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142 Electrical Technician

UNIT 2
Conducting and
Semiconducting Materials
Learning Objectives
After studying this unit, the student will be able
• To learn about conducting materials
• To know the applications of conducting materials
• To learn about semiconducting materials and applications
2.1 Concept of Conducting Materials
The knowledge of electrical engineering materials and their properties helps
to an electrical engineer to choose the correct material for a particular application.
The materials which are used to conduct electricity are known as conducting
materials. Gold, Silver, Copper, Aluminum etc., are some of the conducting
materials.
All the conducting materials have less than for valence electrons in the
outer most orbit
2.2 Factors Affecting Resistivity of Electrical Conductors
a. Temperature
The resistance of most of the conducting materials (mostly pure metals)
increases with the increase in temperature.
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The change in resistance of a material per ohm per degree centigrade change
in temperature is called the temperature coefficient of resistance of that material
and is represented by the 
Rt = R0 (1+0 t)
b. Effect of temperature on the resistance of pure metals alloys and
insulators, electrolytes and carbon
a) Pure metals increase in resistance with rise in temperature and are said
to have positive temperature coefficients of resistance.
b) Most alloys increase very slightly in resistance with rise in temperature.
The resistance of alloys used in electrical work has a practically constant resistance
at all temperatures.
c) Carbon, Insulators and Eloectrolytes decrease in resistance with rise in
temperature. (An electrolyte is a solution which conducts electricity e.g. water
containing sulphuric acid).
The resistance of an insulator decreases considerably with rise of
temperature. i.e. it becomes very much worse as an insulator. Such materials
are said to possess negative temperature coefficients of resistance.

x2
3x
x
Resistance

Ro

0 1o 2o 3o 4o 5o
Temperature

Fig. 2.1 Resistance - Temperature graph

c. Alloying
Alloying is another factor which affects the resistivity of a material. By
adding some impurity to a metal its resistivity can be increased. Alloys have
higher resistivity than pure base metals. When a metal is alloyed it also acquires
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higher mechanical strength which is needed for certain applications e.g. when
copper is alloyed with zinc (copper 60%, zinc 40%), it is called brass.
By alloying copper with zinc resistivity is increased about 4 times but tensile
strength is also much also than that of copper and, therefore, may be used for
making products like rods, shafts, heavy plates, pulg points, socket outlets,
knife switches etc. where high strength and hardness are required.
d. Comparison of Copper and Aluminium
Comparison of copper and aluminium as conductors
S.No. Copper Aluminium
1. It is costly It is cheap
2. 100 percent conductivity 75 percent conductivity
3. Good resistance to corrosion Good resistance to corrision
4. Heavier as compared to aluminium Lighter as compared to copper
5. Good ductility and malleability Good ductility and malleability.
6. Excellent soldering and welding Poor Solderability and weldability.
capacity.
7. Less suited for low temperature Well suited to cold climated
8. Very small cross-section can carry Cross section should be 50 percent
heavy current. more to carry the same current as
that of copper.
9. Because of softness and flexibility, Due to brittleness, cannot be
it can easily be twisted repeatedly. twisted.
10. The wind pressure and weight of The wind pressure and weight of
snow is less because of smaller snow is more because of higher
cross section. cross section.
11. The tensile strength and permissible The tensile strength and permissible
tension is more. tension is only 0.53 times that of
copper

e. Properties Applications and Advantages of ACSR


ACSR stands for Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced. ACSR conductor
is having a central core of galvanised steel wire surrounded by layers (s) of
aluminium wires as shown in fig. 2.2. The reinforcement is done to increase the
tensile strength of aluminium conductor. Steel wire is galvanised to prevent
rusting and electrolytic corrosion. The cross-section of two metals are in the
ratio of 1: 6 and 1:4 for high strength. ACSR has lower sag and longer span
than the copper conductor of same size. ACSR conductor has larger diameter
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than any other conductor of same resistance which helps to reduce corona. For
all practical calculation purposes, it is assumed that the current is passing through
aluminium conductor only.

1 + 6 = 7 Strands
1 + 6 + 12 = Strands

Fig. 2.2 ACSR Conductor

f. Advantages of ACSR
1. High mechanical strength due to central steel wire.
2. Long spans are possible.
3. Reduces the number of poles and other equipment.
4. No skin effect.
5. Longer life is possible.
6. Cost is less.
2.3 Low Resistivity and High Resistivity Materials
The conducting materials are broadly classified into the following two categories.
- Low resistivity materials
e.g: Gold, Silver, Copper, aluminium etc.
- High resistivity materials
e.g: Brass, Bronze, Tungsten, Nickel, Nichrome, Manganin, Eureka etc.
Requirements of low resistivity materials are:
1. Temperature coefficient should be low.
2. Voltage drop should be low.
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3. It must have high mechanical strength.


4. Power loss should be minimum.
5. It must have high ductility and malleability.
6. It should not have brittleness.
7. Contact resistance should be low.
8. Anti corrosive.
9. Solderability.
10. Specific resistance should be low.
Low resistivity materials are used for house wiring, transmission and
distribution of power and windings of generators, motors and transformers.
2.4 Properties and Applications of Copper and Aluminium
The choice of a conductor material depends on the following factors:
1. Resistivity of the materials.
2. Temperature coefficient of resistance.
3. Resistance against corrosion.
4. Oxidation characteristics.
5. Ease of soldering and welding.
6. Ductility.
7. Mechanical strength.
8. Flexibility and abundance.
9. Durability and low cost.
10. Resistance to chemicals and weather.
Copper
Properties
1. Pure copper is one of the best conductors of electricity and its
conductivity is highly sensitive to impurities.
2. It is reddish-brown in colour.
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3. It is malleable and ductile.


4. It can be welded at red heat.
5. It is highly resistance to corrosion.
6. Melting point is 10840 C.
7. Specific gravityof copper is 8.9 at 200.
8. Electrical resistivity is 1.682 micro ohm cm.
9. Its tensile strength varies from 3 to 4.7 tonnes / cm2.
10. It forms important alloys like bronze and gun-metal.
11. It alloys with many metals.
12. Boiling point 25950 C.
13. Temperature coefficient of resistance 0.00427/0 C.
14. It is non-magnetic.
15. It has low contact resistance.
16. It oxidases above 1800.
Applications
Copper is used for Wires, cables, windings of generators and transformers.
overhead conductors, busbars.
2.5 High Resistive Materials
a) High Resistive Materials
The requirements of high resistive materials are:
1. Specific resistance should be high.
2. Brittleness should be minimum.
3. It must be ductile and malleable.
4. It’s melting temperature should be high.
5. Temperature coefficient of resistance should be low.
6. Able to dissipate more heat/ unit volume.
7. Should not easily oxidised on heating.
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High resistivity materials are mostly alloys of different materials. They are
used for standard resistance, measuring instruments, rheostats and heating
elements etc.
b) Types of High Resistive Materials
The different types of high resistive materials are:
1. Manganin
2. Eureka
3. Platinum
4. Nichrome
5. Tungstan
6. Mercury
7. Carbon
8. Brass
c) Properties and Applications of High Resistive Materials
Contantan
This is an alloy of copper (60%) and nickel (40%). It is silver-like in
appearance.
1. Very stable alloy with very high working temperature.
2. Heat resisting properties are poor.
3. It does not rust or corrode due to air, heat and moisture.
4. Resistivity is 49 micro ohm cm.
5. Specific gravity is 1.9.
6. Melting point is 13000 C.

Applications
It is used to making different types of rheostats, resistance wires, resistance
boxes, arc lamps, motor starters, and supporting wires for electric filaments.
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Nichrome
It is an alloy of nickel (75 to 78% ), chromium (20-30%), manganese
(1.5%) and iron (balance).
Properties
1. Its resistivity is high.
2. Temperature coefficient of resistance is low.
3. Withstands high temperature for a long time without melting oxidising.
4. It is silver-white in appearance and has good ductile, mechanical and
thermal properties.
Applications
In making electric iron, tubular heating elements, furnace and heating
elements.
Tungsten
Properties
1. Resistivity is about twice that of aluminium.
2. It is a hard metal.
3. It can be drawn into very thin wires.
4. High tensile strength.
5. Melting point 33000 C.
6. Working temperature is 2000 C.
7. It is an excellent magnetic material.
Applications
1. Is commonly used as filaments in incandescent lamps and in heater in
electron tubes.
2. Used as a constituent in magnetic and high-speed steels.
3. Copper tungsten is suitable for all immersed motor starters.
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Properties of Eureka
It is an alloy of 60 to 65% of copper and 35 to 40% Nickel. Temperature
coefficient is nearly zero. Thermo e.m.f. is 39 micro V/0C with respect of copper
and therefore it is suitable for measuring temperature upto 7000C . Its working
temperature is about 5000C. Some of the properties of Contantan is given below:
a) It can be drawn into thin wires.
b) Its maximum permissible temperature is about 5000C
c) Its melting points is 13000C
d) Its specific gravity 8.9.
e) Its temperature coefficient of resistance is 0.00002 to 0.00005
f) It is rust proof and does not corrode in the presence of air or moisture.
It is used inmaking resistance elements for items like loading rheostat and
starters for electric motors, resistance boxes and thermocouples. It is also used
for resistance elements in field regulators used for regulating the generated voltage
of a generator.
2.6 Semiconductors
A semiconductor is neither a good conductor nor a good insulator. A
semiconductor is solid crystaline material whose electrical conductivity is
intermediate between that of a conductor and an insulator. Typical semiconductor
materials are Germanium and Silicon and each has four valence electrons i.e.
four electrons in their outermost orbit.
2.7 Atomic Structure of Silicon and Germanium
The electrical properties of semiconductors materials are between those of
insulators and conductors.

Fig. 2.3 Atomic structure for silicon and Germanium


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A semi conductors has four electrons in the valence ring while the best
insulator has eight electrons in the valence ring and the best conductor has only
one electron in its valence ring.The atomic structure of silicon and germanium,
the two most widely used semiconductor materials is shown in fig.2.3(a) and
Fig.2.3(b). Each one of them has got four electrons in its outermost orbit which
are very important from the electrical and chemical point of view.
2.8 Applications of Semiconducting Materials
Semiconductors are used in the following devices:
1. Rectifiers.
2. Transistors.
3. Temperature sensitive resistors or Thermisters.
4. Varistors.
5. Strain gauges.
6. Hall effect generators.
7. Photoconductive cells.
8. Photovoltaic cells.
Use of Semiconductors in Measuring Instruments
The following measuring instruments use the semiconducting materials.
1. Flux meter.
2. Galvanometer.
3. Modulator.
4. D.C. meter.
5. A.C. power meter
6. Magnetometer.
7. Hall effect multipliers.
8. Measurement of torque in electric motors.
9. Compass.
10. Multiplier as computer elements.
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Model Questions
Short Answer Type Questions
1. How does temperature effect the resistivity of an alloy?
2. State the advantages of ACSR.
3. Give the applications of Copper and Aluminium.
4. What is semiconductors.
5. What are the applications of semiconducting material.
Long Answer Type Questions
1. List the requirement of low resistivity material.
2. List the requirement of high resistivity material.
3. State the properties of copper.
4. State the properties of Aluminium.
5. Compare copper and aluminium is six aspects.
Activities
1. Collect different conductors of various sizes as project work and note
its applications.
2. Collect varieties of semiconductors as project work and note the
applications

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