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FLIGHT DYNAMIC MODELLING AND NUMERICAL SIMULATION

OF A FLAPPING WING ORNITHOPTER WITH PITCHING AND


FLAPPING PHASE LAG

Harijono Djojodihardjo1, Alif Syamim Syazwan Ramli2


1, 2
Department of Aerospace Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400
UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
1
Professor and Corresponding Author, Phone: +6017 416 9045; +628159301745
1
Email: harijono@djojodihardjo.com
2
Research Assistant and Graduate Student; Email: alifsyamimsyazwan@yahoo.com

Keywords: bi-wing ornithopter, flapping wing aerodynamics, flapping wing flight dynamics,
micro air vehicle, unsteady aerodynamics.

Abstract: In spite of inherently intricate nature of flapping wing ornithopter, a simplified and
generic, but meticulous, model for its flight dynamics is presented based on basic principles
and in-house computational code. To this end, the basic unsteady aerodynamic approach
incorporating viscous effect and leading-edge suction is utilized from the kinematic,
aerodynamic and flight mechanics perspective. As a first step towards establishing a viable
model, only flight dynamics in the plane of symmetry is worked out, in order to gain insight
for further development of refined model. Based on the developed model, parametric study is
carried out and flapping strategies are elaborated and numerically simulated, followed by
assessment on the design and articulation strategy of some generic flapping ornithopter.
Comparison of the present result and other similar results in the literature is carried out for
validity and further development assessment.

NOMENCLATURE

c = chord
Cdf = drag coefficient due to skin friction
dDcamber = sectional force due to camber
dDf = sectional friction drag
dFx = sectional chordwise force
dL = sectional lift
dy = width of sectional strip under consideration
dN = sectional total normal force
dNc = sectional circulatory normal force
dNnc = sectional apparent mass effect
dT = sectional thrust
dTs = leading edge suction force
L = total lift
T = total thrust
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U = flight velocity
V = relative velocity at quarter chord point
β = flapping angle
θ = pitching angle
 = phase angle between pitching and flapping angle
α = relative angle of attack
α' = flow's relative angle of attack at three-quarter chord point
α0 = zero-lift angle
ηs = efficiency coefficient
ω = flapping frequency

1 INTRODUCTION

The rise and growth of interest in flapping wing Micro Air Vehicle (MAVs) have been
enthused by the long history of natural flight studies which demonstrates the effectiveness of
flapping flight in transporting a unit of mass over a unit of distance, eventhough it requires
high power output [1]. These vehicles have the potential to fly in constrained spaces and to
gather information for environmental monitoring, homeland security, and other relevant
applications. To the authors' knowledge, the most comprehensive account of flapping flight
biosystem to date is provided by Weis-Fogh [2], Ellington [3-5], Shyy et al [6, 7], Dickinson
et al [8], Żbikowski [9] and Ansari et al [10], while one of the first successful attempts to
develop flapping flight manned vehicle was carried out by DeLaurier [11].

As the first consideration, the train of thought reflected by Figure 1 is presented, which are
ordered according to the wing structure characteristics; desired rigid wing geometry of a
Pterosaur and an eagle, and bird-like aircraft, such as the Festo SmartBird and the
Aerovironment Hummingbird, a tailless ornithopter which have been developed in the recent
years.

Figure 1: (a) Pterosaur [12]; (b) Soaring eagle; (c) FestoSmartBird and (d) the Aerovironment Hummingbird are
up-to-date examples of bio-inspired aircraft.

Diversity of flapping flight manner has led to interesting results and advances in the flight
mechanics and control of non-flapping flight from the aspects of wing articulation, morphing
wing technologies, and bio-inspired maneuvers. Paranjape et al [13] developed an articulated
wing aircraft which employed the (symmetric and asymmetric) wing dihedral for both
longitudinal and lateral control, and flight-tested the technology, which was the outcome of a
first -principle reappraisal of flight mechanics of non-fixed-wing aircraft. It is noted that
incorporating the tail within the model of flying biosystem can assists in generating
aerodynamic force that enhances the flight control of the ornithopter, but greatly reduce or
eliminate the ornithopter’s ability to hover, and such notion grows with smaller size [14].
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As the vehicle scale is reduced, the control surfaces shrink and the corresponding Re is
reduced, significantly reducing the aerodynamic efficiency of the control surfaces, and
limiting their ability to generate adequate control forces and moments. However, since fixed
tails may be suitable to control the bird-sized ornithopter, it will be considered in the present
study. It will be of interest, however, to assess the relative capabilities of flapping wing and
fixed tail control. With such motivation, using results from previous studies [15-17] for the
wing geometry kinematics and aerodynamics of bi- and quad-wing ornithopter, the present
paper addresses the flight dynamics of a generic bi-wing ornithopter, first without and
afterwards with a tail. The objective of the study is to design a simplified strategy for the
articulation of the wing, given the basic geometry and characteristics of the body, wing and
tail of the ornithopter, following the frame of thought elaborated in [18], and evaluate the lift
and thrust at various pitching and flapping phase lag values.

The flight dynamics of flapping wing ornithopter is inherently intricate. Due to such reasoning
and as an alternative, the dynamics, kinematics and aerodynamics of a yet simplified body-
wing system of a flapping wing ornithopter is synthesized following a simplified and generic,
but meticulous, model of a flapping wing ornithopter developed earlier [15-17]. Basic
unsteady aerodynamic approach incorporating viscous effect and leading-edge suction is
utilized. In the development of the generic aerodynamic and flight mechanic model, the
flapping flight of birds is reviewed and modeled from the kinematic, aerodynamic and flight
mechanics perspective. After reviewing and establishing the flapping wing kinematics, the
first principles of the aerodynamic and flight mechanic of a generic flapping flight ornithopter
are developed. The stability and control considerations and treatment will be deferred to a
later opportunity. After establishing the flapping wing ornithopter configuration and
kinematics, the equations of motion derived in [15-17] are applied in the flight mechanics of
the bird-wing system of the flapping wing ornithopter. For this purpose, preliminary
development is carried out by considering only the flight mechanics of the bird-wing system
flight in the plane of symmetry in the local horizon coordinate frame of reference. Based on
the developed model, parametric study is carried out and flapping strategies are elaborated
and numerically simulated, followed by assessment on the design and articulation strategy of
some generic flapping ornithopter.

At the present stage, which is addressed on bi-wing ornithopter mimicking bird's forward
flight, the present work does not incorporate leading edge vortex effects and stall effect. In
modeling and simulating the influence of the leading edge vortex in our future work,
information gained from many recent approaches such as those of Ansari et al [10], Jane
Wang [19] and Taha et al [20, 21] will be taken into consideration. A simplistic and heuristic
leading edge vortex modeling which associate the shed vortices with rapid pronation of the
wing is presented in a companion paper [16].

2 THEORETICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE AERODYNAMICS MODELLING OF


FLAPPING WINGS

Following the frame of thought elaborated in the previous section and referring to the eagle
wing and for convenience of baseline analysis, the semi elliptical wing (shown in Figure 2) is
selected for current study, together with rectangular shape for simplifying the modeling
scheme. Analytical approaches of quasi-steady and unsteady model are carefully evaluated in
the present work in order to deal with the aerodynamic problem. In agreement with the quasi-
steady model, based on observation on flying birds, it can be assumed that the flapping
frequencies are sufficiently slow that shed wake effects are negligible, as in pterosaur and

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medium- to large-sized birds. The unsteady approach attempts to model the wake like
hummingbird and insects will be deferred to succeeding work. The present unsteady
aerodynamic approach is synthesized using basic foundations that may exhibit the generic
contributions of the motion elements of the bio-inspired bi-wing air vehicle characteristics.

(a) An eagle top view and outline (b) The present generic wing planforms
Figure 2: A generic semi-elliptical ornithopter’s wing planform with the backdrop of various wing-planform
geometries.

To account for the unsteady effects, Theodorsen unsteady aerodynamics [22] and its three
dimensional version by Jones [23] have been incorporated. The computation of lift and thrust
generated by pitching and flapping motion of three-dimensional rigid wing is conducted in a
structured approach using strip theory and Jones’ modified Theodorsen approach (DeLaurier
[11], Jones [23]) for a wing without camber. Furthermore, the Polhamus leading edge suction
[24, 25] is also incorporated. The total lift and thrust for the wing is calculated by the
summation of the contributions from each strip for a whole flapping cycle. Fully unsteady
lifting-surface theory [26-29] may later be incorporated.

At the present stage, which will be assessed a posteriori based on the results, DeLaurier’s [11]
unsteady aerodynamics and modified strip theory approach for the flapping wing is utilized
with post-stall behavior. The computational logic in the present work is summarized in the
Flow-Chart exhibited in Figure 3. To obtain insight into the mechanism of lift and thrust
generation of flapping and pitching motion, Djojodihardjo et al [30, 31] analyzed the wing
flapping motion by looking into the individual contribution of the pitching, flapping and
coupled pitching-flapping to the generation of the aerodynamic forces. Also the influence of
the variation of the forward speed, flapping frequency and pitch-flap phase lag has been
analyzed. Such approach will also be followed here through further scrutiny of the motion
elements. The generic procedure is synthesized from the pitching-flapping motion of rigid
wing developed by DeLaurier [10].

Figure 3: Ornithopter Flapping Wing Aerodynamics Computational Scheme.

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The flapping motion of the wing is distinguished into three distinct motions with respect to
the three axes; these are: a) Flapping, which is up and down plunging motion of the wing; b)
Feathering is the pitching motion of wing and can vary along the span; c) Lead-lag, which is
in-plane lateral movement of wing, as incorporated in Figure 5. For further reference to the
present work, the lead-lag motion could be interpreted to apply to the phase lag between
pitching and flapping motion, while the fore-and-aft movement can be associated with the
orientation of the stroke plane. The degree of freedom of the motion is depicted in Figure 5.
The flapping angle β varies as a sinusoidal function and pitching angle θ are given by the
following equations.

 (t )  0 cos t (1)

 (t )  0 cos(t   )   fp (2)

where θ0 and βo indicate maximum value for each variables,  is the lag between pitching and
flapping angle and y is the distance along the span of the wing, and fp is the sum of the
flapping axis angle with respect to flight velocity (incidence angle) and the mean angle of the
chord line with respect to the flapping axis. The present method is exemplified by the use of
elliptical planform wing.

(a)

(b) (c) (d)


Figure 4: (a) Forces on section of the wing. (b),(c),(d) Flapping and Pitching motion of flapping wing.

Leading edge suction is included following the analysis of Polhamus [24, 25] and DeLaurier’s
approximation [11]. Three dimensional effects will later be introduced by using Scherer’s
modified Theodorsen-Jones Lift Deficiency Factor [32], in addition to the Theodorsen
unsteady aerodynamics [21] and its three dimensional version by Jones [23]. Further
refinement is made to improve accuracy. Following Multhopp approach [33], simplified
physical approach to the general aerodynamics of arbitrary planform is adopted, i.e. a lifting

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line in the quarter-chord line for calculating the downwash on the three-quarter-chord line for
each strip.

As a baseline, by referring to Eqs. (1) and (2), β and θ is considered to oscillate following a
cosine function; such scheme indicates that these motions start from specified values. A
different scheme, however, can be adopted.

In the present analysis no linear variation of the wing’s dynamic twist is assumed for
simplification and instructiveness. However, in principle, such additional requirements can
easily be added due to its linearity. The total normal force acting perpendicularly to the chord
line and given by (referring to Figure 4)

dN  dN c  dN nc (3)

which consist of the circulatory normal force for each section acts at the quarter chord and
also perpendicular to the chord line, given by

UV
dN c  Cn ( y )cdy (4)
2

and the apparent mass effect that is perpendicular to the wing, and acts at mid chord, and can
be calculated as

 c 2 1
dN nc  (U   c )dy (5)
4 4

The total chordwise force, dFx is accumulated by three force components; these are the
leading edge suction, force due to camber, and chordwise friction drag due to viscosity effect.
All of these forces are acting along and parallel to the chord line.

dFx  dTs  dDcamber  dD f (6)

The leading edge suction, dTs , following Garrick [34, 35], is given by

 1 c  UV
dTs  2 s   '  fp   cdy
 4U  2 (7)

while following DeLaurier [11] the chordwise force due to camber and friction is respectively
given by

UV
dDcamber  2 o (    fp ) cdy (8)
2

1
dD f  Vx2Cd f cdy (9)
2

The efficiency term ηs is introduced for the leading edge suction dTs to account for viscosity
effects. The vertical force dN and the horizontal force dFx at each strip dy will be resolved

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into those perpendicular and parallel to the free-stream velocity, respectively. The resulting
vertical and horizontal components of the forces is then given by

dL  dN cos   dFx sin  (10)

dT  dFx cos   dN sin  (11)

To obtain a three dimensional lift for each wing, these expressions should be integrated along
the span, b; hence
b
L   dLdx (12)
0

b
T   dTdx (13)
0

For later comparison with appropriate results from the literature, numerical computations are
performed using the following wing geometry and parameters: the wingspan of 40cm, aspect
ratio of 6.36, flapping frequency of 7Hz, total flapping angle of 60º, forward speed of 6m/s,
maximum pitching angle of 20º, incidence angle of 6º and there is no wing dihedral angle. In
the calculation, both the pitching and flapping motions are in cosine function by default,
which is subject to parametric study, and the upstroke and downstroke have equal time
duration. The wake capture has not been accounted for in the current computational
procedure. The computational scheme developed and the aerodynamic forces for bi-wing has
been validated and verified satisfactorily in previous work (Djojodihardjo et al [15][36-38]).

3 FLIGHT DYNAMICS

3.1 Flight Dynamic Model

The following assumptions are made for the derivation of the equation of motion (EOM).

1. Rotation of the earth is negligible.

2. Aircraft mass is constant.

3. Mass distribution is constant with time.

The EOM of the flapping-wing MAV can then be obtained by applying Newton's second
laws, given by

d
F  m Vb     mVb  (14)
dt

d
M  I      I  (15)
dt

where the external forces F include the weight of the vehicle, aerodynamic forces by flapping
wings, horizontal tail wings, and vertical tail. Those forces also generate moments about the
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center of gravity (CG). The velocity can be indicated as Vb   u, v, w  , and the angular
velocity can be decomposed as    p, q, r  . The methodology to analyze a fixed-wing
vehicle was applied to a flapping-wing vehicle.

The formulation of tail wing forces and moments is simpler since it is a fixed wing. Treated as
it is quad-wing configuration, the tail is in rectangular shape with the same span length and
calculated using the present modeling developed, as illustrated schematically in Figure 5.

Figure 5: Proposed baseline of quadwing-like configuration of Forewing (main) and Hindwing (tail) for
simplified generic modelling calculation.

3.2 Formulation of Overall Force and Moment

By summing all calculated values from proposed aerodynamic modeling using specified
parameters, the overall forces and moments are attainable. The forces are;

Fx  Fxwing  Fxtail

Fy  Fy  Fytail (16a,b,c)
wing

Fz  0

The moments are

Mx  0

My  0 (17a,b,c)

M z  Fywing lt  M ytail ht  Fy lt  Fx ht
tail tail

The resultant force along the z-direction is approximately zero because the main wings and
the tail wings are almost symmetric. The detailed trajectory and attitude are attainable by
expanding and solving Eqs. (14) & (15).

4 RESULT AND ANALYSIS

The results computed from the present modeling are shown in Figures 6a, b and c. The baseline
model is being configured as a bi-wing without the tail. The next step is to include more details
and to be optimized so that the model will be more enriched and sophisticated.
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Lift & Thrust forces variation for quad-wing


3
Lift
2.5 Thrust

1.5

Force (N)
0.5

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Dimensionless time in one cycle

(a)
-3
Vy versus Vx x 10 Flight Trajectory
0.2 8

0.15 7

6
0.1

5
0.05
Vy (m/s)

y (m)

4
0
3

-0.05
2

-0.1 1

-0.15 0
5.96 5.98 6 6.02 6.04 6.06 6.08 6.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Vx (m/s) x (m)

(b) (c)
Figure 6: (a) Total lift and thrust of main-wing (without tail); (b) The graph of Vy versus Vx; and (c) The
calculated flight trajectory over one cycle (Without dynamic stall consideration).

Wing
Average Lift
0.4278
(N)
Average Thrust
0.3179
(N)
Table 1: Total lift and thrust of main-wing (without tail).

4.1 Parametric Study

In previous work, the phase angle variation between pitching and flapping is carried out for
optimization study, and it is found that the best aerodynamic performance is gained during
phase shift of 90˚ [38]. With such variation, the trajectory of each case is calculated to see the
influence of it. The result is shown in Figure 7, where it can seen that the trajectory of one
with 90˚ phase shift is the most stable (less fluctuation in displacement at Y-axis). More
detailed flight dynamic model and more degree of freedom will be accounted for the flight
dynamic model considered in forthcoming work.

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-3
x 10 Flight trajectory
12
No phase
0.25pi
10
0.5pi
0.75pi
8 pi
Y-displacement (m)

-2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
X-displacement (m)

Figure 7: Flight trajectory in the plane of symmetry for rectangular wing without tail as a baseline investigation in
flight dynamic study considering the phase lag between pitching and flapping motion.

5 CONCLUSION

The present work has been performed to investigate the two-dimensional flight dynamic
modelling of flapping wing ornithopter with pitch-flap phase lag. In this conjunction, a
computational model has been developed, and a generic computational method has been
adopted, utilizing strip theory and two-dimensional unsteady aerodynamic theory of
Theodorsen with modifications to account for three-dimensional and viscous effects and
leading edge suction. The present work is based on basic approach, for instructiveness and to
gain insight in the problem, and can readily be computed without external software. Further
refinement of the model with more complexity will be carried out progressively.

6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors would like to thank Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) for granting Research
University Grant Scheme (RUGS) No.9378200, and the Ministry of Higher Education
Research Grants ERGS: 5527088 and FRGS:5524250 under which the present research is
carried out.

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