallites. On the other hand, the microstructure of amorphous materials does not
change with the phase change. This difference leads to crystalline and semi-crystalline
materials having a greater difference in specific volume ( ) between their melt phase
and solid (crystalline) phase. This is illustrated in Figure below. We'd like to point out that
the cooling rate also affects the fast-cooling pvT behavior of crystalline and semi-
crystalline materials.
FIGURE. The pvT curves for amorphous and crystalline polymers and the specific volume
variation ( ) between the processing state (point A) and the state at room
temperature and atmospheric pressure (point B). Note that the specific volume decreases
as the pressure increases.
- 102 -
Causes of excessive part shrinkage
Excessive shrinkage, beyond the acceptable level, can be caused by the following factors.
The relationship of shrinkage to several processing parameters and part thickness is
schematically plotted in Figure.
 Low injection pressure

 Short pack-hold time or cooling time
 High melt temperature
 High mould temperature
 Low holding pressure.
Problems caused by part shrinkage
Uncompensated volumetric contraction leads to either sink marks or voids in the

moulding interior. Controlling part shrinkage is important in part, mould, and process
designs, particularly in applications requiring tight tolerances. Shrinkage that leads to
sink marks or voids can be reduced or eliminated by packing the cavity after filling. Also,
the mould design should take shrinkage into account in order to conform to the part
dimension.
FIGURE . Processing and design parameters that affect part shrinkage
Warpage
Warpage is a distortion where the surfaces of the moulded part do not follow the
intended shape of the design. Part warpage results from moulded-in residual stresses,
which, in turn, is caused by differential shrinkage of material in the moulded part. If the
shrinkage throughout the part is uniform, the moulding will not deform or warp, it simply
becomes smaller. However, achieving low and uniform shrinkage is a complicated task
due to the presence and interaction of many factors such as molecular and fiber
orientations, mould cooling, part and mould designs, and process conditions.
Warpage due to differential shrinkage
Warpage in moulded parts results from differential shrinkage. Variation in shrinkage can
be caused by molecular and fiber orientation, temperature variations within the moulded
part, and by variable packing, such as over-packing at gates and under-packing at
remote locations, or different pressure levels as material solidifies across the part
thickness. These causes are described more fully below.
 Differences in filled and unfilled materials

 Non-uniform mould cooling across the part thickness or over the part
 Cooling rates that differ because of Part thickness variation
 Part geometry asymmetry or curvature
- 103 -
Differences in filled and unfilled materials
Differential shrinkage for filled and unfilled materials is shown in Figure below. When
shrinkage is differential and anisotropic across the part and part thickness, the internal
stresses created can lead to part warpage.
Filled materials
For fiber-filled thermoplastics, reinforcing fibers inhibit shrinkage due to their

smaller thermal contraction and higher modulus. Therefore, fiber-filled materials
shrink less along the direction in which fibers align (typically the flow direction)
compared to the shrinkage in the transverse direction. Similarly, particle-filled
thermoplastics shrink much less than unfilled grades.
Unfilled materials
On the other hand, if an unfilled moulded part contains high levels of molecular
orientation, shrinkage is anisotropic because aligned chains shrink to a greater
extent in the direction of orientation.
FIGURE . Differential shrinkage for both unfilled and filled materials
Non-uniform mould cooling across the part thickness
Non-uniform cooling in the part and asymmetric cooling across the part thickness from
the mould cavity and core can also induce differential shrinkage. The material cools and
shrinks inconsistently from the mould wall to the center, causing warpage after ejection.
FIGURE . Part warpage due to (a) non-uniform cooling in the part, and (b) asymmetric
cooling across the part thickness.
Part thickness variation
Shrinkage increases as the wall thickness increases. Differential shrinkage due to non-
uniform wall thickness is a major cause of part warpage in unreinforced thermoplastics.
More specifically, different cooling rates and crystallization levels generally arise within
- 104 -
parts with wall sections of varying thickness. This causes differential shrinkage, resulting
in part warpage, as shown in Figure below.
FIGURE Larger volumetric shrinkage due to the high crystallization level in the slow
cooling areas (e.g., the thick sections) leads to differential shrinkage and thus part
warpage
Part geometry asymmetry or curvature
Geometric asymmetry (e.g., a flat plate with a large number of ribs that are aligned in
one direction or on one side of the part) will introduce non-uniform cooling and
differential shrinkage that can lead to part warpage, as shown in Figure below.
FIGURE . The poor cooling of the mould wall on the ribbed side causes a slower cooling of
the material on that one side, which can lead to part warpage
2.15.15 Silver streaks
Silver streaks are the splash appearance of moisture, air, or charred plastic particles on
the surface of a moulded part, which are fanned out in a direction emanating from the
gate location.
FIGURE . Silver streaks
Causes of silver streaks
 Moisture
Plastic materials absorb a certain degree of moisture during storage. If the
material is not dried properly before moulding, the moisture residing in the
resin will turn into a steam during the injection process and splay on the
surface of the moulded part.
 Air
During the plasticization period, a certain amount of gas can be trapped and
blended into the melt material. If the air does not escape during the injection
process, it could splay out on the surface of the moulded part.
- 105 -
Degraded (charred) plastic particles
There are a couple of reasons degraded (charred) plastic particles will splay on the
surface of a moulded part.
When moulding with two materials, as you switch from one material to another,
the residual particles left in the barrel could be charred if the second material is
being moulded at a higher temperature. In addition, contaminated, rejected parts
and regrind will re-contaminate virgin material in the next batch of moulded parts.
 Barrel temperature
Improper barrel temperature setting may degrade polymer molecules, and they
will begin to char.
 Shot volume
If the shot size is below 20 percent of the machine injection capacity, especially
for temperature-sensitive materials, the melt resin will remain in the barrel too
long and will begin to degrade.
Remedies
Handle the material carefully

 Dry the material properly before moulding, according to the resin supplier's
instructions.

degradation.
 Check for adequate venting dimensions.
These precautions will deter material from degrading during the process.
 Size a proper injection machine for a specific mould.
The typical shot size should be between 20 and 80 percent of the machine
injection capacity. For temperature-sensitive materials, the range should be
narrowed down, depending on materials. Plastics simulation software can help you
select the right size injection machine for a specific mould. This will help to avoid
a prolonged residence time for resin in the heated barrel.
 Fully purge the older material from the barrel if switching material from one to the
other.
Old material particles left behind could be charred.
 Increase the back pressure. This will help minimize air blending into the melt
material.
 Improve the venting system.
It's important to allow air and steam to escape easily.
 Decrease the melt temperature, injection pressure, or injection speed.
- 106 -
2.15.16 Sink marks and voids
A sink mark is a local surface depression that typically occurs in mouldings with thicker
sections, or at locations above ribs, bosses, and internal fillets. A void is a vacuum
bubble in the core.
Causes of sink marks and voids
Sink marks and voids are caused by localized shrinkage of the material at thick sections
without sufficient compensation when the part is cooling. A sink mark almost always
occurs in extrusion on a surface that is opposite to and adjoining a leg or rib. This occurs
because of unbalanced heat removal or similar factors.
Factors that lead to sink marks and voids are:
 Low injection and packing pressure

 Short hold time or cooling time
 High melt temperature or mould temperature
 Localized geometric features
After the material on the outside has cooled and solidified, the core material starts to
cool. Its shrinkage pulls the surface of the main wall inward, causing a sink mark. If the
skin is rigid enough, as in engineering resins, deformation of the skin may be replaced by
formation of a void in the core. Figure illustrates this phenomenon.
FIGURE. Sink marks and voids are created by material shrinkage without sufficient
compensation.
Remedies
Sink marks and voids can usually be alleviated by fine-tuning some combination of part
and mould design and the conditions under which the part is moulded. Use the
suggestions below to pinpoint and fix the problem.

 Conceal sink marks by adding a design feature, such as a series of
serrations on the area where they occur.
Figure illustrates this technique.
- 107 -
FIGURE . Sink marks can be eliminated by creating a design, rib, serrations.
 Modify the part thickness design as suggested to minimize the thickness variation.
 Re-design the thickness of the ribs, bosses, and gussets to be 50 to 80 percent of

the attached (base) wall thickness.
Figure shows the dimensions we prescribe.
FIGURE Recommended dimensions for ribs, bosses, and gussets

 Increase the size of gates and runners to delay the gate freeze-off time.
This allows more material to be packed into the cavity.
 Add more vents or enlarge the vents.
Vents allow air trapped inside the cavity to escape.
 Relocate the gate to or near a thicker section.
This allows them to be packed before the thinner sections freeze off.

 Increase the cushion at the end of the injection stroke.
You should maintain a cushion of approximately 3 mm.
 Increase the injection pressure and the holding time.
- 108 -
 Increase the screw forward time and decrease the injection rate.
 Decrease the melt and mould-wall temperatures.
 Increase the cooling time.
 Check the non-return valve for possible material leakage.
2.15.17 Weld lines and meld lines
A weld line (also called a weld mark or a knit line) is formed when separate melt fronts
traveling in opposite directions meet. A meld line occurs if two emerging melt fronts flow
parallel to each other and create a bond between them. Weld and meld lines can be
caused by holes or inserts in the part, multiple gates, or variable wall thickness where
Hesitation or race tracking occurs. If weld or meld lines can't be avoided, position them
at low-stress and low-visibility areas by adjusting the gate position and dimension.
Improve the strength of weld and meld lines by increasing the local temperature and
pressure at their locations.
How to tell the difference between weld and meld lines
Traditionally, the "meeting angle" is used to differentiate weld lines and meld lines. As
illustrated in Figure below, a meeting angle, , smaller than 135º produces a weld line;
greater than 135º, a meld line. Note that the weld line surface mark disappears when the
meeting angle reaches 120º to 150º. Normally, weld lines are considered to be of lower
quality than meld lines, since relatively less molecular diffusion occurs across a weld line
after it is formed.
FIGURE Weld and meld lines
Problems caused by weld lines
Weld lines are generally undesirable when part strength and surface appearance are
major concerns. This is especially true with fiber-reinforced materials, because the fibers
do not bridge the weld lines and often are oriented parallel to them, as illustratedn Figure
below.
- 109 -
FIGURE . Fiber distribution parallel to the weld line leads to a weaker bond
Strength of weld lines
The exact strength of the weld line depends on the ability of the flow fronts to weld (or
knit) to each other. The strength of the weld-line area can be from 10 to 90 percent as
strong as the pure material used. With such a wide range possible, the conditions that
are favorable to better weld-line quality are worth examining:
 High injection pressure and speed.

 High melt and mould-wall temperature.
 Formation of the weld lines closer to the gate.
 A temperature difference of less that 10ºC between the two emerging melt
fronts.
If a weld line forms before the filling is complete and is immediately subject to additional
packing pressure, the weld line will typically be less visible and stronger. For complex
part geometry, flow simulation helps to predict the weld/meld-line position with respect
to changes in the tool design, and to monitor the temperature difference.
FIGURE . Improving he weld-line position by modifying the delivery system.
- 110 -
Remedies

 Increase the wall thickness.
This will facilitate the transmission of pressure and maintain a higher melt
temperature.
 Adjust the gate position and dimension or decrease the part thickness ratio.

 Increase the size of gate and runners.
 Place a vent in the area of the weld/meld line.
This will eliminate entrapped air, which would further weaken the weld/meld-line.
 Change the gate design to eliminate weld/meld lines or to form them closer to the
gate at a high temperature and under high packing pressure.

 Increase the melt temperature, injection speed, or injection pressure.
- 111 -
2.16 Questions
1. Who invented the first screw-style injection-moulding machine, and when?
2. What are some of the advantages of using a screw injection machine over a
plunger machine?
3. What is the one major advantage to using a plunger-type machine?
4. What material is used as a standard for determining the capacity of an injection
cylinder?
5. What percentage of this capacity should be injected during any single cycle?
6. How do you calculate the weight of one material versus another, knowing the
specific gravity of both?
7. Name the three heater zones found in the injection barrel.
8. Where is the fourth zone?
9. How much pressure can the average moulding machine generate in the injection
cylinder?
10. What is the primary purpose of the clamp unit?
11. What is the formula for determining how much clamp force is required?
12. How is projected area determined?
13. What happens if:
i. Excessive clamp force is used?
ii. Not enough clamp force is used?
14. What are the four groups into which all primary parameters are categorized?
15. What two methods are utilized for heating plastic in the injection barrel?
16. How can energy costs for heating the barrel be reduced by 25 percent?
17. What is the difference between injection pressure and hold pressure?
18. In your own words, how would you define back pressure?
19. List one advantage each for the hydraulic and mechanical clamp systems.
20. What is meant by the term gate-to-gate cycle?
21. Why should the mould open slowly?
22. Why is control of distance so critical to producing parts at low cost?
23. What information is needed for determining moulding costs?
24. What is meant by machine-hour rate?
25. What is meant by the term setup?
26. Why is it important to control as many parameters of the moulding process as
possible?
27. How are part quality requirements normally established?
28. List two property effects that result from:
i. Increasing injection pressure
ii. Decreasing injection pressure .
29. Why is it a good idea to have two different setup settings for one production run?
30. In your own words, how would you define bridging?
31. At what temperature should the nozzle heater normally be set?
32. What is the main advantage of using insulation jackets on the injection barrel?
33. How is the largest sprue diameter determined?
34. What are the two main advantages to using hot runner systems?
35. What is the definition of stress as used in this chapter?
36. What is the recommended minimum amount of draft required for injection
moulding?
37. Why is draft required?
38. Why should excessive moisture be removed from plastic materials before
moulding?
39. What is a hygroscopic plastic material?
40. What can be considered the most important component of the injection moulding
process?
41. What single item controls the consistency of a cycle?
42. Name the three items that should be inspected by the operator.
43. What is the one thing an operator should not do if anything seems different?
44. Why is housekeeping by the operator so important?
45. Why is input from the operator so important to the company?
46. What is the given definition of plastic?
47. Why is heat applied to the plastic for injection moulding?
48. What is the primary purpose for applying pressure to the plastic?
- 112 -
49. What is the primary purpose for applying cooling to the plastic?
50. As material performance requirements go up, what happens to processibility?
51. What is the primary reason for using a filler in a material?
52. What is the primary reason for using a reinforcement?
53. Why is a mould needed for the injection-moulding process?
54. How would you define the purpose of the sprue bushing?
55. Describe flash and list two causes of it.
56. What are the two major advantages of using hot runner systems?
57. Name the three parts of an ejector pin.
58. How is the ejector system typically actuated?
59. Where should the gate be located if at all possible?
60. Which shape is best for the cross section of a conventional runner?
61. What causes air to be trapped in a mould?
62. What can be done to a mould to allow trapped air to escape?
63. Why should the runner be vented?
64. Not considering initial product design, what are the four root causes of most
injection-moulded defects?
65. What percentage (range) of the barrel capacity should be emptied every cycle?
66. What is the term used to describe a material that absorbs moisture from the
atmosphere?
67. What happens to moisture in the material as it travels through the heating
cylinder of the machine?
68. What are the advantages by using Microprocessor Injection Moulding Machine.
69. Write four faults & their remedies in Injection Moulding.
70. Write Plastic flow in Injection Machine.
71. How you will calculate Clamping Tonnage for a given Mould.
72. Write down the criteria for selecting an Injection Moulding Machine.
73. For a given Mould How you will set the Machine.
74. Write down the advantages of Screw Type Machine over Plunger Type Machine.
75. Compare & Contrast between Toggle & Hydraulic Clamping.
- 113 -
2.17 References:
Internets
1. www.scudc.scu.edu
2. www.standardplasticcorp.com
3. www.manufacturingcenter.com
4. www.designfax.net
5. www.morganindustriesinc.com
6. www.westlandusa.com
7. https://american.redcross.org
8. www.zen8319.zen.co.uk
9. www.staffs.ac.uk
10. www.roboticsonline.com
11. www.internet-order.com
12. www.seattlerobotics.org
13. www.vectorsite.net
14. http://in.geocities.com/bolurpc
15. www.icyclopedia.com
16. www.vestaweb.com
17. http://islnotes.cps.msu.edu
18. www.sdplastics.com
19. www.pitfallsinmoulding.com
20. http://claymore.engineer.gvsu.edu
21. www.crtlabs.com
22. www.engr.uconn.edu
23. www.technologystudent.com
24. www.balasainet.com/pcbolur
25. www.tut.fi
26. www.bpf.co.uk
27. www.bpf.co.uk
28. http://kazmer.uml.edu
29. www.plastics-technology.com
30. www.azom.com
31. www.4spe.org
32. www.rcplastics.com
33. www.dow.com
34. www.tecrep.com
35. www.iplas.com
Books
1. Injection Moulding Handbook by Donald V. Rosato & Dominick V.Rosato

2. Injection Moulding Theory & Practice By Rubin I
3. Injection Moulding by A.S.Athalye
4. Injection Moulding Machines by F.Johannaber
5. Plastics Injection Moulding by Douglas M.Bryce
6. Handbook Of Thermoplastics Injection Moulding By Dyson R W
7. Plastics Engineering Handbook By Fradoes J
Paulson Training Programmes (CBT)
- 114 -

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2.

2.1.1 Historical Background

The process of injection moulding began as a result of extensive research into

Large-scale development of injection moulding machinery design towards the machines

 Parts can be produced at high production rates.

2.1.3 Limitations of Injection Moulding

 Intense industry competition often results in low profit margins.

ADDITIVE - A substance added to a plastic compound to alter its characteristics.

AMORPHOUS - A plastic material in which the molecular structure is random and

BLEND - A mixture of 2 or more plastics.

CARTRIDGE HEATERS - Pencil-shaped electrical heater devices sometimes placed in

CYLINDER - (See BARREL)

DECOMPRESSION - A method of relieving pressure on the melt after preparing it for

FLIGHT - The helical metal thread structure of the injection screw.

GRANULATOR - A machine designed to grind up rejected pre-moulded plastic (products

HEATING ZONE - An area of the heating barrel that is controlled by a temperature

HOPPER - A funnel-shaped container mounted over the feed throat of a moulding

INJECTION CAPACITY - A rating of the maximum amount of plastic material, in ounces, a

INJECTION MOULDING - The process of pushing a molten plastic material into a

ISOTROPIC SHRINKAGE - Shrinkage that occurs equally in all directions. See

KNOCKOUT PIN - See Ejector Pin

LEADER PIN - See Guide Pin

MECHANICAL CLAMP - See TOGGLE CLAMP

MONOMER - A molecular unit of an organic substance, usually in the form of a liquid or

PAD - See CUSHION

PLASTIC - A complex organic compound (usually polymerized) that is capable of being

PLUNGER - The injecting member of a non-screw design moulding machine. Plungers do

POLYMER - A group of long chains of monomers, bonded together in a chemical reaction

SCREW - See RECIPROCATING SCREW.

SHOT CAPACITY - See INJECTION CAPACITY.

STRESS - A resistance to deformation from an applied force. Moulded plastic products

SUCK BACK - See DECOMPRESSION.

THERMOPLASTIC -A plastic material which, when heated, undergoes a physical change.

UNDERCUT - A recess or extension on the moulded part, located in such a way as to

2.3.1 Hand Injection Moulding Machine

2.3.1 Hand Injection Moulding Machine

2.3.2 Plunger Type Injection Moulding Machine

Vertical & Horizontal Plunger Type Injection Moulding Machine

2.3.3 Screw Type Injection Moulding Machine

2.3.4 Plunger-Plunger Injection Moulding Machine

2.3.5 Screw-Plunger Injection Moulding Machine

 Higher cost in extra construction for pre plasticising unit.

2.4.0 Screw Used in Injection Moulding Machines

2.4.1 Feed Zone

2.4.2 Transition Zone

The transition or compression section where the channel depth is continually

Normally a transition zone encompasses approximately 25% of the screw length.

2.4.3 Metering Zone

2.4.4 L/D Ratio

2.4.5 Compression Ratio

The higher the compression ratio, the greater the:

 Shear heat imparted to the resin

 Reduces the axial melting length

2.4.7 Screw Plasticizing

 Flow is non laminar.

2.4.8 Screw Operation

2.4.9 Back Pressure

Setting the maximum back pressure

2.4.10 Injection Speed

Setting the injection speed

2.4.11 Screw Rotation Speed

2.4.13 Screw Design Variables

SYMPTOM TYPICAL CAUSE